Water Regional Police services (WRPS) is a police force that was initially comprised of 10 police agencies. The WRPS was involved in the construction of the Common Information Management Systems Project (CIMS) but as time went by; its number dwindled from 10 to seven agencies due to various constraints encountered by three agencies that left. In addition, the project had already commenced, but had encountered unresolved hitches along the way.
Disputes arose between the project managers that represented the WRPS and officials of Integrated Technologies Group (ITG), the principle contractors of the project. Chief Larry Gravill a manager of the police force is in a dilemma of whether to dispatch a major payment installment to the ITG or sought for other alternatives with the aim of attaining smooth completion of the project in jeopardy.
Current Situation
The CIMS is a four years and counting project whose idea was brought about by the need for WRPS to integrate its systems among police services and improve its resource in order to improve community service (Movold and Compeau 3). Initially, the WPRS comprised of 10 agencies that were committed to the project but currently, the 10 member police agencies have been reduced to seven.
The CIMS project is an expansion of the existing information system of the police that includes the Police Regionalized Information Data Entry System (PRIDE) (Movold and Compeau 3). The disputes arising in the CIMS project have put the project in jeopardy as the project had stopped and upon resuming, the disputes reignited forcing these disputes to be resolved at the level of the police chiefs (Movold and Compeau 8).
Problems: The problems of the CIMS project range from the interpretation of the requirements to the sending of the Functional Design Specifications (FDS) in adobe format instead of usual Ms Word format. It is stated that there was a moment when the project team and the vendor disagreed on over 200 issues.
This was considered demoralizing by the project team as the ITG is said to have implemented an earlier project (PRIDE) that entailed the same implementation details. On the other hand, the ITG claims that on changing some of the issues in favor of the project team, they will be incurring extra costs. Some of these changes include changing of the wording that is hard coded in the systems of ITG (Movold and Compeau 8).
These disputes were not addressed hence resulting to break down of communication that lasted for several months. The issues were later addressed in a meeting of project teams, regional chiefs and the vendor. All of the stated problems arose due to the following.
First, poor structuring of the Functional Design Specification (FDS): The FDS should have been specific in details of the kind of implementation standards expected from the vendor. It has been stated that from the moment the project team and the vendor started reviewing the FDS, problems started arising to a figure of over 200 disputes (Movold and Compeau 6, 7). This is not expected if the WRPS had specifically stated their specific requirements and not relying on assumptions of previous dealings with ITG.
Second, lack of inclusion of dates in the milestones: by inclusion of dates in the milestones, the ITG would have been forced to be on schedule in order to receive the payment of job done. The case indicates that the next phase of the project was due to begin on February 2001 while the date of commissioning the complete project back to WRPS was August 2001 (Movold and Compeau 9).
Third, communication breakdown: The case indicates that the project team and the vendor had disputes of interpretation of the requirements that resulted to stalling of the project. It took the intervention of the regional chiefs for the project to proceed. Moreover, the project team had to travel to America to try to resolve the disputes on a face-to-face basis.
Fourth, mischief from the vendor: The act of sending the FDS documents to the WRPS by the vendor in Adobe acrobat format instead of the usual Ms Word indicates a sense of mischief. This is because the WRPS were finding it hard to compare with previous version of FDS (Movold and Compeau 8, 9).
Fifth, lack of commitment: The ITG are said to be asking for a sign-off and payment while on the other hand, they had not started writing the code thus indicating they had not allocated resources for the project (Movold and Compeau 8).
Criteria
The WRPS should have thought through the project and not assume the previous dealings with the ITG will play a major role in the current project. Factors that could enable WRPS in the criteria to follow for successful project include the following.
Scheduling of the project and payment in terms of time
The WRPS would have at least indicated the dates the various phases of the project are expected to be complete. This would coincide with the payments made not as indicated by the case that the payments were at 50% of the whole payments while the work done on the project had not achieved the 50 % mark. This scheduling can be achieved by use of Gantt chart that stipulates tasks according to their priority (Fioravati 15)
Have a second option
The WRPS should have identified a second bidder for the project in case of a fall out with the principal contractor of the project.
Risk management
The risks in every step of the project implementation should be identified and planned for in advance. Risks are the product of loss occurring if a predetermined event occurs (Lientz, Larssen, 10) and may include:
Financial risks: The WRPS should plan for the alternative sources of funding options in case of withdrawal of agencies funding the project
Disputes risks: The WPS should plan for various disputes that may cause delayment of the project.
Alternatives
Considering the various factors mentioned, the WRPS has two major alternatives.
They can proceed with the project using ITG as the principle contractor
They can cancel the contract, face litigation and enter into a new contract with a new vendor
In the first option the advantages are:
The ITG is already familiar with the project hence less time needed for implementation
The disputes surrounding the project can be resolved by the top chain of command as shown in experience.
A whole new set of agreement is not needed for continuation of the project
The WRPS will avoid legal action due to cancelation of the contract
Disadvantages
The delay of the project’s completion
Continuation of the disputes
Possibility of failure to meet the project’s objective
In the second option the advantages are:
Correction of previous wrongs e.g. specification of intended requirements
Incorporation of new knowledge and experience from the incoming vendor
Proper scheduling of the remaining part of the project
Disadvantages
The new vendor is not familiar with the project
High possibility of not achieving completion date
Legal battles with the ITG for cancellation of the contract
Long time of acquiring a new contractor as the previous one took one year
Withdrawals of more agencies from the WRPS
Recommendation
On considering the two options available, the better option would be the first one. In the first option, the WRPS can arrange for a meeting with the ITG an iron out the contentious issues that are delaying the project’s implementation. The meeting should comprise regional chiefs and the top management of the ITG. This is because from experience, the project wheels rolled after intervention from the top chain of command. This option is better as Kozak-Holland suggests that, “some projects are failures, particularly those cancelled or aborted during the project” (Kozak-Holland, 11).
In case the first option does not succeed, the WRPS management should have a plan B, which will be part and parcel of a long-term solution. In plan B the management will have no other option but to transfer the project for continuation to a vendor that will be close in meeting the integrations required. However The WRPS should not let the situation reach the plan B part, as the will suffer withdrawal of more member agencies not to mention the extra cost and time to be incurred by plan B.
Implementation Plan
The top management of both sides should convene a meeting before it is too late and discuss the disputes facing the project. Specific requirements should be stated and recorded on the part of the WRPS. On the other hand, if the cost is the issue on the part of the ITG, the two parties should agree on the amount to be added in order for the new specified requirements to be implemented. The issue of time should be agreed upon to complete the project on time.
The first option will work effectively with the formation of a project management team that should comprise of top members of WRPS and ITG. The mandate of the team will be to oversee smooth implementation of the project in terms of; the project is on schedule, specific implementation of the requirements and approval of payments. The project management team should meet at least once per month for effective monitoring of the project’s progress.
In case this option does not succeed an independent consultants should be consulted to help in the implementation of the project. If push comes to shove the vendor may be dropped, form a new RPF and hand the project to a new vendor for continuation.
The Baltimore Police Department is one of the largest municipal police forces in the US, and its website is the most user-friendly and visually appealing out of the three websites analyzed (About Us, 2014, para. 1). The website has a navigation bar on top, which provides access to pages such as About Us, News, Contact Us, and others. The navigation is two-step: if the visitor clicks on Contact Us, a sub-menu appears with links to Email Directory, Facebook Updates, Email Alerts, and other relevant pages. There is a search bar on top of the page, which helps to quickly find information buried under the two-step navigation bar. There is a hamburger icon next to the search bar which opens a menu with links to the official City of Baltimore website.
On the front page, there is a row of colorful buttons that let the visitor instantly file or request a police report, provide feedback, access frequently asked questions, or contact their district. Color is used to help focus the viewer’s attention on these elements and makes it easy for visitors to get assistance (Cannon, 2012, para. 11). Below these buttons, there are links to social media accounts. The Baltimore Police Department chooses clean, readable fonts which are of adequate size, and the icons are fairly big and accurately represent their purpose. All in all, the website is well-designed, and the choice of fonts, colors, and icons pose no difficulties for people with a poor vision on the desktop. Although the website provides a lot of information, the simple two-step navigation, and clean design makes it easy to navigate. Some of the essential information, such as the department’s address and emergency and non-emergency phone numbers is duplicated at the bottom of the page.
The Baltimore Police Department website is available in six different languages courtesy of Google Translate. Although this fact does make the website more victim-friendly, the quality of the automatic translation is sub-par. When the visitor attempts to change the language, a pop-up appears with a disclaimer that the translation may not be accurate. In addition, certain buttons with rendered text are not translated at all. In order to serve visitors who speak different languages better, all buttons on the website should be translated in accordance with the selected language.
The website has a mobile version, which loads fast and retains most of the functionality of the website. The mobile version generally scales down well, but some compromises are evident, and certain areas need improvement. The navigation bar is collapsed on mobile, thus adding another hamburger icon next to the one with links to the official City of Baltimore website. Two identical icons create ambiguity, and it might have been a better solution to put the links to the official City of Baltimore website at the bottom of the page. The buttons that let the visitor instantly file or request a police report, provide feedback, etc. have pre-rendered text which is tiny on mobile. The icons could be removed, and bigger text could be used on mobile instead.
Overall, in both content and technical aspects the Baltimore Police Department website is able to provide relevant information to the victims of crime and offers useful services such as the ability to file a report online.
The Anne Arundel County Police Department
The Anne Arundel County Police Department website provides information for both the victims of crime and those seeking job opportunities. In addition, it offers such functionality as filing a report online. The layout of the website does not make it easy for the visitors to do that, however. Upon loading the website, the visitor is presented with a plethora of choices: there is a navigation sidebar on the left, a navigation bar on the top with a search bar, and another sidebar on the right with links to Online Crime Reporting and Police Rules and Regulations. It is not clear why these two links are grouped together, or why are they not in the sidebar on the left. Crime reporting form should be put front and center and color coded, instead of presenting it as a text link together with the link to police regulations.
The sidebar on the left which has links to such pages as About Us, Crime Information, Services and Programs and others. Below the sidebar, some important information, such as the department’s address and a phone number is provided in a very small font. There is no indication whether the number is for emergencies only and the font size might be an obstacle for the elderly or people with poor vision. The information provided on the website is current and the texts are well-written. The font used for texts throughout the site is legible and appropriate imagery is used where necessary. The phone numbers of different districts are provided on the bottom of the front page. On the right, there are the latest social networks posts. Although the website is fairly functional, certain information is missing. There is no FAQ page, and there is no way for the visitors to give feedback. In addition, the website is available in English language only, which is a major barrier for the visitors since 21% of the US population speak languages other than English at home (Ryan, 2013, p. 2). Even automatic translation could significantly improve the site’s accessibility.
The mobile version loads much faster and provides the same functionality as the desktop version. On mobile, both the top navigation bar and the sidebar are collapsed into two “menu” buttons, which creates ambiguity. In addition, the search bar disappears into one of the menus. Online Crime Reporting is moved to the bottom of the page on mobile, making it more difficult to find. These areas are in the need of improvement.
Although the Anne Arundel County Police Department website provides the necessary information for the victims, the website is not very victim-friendly. Such pages as FAQ and feedback page, bigger fonts and the ability to choose different languages could be added to serve victims better.
The City of Bowie Police Department
The Bowie Police Department website aims not only to provide information for the crime victim’s assistance but offers services to prevent crime. There is a navigation bar on the left and the top links are crime prevention and theft from auto prevention tips, followed by crime reports, information wanted and other relevant pages. When the mouse hovers over certain links on the sidebar, a sub-menu appears. This solution helps the visitor to quickly navigate to a specific page. In addition, there is a search bar on top. The Bowie Police Department website is the only website that provides text-to-speech service for all texts. This service greatly improves the accessibility for visually impaired and the elderly.
The website provides a lot of crime prevention tips and information not found on the other two websites, such as ATM safety tips and sex offenders list. The visitors can report suspicious activity or submit a tip about a crime. However, there is no way for the victims to file and print a report. The contact information is presented on the right and includes Twitter handles of the police chief and deputy police chief, emergency, non-emergency and administrative phone numbers, and working hours of the department. The website, however, does not offer the ability to choose a different language, which renders it mostly useless for non-English speaking visitors. Although the design is functional, is looks dated and not professional, especially compared to the other two websites.
The biggest barrier for victims who want to use this department services is the lack of a mobile version. It is a major obstacle since more and more people browse the web on their mobile devices (Gube, 2010, para. 3). When the website is accessed via a mobile device, the same desktop version is shown, the texts are small and illegible; the navigation is a chore due to the inability to open sub-links and small font on the sidebar. The entire website does not fit into the mobile screen, obscuring most of the body of the page. In addition, navigation is slow due to loading speeds on mobile networks and the lack of proper optimization. It would be very difficult for the victim to navigate the website on a mobile device, so a proper mobile-friendly version of the website is necessary.
The Bowie Police Department website has more content and some nice accessibility features. However, the directions are not translated into different languages, and the lack of a mobile version makes navigation a chore. Such important service as the ability to file a report online is missing. These are the areas that should be improved.
Developing an adequate information system as an asset for the police department is a very important issue for decision making in the department.
Literature Review
In the race to improve the capability of succeeding in a fast-paced technological environment, human activities involve various risks. This situation has compelled organizations, whether governmental or nongovernmental, to advance their agility levels by executing more prudent decision-making processes. In the light of risk management strategies, most of such entities have strived successfully in fluctuating political, social, economic, and technological environments.
The police department is not left out in the need to embrace approaches to risk evasion (Johnson, Johnson, & Tolu 2013). Risk management in this organ involves various approaches, techniques, and technologies that are designed and developed to help different organs understand some imminent forces, whether natural or artificial, that may pose potential threats and loss the social, political, or economic status of a country. Risk can have adverse effects on the productivity, performance, quality, and budget of law enforcement agencies.
Life Cycle Management
Life cycle management is a progressive process that comprises a number of steps for improving the excellence, dependability, and adeptness of technology services. Effective and consistent execution of this process can save the police department a significant amount of time and money (Johnson, Johnson, & Tolu 2013). It forms a vital part of the risk management process. The planning and implementation of robust policing methodologies are vital for forecasting potential threats to the social, political, and economic aspects of a country. Major organizational models such as the contingency theory should also be used to relate the civil service system and its effects on the police organization.
Power Company
At the back of fast-paced technology development, the transfer of information from one point to another has significantly improved. Power companies have constantly innovated, designed, and produces intelligent gadgets that can assist in risk management (Burke 2013; Johnson 2015).
The coordination of activities using technological means is particularly important for the law enforcement bodies since police executives and supervisors need to exchange information as fast as possible. The transfer of information has intensely improved owing to the production of tech-savvy gadgets that have features to determine the geographic location of an object (Burke 2013). The recognition and storage of data and machine automation have played a significant role in helping the police conduct investigations faster and in a controlled environment.
The development of an adequate information system to improve risk assessment in the police department is important since almost all duties of law enforcement officers expose them to daily liability episodes (Campbell, Jardine, & McGlynn 2016).
The ability of the police to use both lethal and non-lethal force further makes them vulnerable to legal action, liability claims, and/or citizen criticisms. For instance, the mishandling or misuse of lethal weapons by the police during activities such as forceful arrest may lead to damages to public property, which may require compensation. In this regard, prudent information systems can be developed to help the police locate and arrest criminals without using forceful means (Maney 2012).
Although patrol officers encourage police executives to manage liabilities, the application of the highest standards to the use of force requires technological support structures that enable them to identify and respond to imminent risks in time (Sharda, Delen, &Turban 2013). There has been a belief amongst many theorists, researchers, and executives in the police department that life cycle and risk management should entail rigorous designing, development, implementing, and monitoring of information technology infrastructure within the law enforcement bodies.
Cost Management
The development of an adequate information management system can save both time and financial resources in a number of ways. At the outset, the provision of real-time and appropriate information on criminals saves the time consumed in old manual systems, which are characterized by inaccuracy and even loss of data. The execution of the technology system in the police department will speed up the exchange of information among the executives (Storey 2014).
This information can be used to locate the geographical location of target criminals with a view of arresting and subjecting them to the law. In this case, cost management is realized because the police do not need to move around searching for wrong-doers in vain. Today’s smartphones have powerful features that are linked to Google maps to detect the location of the phone (Hopkin 2017). Using external applications, the police executives are able to locate the position of the gadget on the map; hence, seizing the victim. This process of arrest is significantly efficient and the cost is largely reduced (Brimicombe 2016). The police should also reduce the probability of risk by avoiding the use of excessive or unlawful force, which results in damage to public property and litigation claims.
Police Database System
It is inevitable that today’s world is technology-driven in almost every aspect of life. The management of criminal records is largely dependent on a police database system that records and retrieves real-time information (Brimicombe 2016). An automated crime record management system (CRMS) is a worldwide police database that contains the information of criminals. Since criminal activities violate variously shared norms in the society, the law enforcement bodies are enabled to keep track of such individuals with a view of imposing the appropriate disciplinary measures on them (Crawford & Evans 2017).
The use of manual data storage, essentially pen and paper, should be discouraged since this crude method may result in the loss or delayed retrieval of information. It also causes problems in areas of safety, legitimacy, retrieval, storage, and sharing of information.
The establishment of an effective life cycle and risk management program is paramount to the realization of policing goals and objectives within the law enforcement department (Brimicombe 2016). However, a number of factors such as system reliability, cost efficiency, internal management procedures should be highly regarded in the implementation of technology. The flow of storage and retrieval of real-time criminal information helps the police to maintain law and order more easily. Many governmental agencies regard the implementation of technology as either a costly or an underfunded undertaking. However, the leaders of such organizations should, in most cases, communicate with public safety leaders since they always have information about their financial impacts.
Annotated Bibliography
Awodele, O, Onuiri Ernest, E & Olaore Olufunmike, 2015, ‘A real-time crime records management system for national security agencies’, European Journal Of Computer Science And Information Technology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1-12.
According to Awodele et al. (2015), modern society is vulnerable to ever-increasing threats due to the existing complexity of both external and internal security factors. Based on this context, the authors reveal that most governments, corporate bodies, and individuals around the world are embracing technology-driven security measures to alleviate crime. Acts of law-breaking go against some laid down societal norms that should be protected by the police department.
The authors in this article acknowledge that law enforcement bodies have realized the importance of implementing technological means in the storage and retrieval of criminal information in the CRMS database. Risk management in the police department is a process that demands accuracy, vigilance, and accountability.
The authors assert that the implementation of the CRMS database resulted from various factors that included inadequate funding, exploitation, blackmailing, and insufficient skills and resources for statistical and information management. Proper risk aversion practices should start by identifying potential threats, their frequency, and the anticipated severity of the loss. Developing a passable information system as an asset for the police department will offer an opportunity to record and store information about both good citizens and criminals. The information technology framework serves as a data store where it can be retrieved in case of need.
The identification of risk should be followed by the execution of sensible exploring methods to deal with the exposure of the risks. A detailed examination of organizational policies and procedures together with training is necessary. The third step includes selecting an appropriate response to handle the exposed risk. It may include various policy changes to suit new situations and reduce liability. Lastly, the police executives should execute the risk aversion plan and continuously assess it to check its validity.
Awodele et al. (2015) affirm that CRMS technology is a holistic approach to risk management it has functional requirements that carry out specific tasks. For instance, officers can add users and screen them for assignation to varying levels of privileges. In addition, police executives can store and retrieve information about criminal cases. The IT system also performs search functions that depend on specific criteria. It can execute crime analysis, provide accurate statistics, and generate criminal reports based on the stored information.
However, Awodele et al. (2015) propose further research on this topic since there is a feeling that the practices of risk management are still not applied in some public agencies. There is a danger of increased risk at the police department due to overexposure to public assets; physical, human, and financial. Insurance costs are ever-increasing against a shortage of good covers. Many physical assets exposed to the police unit are usually damaged.
However, they are hardly repaired and they end up being replaced. The authors reveal that law enforcement agencies are at a threat of losing financial assets owing to the reduction of budgets and unsuspected payouts arising from liability claims and legal action involving the police. The authors suggest that the identification of risk exposure to law enforcers should involve the analysis of historical loss of data and pending litigation cases. Patrol officers should also be checked for any misconduct in their line of duty.
Reference List
Awodele, O, Onuiri Ernest, E & Olaore Olufunmike, A 2015, ‘A real-time crime records management system for national security agencies’, European Journal Of Computer Science And Information Technology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 1-12.
Brimicombe, A 2016, ‘Analysing police-recorded data’, Legal Information Management, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 71-77.
Burke, R 2013, Project management: planning and control techniques, Wiley, New Jersey, USA.
Crawford, A & Evans, K 2017, Crime prevention and community safety, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Hopkin, P 2017, Fundamentals of risk management: understanding, evaluating and implementing effective risk management, Kogan Page Publishers, London.
Johnson, H 2015, ‘Data retention-scope of police powers: R (on the application of Catt) v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis and Anor and R (on the application of T) v Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis [2015] UKSC 9’, Communications Law, vol. 20, no. 2, p.56.
Johnson, J, Johnson, W & Tolu, E 2013, Evaluation of the structures and operations of the Nigeria police public relations department, Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, vol. 2, no. 11, pp.48-64.
Sharda, R, Delen, D & Turban, E 2013, Business Intelligence: a managerial perspective on analytics, Prentice Hall Press, Upper Saddle River.
Storey, J, Kropp, P, Hart, S, Belfrage, H & Strand, S 2014, ‘Assessment and management of risk for intimate partner violence by police officers using the brief spousal assault form for the evaluation of risk’, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 256-271.
In the context of present-day developments, figures saved and produced via modern gadgets and devices, may contribute to the clarification of the happening in the process of investigation. It may provide essential information on the guilt of a particular individual, his or her appearance, and the sequence of events in general (“Obtaining data from digital”, 2021). Therefore, there is the necessity to train police officers on the basis of digital investigations and digital forensics. The focus of the project is police officers in Abu Dhabi, and the police investigations should be over a period of a year. The objective is to clarify the influence of digital evidence and legislation background.
Work Breakdown Structure
Figure 1. Work Breakdown Structure for the Course.
In order to provide workers with comprehensive training, it is essential to divide the project into a breakdown structure. In general, the whole working process may be divided into four stages, which are depicted in Figure 1. They are preparation of the course, attracting the participants, providing the information, and giving licenses (The Police ICT Company Ltd., 2019). As a project manager, I should establish appropriate objectives, covering all the details of the working process. In addition, I should take into consideration possible risks, such as the likelihood of lockdown conditions, and control the execution. The last duty regards project closure, conducting in-depth analysis, and leading lessons learned.
Project Planning Phases
Figure 2. Project Timeline.
The work breakdown structure matches the project planning phases and milestones, which is demonstrated in Graph 2. The first one is the preparation stage, which should be started on 1st July 2021 and finished by 1sy August 2021. The second one is attracting participants and potential clients via different methods, which should be completed within 25th August 2021. The third step is conducting the course, both theoretical and practical parts. The practical part should begin on 16th September and finish on 30th September. This phase covers 1-30 September 2021. The closure of the project should be held on 1st October 2021 by giving licenses. Therefore, the whole project should cover 3 months, from its beginning to the closure.
Resources
In order to address the potential challenges and supply a course of high quality, it is vital to use an outside source for preparing and conducting the training. Pa Consulting Group (2015) provides an in-depth insight into the digital investigation, covering all the legislation details. The article “Obtaining Data from Digital– New Guidance Released” (2015) supplement the information by using practical cases. The last informative source could be the work The Police ICT Company Ltd (2019), which covers a range of services, which may be useful for digital forensics. Consequently, applying these sources may contribute to presenting a comprehensive picture in training.
Even though law enforcement is supposed to treat terrorists in the harshest way possible, it is often not the case. Certain reporters and columnists point out that not only do law enforcement officers treat terrorists mildly compared to other alleged criminals but they also tend to exhibit biased attitudes towards African-American people. According to certain reports, in many cases, African-Americans seem to be treated worse than terrorists are, as the latter are detained, whereas the former are often shot with no valid reason.
Police Brutality
Various articles describing reported shooting incidents, providing accurate statistics, and the descriptions of anti-terrorist police interventions suggest that there is a serious discrepancy between the official and actual position of law enforcement. Certain police officers seem to be biased against African-Americans, as the latter is reported to be far more likely to be shot than detained compared to white people. It seems that there is no explanation of such unfair treatment African-Americans receive, let alone justification. An analysis of certain articles helps shed further light on the issue and how it is currently perceived.
The article was written by Shaun King entitled “Can African-Americans Get a Little of that Akhmad Khan Rahami Treatment?” is rather interesting from a linguistic standpoint. The language is mostly informal, aimed at a certain audience that King attempts to persuade. The tone of the article is quite ironic, considering the closing remark: “Maybe if they had shot up a movie theater” (King par. 16), which demonstrates a drastic difference in treatment terrorists and African-Americans receive.
The main argument King makes is that the case of a recently detained terrorist bomber, Ahmad Khan Rahami, makes us wonder why did he receive such a mild treatment compared to many African-Americans who have shot right away, and whose criminal intent was not even sufficiently clear (King par. 8). King mentions multiple cases, such as the case of Terence Crutcher, Amadou Diallo, John Crawford, and Sean Bell. According to King, these African-Americans did not display the behavior that would even remotely suggest criminal intent (par. 13). King points out that police officers’ actions regarding these people resemble the actions of a judge, a jury, as well as an executioner (King par. 15), whereas a terrorist bomber is kept alive.
Statistics Interpretation
Lowery claims that statistically speaking, more white people are shot than African-Americans (“Aren’t More White People” par. 11). Indeed, out of 1502 people shot by police officers, 732 are white, and 381 are black. The author explains, however, that this data may be misleading without due interpretation and correlation with population statistics. African-Americans make up roughly thirteen percent of the U.S. population while white people make up sixty-two percent. Nonetheless, the proportion of African-Americans shot over the last year by law enforcement amounts to twenty-four percent. Therefore, based on the statistical data, the frequency of shooting and killing African-Americans is 2.5 times higher than in the case of white people. Moreover, approximately thirteen percent of all African-Americans who have been shot by the police officers turned out to be unarmed. According to Lowery, the proportion of the unarmed white people killed by the police amounts to seven percent (“Aren’t More White People” par. 14).
The study conducted by Ross presents statistics of racial disparities regarding the police shootings in 2011-2014 (par. 1). The results suggest a substantial bias towards shooting unarmed African-Americans as compared to unarmed white people. The obtained results demonstrate a 3.49 times higher likelihood of shooting an unarmed African-American than a white person. According to Lowery, racial disparities regarding shooting rates are disproportionate (“Study Finds Police” par. 1). Out of nine hundred police shootings with a fatal outcome that took place in 2015, ninety-three were reported to involve the unarmed. African-Americans accounted for forty percent of the overall unarmed number (“Study Finds Police” par. 3). The report cited by Lowery also suggested the need to address the so-called “shooter bias” in law enforcement officers, as they seemed to perceive African-Americans as a more serious threat (“Study Finds Police” par. 6). There is a pressing need to reduce this bias since the perception of African-Americans as potentially more dangerous is unjustified and inconsistent with reality.
Comparison
While it is clear that from the statistical standpoint that there is a bias against African-Americans exhibited by law enforcement, it has far-reaching implications on another level. It seems as though the mentioned biased tendency ensures that African-Americans receive treatment that could be seen as worse than the treatment received by terrorists. It is commonly seen as the right thing to do to detain terrorists to prevent them from committing massive acts of violence (Etzioni par. 1). Therefore, it is regarded as necessary to detain them. In his article, King emphasizes that terrorist detainment could be useful, as it can help determine the potential terrorist network, and, in general, gather more information (King par. 3). However, how can the bias towards African-Americans be explained? One cannot say that they present a threat more serious than terrorism does. In these troubled times, after the events of 9/11, is there any criminal activity more dangerous than terrorism? It does seem as though African-Americans receive worse treatment than terrorists do. The latter is considered to be worthy of detainment, of proper trial, jury, convictions, etc. How is it that African-Americans are several times more likely to be shot by the police than the white people even with no signs that would point to criminal intent?
Terrorism Threat
King describes the detainment of Ahmad Khan Rahami as more humane than the treatment of African-Americans (par. 4). According to Ashford, in 2015, nearly seventy people have been linked to Islamic State activities and detained for further investigation (par. 1). The number includes refugees from Syria, i.e. those who have been accepted in the U.S. as fleeing from the war atrocities in their homeland but were eventually going to repay the country in a somewhat dubious manner. Ashford refers to a statement issued by Obama, where the President declares that to prevent refugees from receiving help and support in the U.S. would be a betrayal of American values (par. 4). However, does it not apply to the biased attitude displayed by law enforcement towards African-Americans? Those who have been shot often did not exhibit any signs of criminal intent were unarmed and were still perceived as a threat. Were they a threat graver than terrorism? They were not. So why did they deserve a treatment less humane? It remains an open question.
Conclusion
Even though saying that African-Americans are treated worse than terrorists sounds rather harsh at first, after due analysis of data there is but one conclusion. Given the analyzed reports, articles, and statistical data it is safe to assume that there is a ‘shooter bias’ in police officers against African-Americans. Moreover, the detained terrorists seem to be receiving better treatment. Whether the reported bias is caused by something other than racial issues remains to be seen. However, this problem must be addressed in the nearest future.
King, Shaun. Can African-Americans Get a Little of that Ahmad Khan Rahami Treatment? 2016. Web.
Lowery, Wesley. Aren’t More White People Than Black People Killed by Police? Yes, but No. 2016. Web.
Lowery, Wesley. Study Finds Police Fatally Shoot Unarmed Black Men at Disproportionate Rates. 2016. Web.
Ross, Cody T. “A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014.” PloS 10.11 (2015): e0141854.
Black Panthers was a revolutionary movement started in 1966 by a group of African American nationalists who were concerned about the social segregation in the American society. According to Alexander, the African Americans have suffered injustices since the country gained independence in 1776 (2). They were living in a free world yet they were not free. The Blacks could not attend specific schools, live in specific towns, or board the same buses and trains used by the Whites.
As Alexander puts it, they were second class citizens in a country they called home (2). Most of the African Americans could withstand the social segregation in the society. However, the oppression by the police and other security agents was unbearable. They were subjected to regular police brutality even in cases where they were wrongfully accused of crimes they did not commit. The fact that they were Blacks was in itself a crime, and many paid dearly for this.
People died, others were maimed, while children were orphaned by the brutality directed against the blacks. It is these social injustices that led to the creation of the Black Panther, and organization that grew to become a political party. In order to be heard, they would use violence against the authorities and the White communities. However, Martin Luther King once said that violence can never bring a lasting peace and solution to the oppressed. Instead, it only brings new complication that works against them. In this paper, the researcher will look at the incidents where the Black Panthers used violence to express their oppression and whether or not this helped in addressing their problem.
Violence against the Police Officers
Policing the police
According to Alexander, “The police force was one of the main instruments that were used by the ruling class to oppress the African American,” (2). The Black Panthers gained popularity when it defined its main mission as policing the police officers. Members of this group would follow police patrol cars in private cars and monitor their activities. When the officers attacked an African American, members of this group would get out of their cars and demand to know why the police officers were using excessive force instead of making peaceful arrests. They acted as civil rights group only that they used a different approach.
They did not organize street demonstrations against the police system. They went on the ground, monitored the activities of the police officers and made instant interventions whenever they felt the officers were using excessive force.
Use of violence
The tactics of the Black Panthers in policing the police degenerated to violence following an incident in 1967 when the police attacked and killed Mathew Johnson in San Francisco. This young African American man was unarmed during the attack. Members of Black Panthers reacted violently to the incident not only in San Francisco but also in other parts of the world (Laszlo 87). In Oakland, members of the organization became very violent towards the police officers.
There were cases where police officers were killed in the streets of Oakland by members of Black Panther. Every time the police tried to make arrest of any Black Americans- whether or not the suspects were innocent of the crimes- members of the Black Panther would come to their rescue using shotguns and other weapons. Such confrontations led to many deaths of both the police and the revolutionists. Government attempts to dissuade the members of this organization to stop violence bore no fruit.
Black Panther turned into a political party due to the massive support it received from the minorities that had suffered police brutality. However, the more it gained popularity, the more it engaged in violence against the authority (Gloriana 4). The organization used violence to make itself heard by the government. It succeeded in getting the attention of the government, but in a negative way. The Federal Bureau of Investigation came up with a program called COINTELPRO.
This program was not meant to address the plight of the Black Americans as per the demands of Black Panthers. Instead, it was formed to neutralize the organization and undo all its gains in championing for the rights of the minorities. COINTELPRO proved to be very efficient because it infiltrated Black Panthers, creating a rift within its leadership. A section of supported of Black Panthers formed a parallel organization called Black Liberation Army. Many other splinter groups came up in the 1970s. Instead of fighting for a common course, these groups started fighting against themselves, forgetting their golden aim of defending the minorities against police brutality. The Black Panthers was finally dissolved in 1982.
Conclusion
Analysis of the activities of Black Panthers confirms the argument of Martin Luther King Junior that violence cannot solve the problem of oppression. It may yield short-term success but such gains do not last long. The Black Panthers’ decision to use force brought short-lived success. However, it brought a new problem among the African Americans. It created mistrust and infighting instead of eliminating the injustices among the Black Americans.
Works Cited
Alexander, Don. The Rise and Fall of the Black Panthers Party: A Revolutionary Marxist Analysis. New York: City University of New York. Print.
Gloriana, Waters. Workplace Violence Prevention. New York: City University of New York. Print.
Laszlo, Alex. “Personal Historical Narratives.” Library Notes Fall 2.1 (2007): pp. 6-7. Print.
The situation when the police protected the Ku Klux Klan while gassing and arresting the demonstrators can seem to be unexpected and controversial because people are often inclined to associate the Ku Klux Klan with the ideas of the white nationalism and issues of racial prejudice and discrimination, with the Ku Klux Klan’s violent slogans, and with a lot of the Klan’s terrorist methods to influence the community.
From this point, the police acted irrelevantly while protecting the Ku Klux Klan instead of protecting the public. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that such considerations can also be discussed as based on prejudice and biased in their nature because those people who are inclined to discuss the problem from this point reveal their prejudiced and discriminatory attitudes.
Thus, such considerations are associated with the ideas of the stereotypical visions, prejudice, and discrimination because the public is oriented to evaluating people because of their visions and ideas.
In this case, it is necessary to distinguish between the Ku Klux Klan’s character as an organization and between the nature of the actions performed by the Ku Klux Klan’s members and demonstrators with references to the concrete situation. The members of the Ku Klux Klan have the right to follow definite ideas and principles and meet to discuss them until their actions or meetings can cause violence or be associated with the terrorist acts.
It is a controversial idea, but the fact of forbidding the ideas promoted by the Ku Klux Klan’s members can be discussed as a kind of discrimination in some concrete situations.
From this perspective, the actions of the Ku Klux Klan’s members presented in the video cannot be discussed as violent in relation to the public or as violating the social norms. On the contrary, the demonstrators’ actions and behaviors cannot be discussed as peaceful because they gathered to oppose the Ku Klux Klan’s march and meeting.
In this situation, the police protected the Ku Klux Klan because it was necessary to cope with the demonstrators’ violent and discriminatory actions. However, the appropriateness of the police’s activities can also be discussed from the point of the extent to which the violence against the public was demonstrated.
That is why, it is possible to determine some relevant reasons to explain the police’s actions which can be discussed as provocative for many people who do not agree with the ideas promoted by the Ku Klux Klan.
In spite of the fact that the Ku Klux Klan is the organization which can be discussed as socially dangerous because of the supported ideas of white nationalism and racial prejudice and discrimination, the police’s actions are rational from the point of preserving the social peace and promoting the principles of the social ethics.
The police protected the Ku Klux Klan’s members because the demonstrators were not peaceful in relation to their intentions; there was the threat to the public peace; and the demonstrators’ actions can be discussed as discriminatory and based on the stereotypes and biases.
The demonstrators were rather aggressive in their intentions to labeling the Ku Klux Klan’s members in spite of the fact that the Ku Klux Klan’s meeting was not threatening to the community.
Law enforcement is among the occupations that are not only emotionally, but also physically involved. It is a dangerous occupation since it is characterized by murder, disasters, violence and various accidents. There are many issues that face police officers and their families which are inclusive but not limited to long working hours, shifts and exposure to tragedies for a long time. Consequently, police officers suffer psychologically hence the reason why they are more susceptible to stress which later develops into depression. As much as the media and the general population assume police officers are less susceptible to stress and depression due to long exposure to the life stressors, research indicates otherwise. Suicide is among many problems that affect police officers due to long time and consistent exposure to life stressors. Therefore, police suicide happens when a police officer decides to take away his life using any method or weapon (Hackett, 2003). With that background in mind, this paper shall focus on police suicide laying more emphasis on the causes, statistics available, repercussions as well as prevention measures that can be adopted to mitigate the problem.
Background Information
Studies that have been conducted indicate that there are more police deaths are caused by suicide than the deaths that result from homicide, accidents during work, and other causes. Studies of Violanti (1996) indicate that in New York City, the rate of police suicide was twenty-nine in every one hundred thousand officers, which is much higher compared to twelve in every one hundred thousand in the general population. A study conducted by the Association of Police Chiefs indicates that in one year, about three hundred police officers end up committing suicide. It is also important to mention that it is not only the number of suicides that is on the increase but also the number of attempted suicides.
Various studies indicate that the numbers of police who die of suicide are more than those who die due to any other cause. For instance, between the years 1985-1998, the rates of suicide were eighty-seven while the deaths incurred while on duty were thirty-six. In Chicago and during the same period, the national suicide rates were ranging from 50.9%. In Los Angeles, suicide rates were twenty while the on-duty deaths were eleven. As highlighted earlier, the same rates are observed in other states with little or no variance (Violanti, 1996).
Causes of Police Suicide
There are many causes of police suicide as is the case in other types of suicide. To begin with, as indicated in the introductory part, police officers are always unwilling to discuss their psychological problems. In the police department, people suffering from psychological problems are viewed as weak and unfit for the profession. Consequently, various police officers suffering from stress shy away from seeking professional help, and more often than not, they end up developing depression. Among other causes, depression is a major cause of suicide not only in the police department but also in other professionals and the general population.
The dynamism of law enforcement is also a major contributory factor. The profession requires someone to be involved not only physically but also emotionally. Moreover, as indicated earlier, there is constant exposure to danger and violence. Such moments act as stressors and lead to depression that can later influence someone to commit suicide. People living under stressful moments are more susceptible to other diseases and illnesses. Research indicates that health problems are a major contributory factor to police suicide. Health problem ends up creating other problems as financial constraints and relationship issues and is all contributory factors to stress which may eventually lead to suicide.
Divorce and relationship issues are among the major contributory factor to police suicide. Due to the dynamism of the profession, police end up having unstable families that not only cause separation but also divorce. Such issues are among the life stressors that end up affecting even the performance of an individual at the workplace. Underperformance and negligence are not tolerated especially in the police department as they can cause adverse effects. The work place pressure results when the officer fails to perform and the same can result to stress.
The work of the police officers involves even taking away the life of other people. Taking someone’s life is an emotional experience and more often than not, police officers end up becoming emotionally disturbed once they execute killings. In most cases, such officers end up taking their own life as well. On the same note, it is important to mention that police always carry a weapon, which can also be used as a source of comfort. Although police officers commit suicide through other means, in most cases, they use their weapon to kill themselves (Marzuk, Nock, Leon, Portera, & Tardiff, 2002). The same study illustrate that 97% of police officers commit suicide using their weapon since they consider it as a solution to their life issues. Therefore, presence of the weapon to commit suicide can also be considered as an important contributory factor.
Although there is emotional and psychological stress in the police department, frustration and helplessness is also among the major shortcomings in the department. In most cases, many police officers join the profession with a main aim of helping other people in the society. With time, they realize that it is increasingly hard to meet all the demands of their work and that leads to frustration. Although police work is frustrating all over the world, in America, it is more frustrating because they are charged with a responsibility of controlling a society that does not wish to be controlled. The community puts in little if any effort in supporting the police in their work. Additionally, the media is also unsympathetic not to mention the judiciary system, which lays more emphasis on equity. Police officers are usually isolated from the general population and tend to gang up together. Due to loneliness, police officers tend to consider suicide as the solution to their problems. They become helpless because the community views them as superheroes. In that case, suicide becomes the solution to helplessness.
Alcohol abuse is common among the police officers as it is in the general population. Consumption of alcohol without limitation causes problems such as failure to report to work and traffic accidents as well as reporting to work while drunk. Such issues complicate the work of police officers and the same can contribute stress and later suicide. A study conducted in Chicago indicated that alcohol abuse was present in the sixty percent of all the suicides that were committed (Violanti, 1996).
Prevention of Police Suicide
Currently, there is a greater concern on prevention of police suicide since considerable number of studies show that the rates are higher than in the general population and in any other profession. However, there are various challenges that are involved in the implementation of intervention strategies and other preventive measures. Most importantly, it is difficult to estimate or know the scope of the problem since even the police departments fail to admit that police suicide is a real issue. It is difficult to come up with effective preventive measures when the scope of the problem is not known. Moreover, while on training, police officers are not adequately trained on suicide symptoms and preventive measures since the department does not acknowledge that suicide is a challenge to their department (Hackett, 2003).
Police officers are usually employed to deal with problems of other people and therefore, they often forget or lack ample time to deal with their own problems. Moreover, the police culture does not allow police officers to acknowledge their problems because they can be viewed as social misfits or even unfit for the profession. For that reason, it is important for suicide and prevention of the same to be included in the training protocol. Most importantly, the police supervisor should be trained to monitor other police officers. The police supervisor is better positioned to monitor the mental and the psychological well being of the police officers since he is always in contact with them on the daily basis. They can be in a position to identify suicide symptoms by conducting spot checks and latter advice the officer to seek professional help.
It is equally important to establish peer support programs for police officers since by so doing; they can be in a position to help each other well. In the view of the fact that they understand each other well, peer support programs can be very effective in prevention of suicide. Such programs allow for creation of forums where officers can share out their experiences, family issues as well as work related problems. It is important to choose peer counselors to provide counseling services to police officers before referring them to various mental institutions. However, the criteria used to choose a counselor is very important because they ought to be confidential and trustworthy. Counselors ought to be trained to be impartial and to treat those who seek their counsel with dignity since there is usually stigma associated with police officers who seek psychological professional help (Anderson, 2002).
Impacts of Police Suicide
There are many impacts of police suicide but stigma is a major impact. After a police officer has committed suicide, the police officers and the family members who report at the scene usually do interfere with the evidence to prevent others from knowing that it was a suicide case because as highlighted earlier, there is stigma associated with police suicide. In the department of law enforcement, police suicide is considered as one of the most serious occurrences. Police as any other group of people working together live as team members and consider each other as comrades. Therefore, when any member commits suicide, other members are affected emotionally and they may take some time before recovering completely. There is so much denial in the police department since the leaders are not willing to admit that suicide takes place in their department. Denial is a serious problem because it hampers preventive measures.
Since suicide is a violent activity, it affects everyone attached to the victim. In most cases, friends, relatives and teammates suffer from anger or even guilt. People often suffer from guilt because they feel that they would have been in a position to prevent the suicide from occurring. In other instances, people develop anger towards the victim because they fail to understand why the person may have opted to commit suicide. People left behind often feel that the victim did not love them enough to persevere through the life problems. For family members, suicide is a serious problem, because apart from depriving them of a breadwinner, it is not possible for them to get insurance compensation if a person dies through suicide. Therefore, there are financial problems that result from suicide. People are also an important resource of any country and if someone dies prematurely, the country may suffer economically. Suicide is also not accepted socially and in some communities, it is viewed as a curse to the family. Due to the same issue, families fail to report cases of suicide when they happen to avoid social stigma.
As much as being a police officer is beneficial to the society, many parents would discourage their children form joining the profession. Although there are many factors that may contribute to the same, suicide plays a major role because parents would not encourage their children to join the profession and die prematurely. Unlike other professions that are highly regarded, police does not attract many people voluntarily. In addition, those who decide to overlook the opinions of other people in the society have to fight hard and be determined to achieve their goal. However, it is important to point out that there are people who voluntarily chose to join the police profession despite the existing negative attitude. However, it is clear that suicide has contributed to the negative attitude (Anderson, 2002).
Police Suicide in New York
Marzuk, Nock, Leon, Portera, & Tardiff ( 2002) conducted a study to investigate the trends of police suicide in the city of New York. The main aim of the study was to investigate whether the rate was more than the rate of suicide in the general population as well as to check whether the rate was on the increase. The results indicated that between the year 1977-1996, there was a hundred and sixty eight deaths which were recorded. Eighty of those deaths resulted from suicide and seventy-five were executed using firearms. Surprisingly, although most studies indicate that suicide rates among the police officers is high, the results of the study illustrate that police in New York committed suicide at the rate of 14.9 in every one hundred thousand persons. In the same place and during the same period, the rate suicide was 18.6 in every one hundred thousand persons. As much as there was variance in the rate of suicide among the police officers every year, the same study illustrates that the rate was always low compared to the rate of suicide in the general population.
In reference to the study of police suicide in New York, it is clear that the rate of suicide in the police department is below the rate of suicide in the general population. The study illustrates that the main reason why police suicide rates are believed to be higher is due to the increased level of publicity that the media accords the police department. Apart from that, the fact that all the police recruits have to go through psychological screening illustrates that the rate should be lower. However, the study points out that disregarding the results, suicide is still an issue of concern among the law enforcement officers.
Similar to other studies, Marzuk, Nock, Leon, Portera, & Tardiff (2002) illustrate that the determinants of police suicide are inclusive but not limited to job irregularities, tight working schedules, job stress, exposure to death and trauma, lack of enough working equipments, lack of trust from the public, complicated polices which are difficult to implement as well as criticism from the government. Judicial system is also a problem because in most cases, it criticizes the department the actions as well as the decisions made by the police. Apart from job, related factors, which include the availability of firearms, some of the individual characteristics also contribute to police suicide. As highlighted earlier, some individual characteristics include drug abuse and other social issues related to marriage. It is important to mention that the study illustrated that age; terms of service as well as race do not determine the rate of police suicide. However, while focusing on gender, the rate of police officers suicide was lower compared to the rate of suicide in the general population. However, the author points out that gender as a determining factor calls for more investigation.
In the New York police department, there are both challenges and opportunities that affect all the programs aimed at preventing suicide. For instance, the police union in the department has sponsored some counseling services aimed at mitigating the problem. Most of the challenges emanate from the assumption that once police officers seek psychiatric services, they can lose their jobs, can be denied some privileges like access to firearms and promotion opportunities. Stigmatization is also a hindrance. The authors conclude by suggesting that despite the fact that it is difficult to monitor the efficiency of a program, it can be more effective it it can be incorporated early during the training. It is also important to keep on training the police officers in course of their career.
Police Suicide Africa in South
Pienar (2005) conducted a research to investigate the rate of suicide in South Africa from the year 1994 to the year 2000. The study was conducted in the South African Police Service and the sample comprised a hundred thousand police officers. The analysis illustrated that the rate of suicide varies from time to time because in year 1995, it was two hundred and it decreased to a hundred and ten in the year 1999. However, in the year 2000, the rate increased to one hundred and thirty indicating that the rate keeps on changing due to different factors. The same study indicates that police officers who are more likely to commit suicide are black or Indians aged between the age of twenty four and twenty nine years. The unmarried police officers are more likely to commit suicide than their married colleagues. Some areas such as North West Province and Northern Cape illustrate a higher risk than the other areas in the country.
The study concentrated more on the ideation behind suicide, which refers to the thoughts, and all the cognitions associated with suicide. The ideation can either be just wishes, thoughts on suicide or even specific plans on how to commit suicide. Since suicide ideation varies from one person to another, people with a higher scale not only wish to die but also think that life is not worth living. Such people usually have plans of committing suicide as well as specific methods to be used in accomplishing their goals. Pienar, (2005) illustrate that in South Africa, it is only two studies of suicide ideation which have been conducted in one of the nine provinces. Among the police who were studied, 10.58% showed considerable levels of suicide ideation. However, the authors suggested that it is important for studies to be conducted on suicide ideation in the police department since the research on the same is scarce not only in South Africa but also in other parts of the world. Studying suicide ideation in the police department is important because it can greatly help not only in management but also in coming up with prevention programs.
As highlighted earlier, the study was aimed at determining the level of police ideation in South Africa as well as to study the difference between the levels of ideation among different groups with different demographic characteristics. In the previous studies, the levels of ideation on national levels were at 10.58% (Pienar, 2005). However, the study indicated that the level of ideation in the same province had dropped down to 8.30%. Further analysis of the results indicated that the determining factors of ideation are inclusive but not limited to health factors, use of alcohol, rank, ethnicity, level of education and gender. More specifically, police offers that rank lower on the mentioned factors have high levels of suicide ideation. Due to that, Indians and Black police officers have high levels of ideation and in addition, the same group belongs to a lower rank. On the same note, it is important to mention that the same group has lower education qualifications. Such police officers who belong to either constable or sergeant rank find it difficult to cope with the many challenges that face the Police Service Department in South Africa. Moreover, the same group may persevere to remain in the police department because of lack of better employment opportunities elsewhere or even promotion opportunities in the same department. The same studies indicate that since police officers are exposed to scenes characterized by violence and crime, such situations not only contribute to suicide ideation but also depression and anxiety. In the view of the fact that high levels of suicide ideation are linked with suicide attempts, it is important to come up with the intervention programs especially in the high-risk areas.
Similar to many studies that have been conducted, Pienar, (2005) illustrates that consumption of alcohol is associated with high levels of suicide ideation. In that case, an intervention strategy can be aimed at educating the police officers on the negative consequences of alcohol consumption and abuse. In addition, the intervention strategy can include educating the police on the intervention strategies. The study explains that the reason why officers with medical problems were included in the high ideation group is bent on the fact that their problems affect their work output and the same can cause stress. The study was very effective although it had some limitations that include the cross section survey design and the self-report measures. In addition, the study was conducted on one group of people making it hard to generalize the results. In reference to the attempted suicide, it is necessary to investigate how it influences suicide. Other people in the society like spouses, friend and relatives can be very instrumental in the research as they may have some valuable information. In South Africa and in other countries, it is important to review the existing intervention programs.
Recommendations
Pienar, (2005) recommended that it is important for future research to be conducted to investigate on the relationship between stress levels and suicide ideation. It is also important to include constables and sergeants in research since police officers in such ranks are more susceptible to stress. Most importantly, it is necessary to investigate on other factors that contribute to high level of ideation. It is also important to study how education level and geographical location influences suicide ideation. The study recommends that the relationship between ideation and suicide can only be investigated with longitudinal research design.
Police department and the duty of police officers are very important in the department of criminal justice. The fact that the department is very important in maintaining law and order requires no further emphasis. Therefore, it is necessary for scholars and other researchers to take the matter of police suicide seriously. Since it is clear that the area has not received the necessary attention, they should devote more of their time in the same. Research is very important because it helps to clear the controversies, myths and the assumptions that may have been in existent for long. For instance, the case of New York and South Africa illustrate that there exists controversies that call for attention.
Although most of the works on police suicide cite important intervention measures, most of them do not emphasize on the role that can be played by the families of police officers. Reflecting on the major causes of suicide, family and relationship issues play an integral part in police suicide. Therefore, it would be important if the families of the police officers can be included in the intervention strategies. For example, it would be of much help if the police department and the government can organize workshops where police and their families can be trained on some of the issues that affect their life. By so doing, the spouses and other members of the family can be in a position to understand police officers and support them in their work instead of blaming them. The government should also come in and play a major role in the same. To avoid or minimize financial constraints, police should be paid well and motivated to continue performing their duties to perfection. Moreover, the community also needs to be taught to appreciate the police and build trust in them. In places like South Africa or in other places, which have been faced with conflicts, the society ends up losing trust on police and it is upon the government and the police department to help them build the trust again. Many departments require reform but the police department calls for more effort and devotion.
Conclusions
Critical analysis of various studies, which have been conducted illustrate that police suicide is not only a subject of discussion but also a controversial issue. While studies of Marzuk, Nock, Leon, Portera, & Tardiff, (2002) illustrate that police suicide is higher in the general population, studies of Pienar, (2005) illustrate that in reference to a study conducted in South Africa, police suicide is lower than the rate of suicide in the general population. Although issues such as gender, class, rank and the level of education determine the rate of suicide, studies have not been conducted to determine the relationship of the same. However, most studies indicate that availability of weapon, alcohol abuse, and the nature of police work, the unsupportive judicial system and the police culture are contributory factors to police suicide.
Disregarding whether the rate of police suicide is higher or lower than the rate of suicide in the general population, it is still a matter of concern. Therefore, it is important for all the stakeholders to come up with sound intervention programs. If the available programs are of little or no help, they should be reviewed or done away with so that they can pave way for programs that are effective. In addition, evaluation should be conducted consistently so that the necessary changes can be implemented. Police officers are as important as any other person in the society and should be given the necessary support to perform their duties effectively. The issue calls for collaborative efforts not only in the police department but also from members of the society, the government and the department of criminal justice.
References
Anderson, B. J. (2002). Police Suicide: Understanding the Grief . Web.
Hackett, D. P. (2003). Police suicide: tactics for prevention. Springfield: Charles C Thomas.
Marzuk, P. M., Nock, M. K., Leon, A. C., Portera, L., & Tardiff, K. (2002). Suicide Among City Police Officers. Psychiatry , 159 (12), 2061-2071.
Pienar, J. (2005). Suicide Ideation in South Africa Police Service. South Africa Journal of Psychology , 35 (1), 58-72.
Violanti, J. M. (1996). Police Suicide: Epindemic in Blue. Springfield: C. C. Thomas.
Every American city has many citizens from diverse cultural, racial, and religious backgrounds. Such individuals tend to have different economic potentials and opportunities. These issues have contributed a lot to the kind of unrest encountered in different cities across the nation. This development explains why the 2005 Toledo Riot took place. This discussion gives a detailed analysis of the major aspects associated with the 2005 Toledo uprising.
Introduction
The “Toledo Riot took place on 15th October 2005” (Olsen & Morgan, 2005, para. 2). Many people were arrested and charged during the period. However, the police were accused of targeting specific minority groups. The 2005 Toledo Riot is an event that fulfilled the seven attributes of modern city rebellions while at the same time painting a true image of race relations, inequality, and crime in the United States. This discussion gives a detailed analysis of the Toledo Riot using the characteristics of modern city rebellions.
Description of the Uprising
The targeted uprising began when a small neo-Nazi group called National Socialist Movement (NSM) organized a march to protest against crime in Toledo’s North End (Olsen & Morgan, 2005). The riots lasted for a period of four hours. The NSM was protesting against various gang activities in the city. The march “forced different anti-fascist groups to stage a counter-demonstration” (Olsen & Morgan, 2005, para. 5). Several days before the protests, different groups came together in order to ensure the neo-Nazi rally was canceled. These groups were unhappy because the police seemed to protect the NSM. The mayor of the city decided to declare a state of emergency from 8 pm the same day. The police force was accused of supporting and protecting one group. As a result, around 114 African American youths were arrested. Most of the charges included disobedience, vandalism, assault, and curfew violations (Lawrence & Dua, 2005).
Analysts have indicated clearly that the NSM was protected by both the police and the leaders of Toledo. As well, the neo-Nazis were able to achieve their potential. Consequently, the “repressive apparatus of the government became evidence since more young African Americans were arrested and later charged” (Lawrence & Dua, 2005, p. 129). The police also granted the neo-Nazis permission to demonstrate on 10th December the same year. Different counter-protesters voiced their concerns because of the injustices perpetrated by the police.
Characteristics of Modern Urban Rebellions
The 2005 Toledo Riot appears to portray all the seven characteristics associated with modern urban protests and rebellions. Lawrence and Dua (2005) believe that the 2005 Toledo Riot emerged from the problem of race relations. Consequently, the demonstrations fulfilled the seven characteristics associated with modern urban revolts. The police deployed throughout the rebellion period were “more than a spark” (Lawrence & Dua, 2005, p. 131). The involved law enforcers protected the neo-Nazis from the counter-protesters. At the same time, the counter-protesters were unhappy with the NSM rioters. The neo-Nazis also believed that most of the gang activities in North End were committed by African Americans. The police, therefore, played a significant role in reshaping the course of this rebellion. The participants involved throughout the rebellion were also seeking justice (Lawrence & Dua, 2005). For instance, the neo-Nazis were against the increasing rate of gang activity in the North End. As well, the African American sympathizers believed that the NSM was promoting racial ideologies.
The issue of hope and despair was also evident throughout this infamous riot (Olsen & Morgan, 2005). The African Americans were unhappy with the protections availed to the whites in the region. Similar malpractices were also promoted in different parts of the country. The existence of “despair forced the counter-protesters to attack the police” (Lawrence & Dua, 2005, p. 124). They were optimistic that their concerns would be addressed in the future. As well, the rebellion was characterized by the issue of meaning and purpose (Barlow & Barlow, 2000). The neo-Nazis had a reason to demonstrate. On the other hand, the African Americans wanted the police to promote equality and support the needs of every citizen in the city.
The presence of many individuals with diverse goals during riots results in looting and burning. Several shops and stores were looted during the infamous 2005 protest (Olsen & Morgan, 2005). Most of the arrested African American individuals were accused of vandalism and looting. This malpractice has become a common aspect of present-day urban demonstrations.
The other characteristic of modern city protests is the issue of racial conflict (Barlow & Barlow, 2000). These protests proved that the city was facing a major social challenge. The whites were opposed to the welfare of African Americans and other minority groups. The police appeared to support the neo-Nazis while at the same time sidelining every African American. The ultimate goal of the 2005 Toledo Riot was to ensure both parties were heard.
Conclusion
This discussion shows how modern riots in different cities are characterized by the above seven aspects. That being the case, the government and relevant authorities should focus on new practices to streamline the actions of the police (Olsen & Morgan, 2005). The 2005 Toledo Riot also presents new insights that can be used to tackle crime and address the problem of racism. If the nation does not address these issues, more destructive riots will be experienced in the future.
Reference List
Barlow, E., & Barlow, H. (2000). Police in a Multicultural Society: An American Story. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland.
Lawrence, B., & Dua, E. (2005). Decolonizing Antiracism. Social Justice, 32(4), 120-143.
Olsen, P., & Morgan, M. (2005). 12 Cops Hurt in Toledo Riot. The Chicago Tribune. Web.
The issue of police violence is rarely hushed up in American society these days. The loud discussion of such cases happened due to the influence of African American activists, who put a lot of effort into exposing unscrupulous police officers. The most high-profile cases of police violence involve the detention of African Americans and other racial minorities, which is why most studies consider police violence, coupled with the problems of migration, BLM protests and others. The problem of police violence is a significant trauma for the entire American society, regardless of race and origin, as this problem intersects with central ethical issues in the human mind.
Police violence is an act of institutional discrimination and cruelty, although citizens usually, consider the police a protective group of people. The police, among other things, are representatives of the authorities, which imposes on them additional responsibility and, at the same time, disarms people in responding to brutality. People falling into an unfair situation cannot and do not know how to fight for their rights because they understand that they are government representatives and not only civil servants. Bryant-Davis et al. (2017) state: “Ethnic minority communities that live in constant fear of police brutality result in communities coming to expect and prepare their children for acts of racially motivated injustice and denial of safety” (p. 861). The devoted ethical ideals of the value of life and justice make people adapt and nurture in the younger generation a mutual hostility. Thus, American society is getting grown teenagers and young people who have not yet had problems with the police but already hate them with all their hearts.
Usually, people cannot put up with injustice and prepare retaliatory measures of disobedience or distance from the system. Street demonstrations are a “form of collective action against perceived injustice” (Reinka & Leach, 2017, p. 778). It is the most visible manifestation of the struggle for justice, and the police are usually expected to support the victims of injustice. However, here are acts of intimidation, cruelty and violence, which can be called a unique form of victim-blaming. If a group of people were victims of unfair treatment, that is, a moral offence, then such victims do not need punishment but protection. African Americans have actively advocated for such victims in recent years. Even now, “African Americans’ neurological, affective, and emotional reactions showed an agitated and empowered response to police violence and to Black protests against it such as in Black Lives Matter marches” (Reinka & Leach, 2017, p. 783). Social injustice is sewn into the brain’s subcortex and may require vengeance and punishment for offenders. The police in this situation act as cruel offenders who refuse to fulfil their tasks of protecting citizens.
When trying to return justice, people face refusals, which legalize cruelty towards them. They understand that not only will they not achieve justice in a particular situation, but that in front of their eyes, the police officers were given official permission to use brutal methods. Having experienced such a tremendous disappointment, society tends to fall into apathy. Trust in the state has been lost; sometimes, frustrated people tend to believe in conspiracy theories or fall into total disbelief of everything that comes from official sources: press releases, news and others.
Legalized violence leads to the fact that people lose complete confidence in the institution of the police. Modern research states: “Mistrust and fear instilled as a consequence of institutionalized police brutality may prevent racially marginalized communities from seeking assistance, which can increase a sense of isolation and dehumanization” (Bryant-Davis et al., 2017, p. 856). Without trust to police, people tend to solve problems that require intervention on their own. They may pay bribes or become obedient victims of racketeering, not relying on the help of the police or fearing unfair sentencing. Not only the brutality itself discredits the police, but the impunity of the police at the same time. Many people cannot survive such disappointment on their own; therefore, they actively attract the public’s attention. The attracted people, in turn, deploy retaliatory aggression and bullying, which can concern not only the police officers but their relatives.
Police brutality traumatizes American society and nurtures a younger generation of angry people who have virtually had no problems with the police. This reprehensible attitude is born from the experience of cultural memory. Parents and relatives of these young people usually come face to face with police brutality and unfair treatment. Frustration motivated them to keep this memory and pass it on to their children through stories. The issue of police brutality is very tightly connected with the primary ethical coordinates of people. These coordinates include the security and value of life, the need for protection and care from the state, and, most importantly, the abstract and philosophical concept of justice. Justice is a reactionary concept that only rises at the sight of injustice, but it profoundly impresses every person. Seeing injustice, that is, cruelty from those whose mission is to protect, leaves a deep psychological trauma.
