Carbon monoxide is a gaseous compound composed of two elements carbon and oxygen. The gas is formed due to the incomplete combustion of organic matter, especially fuel. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a situation where the inhaled amount exceeds the acceptable levels and cause undesired effects to ones body. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when molecules displace oxygen in the blood. The heart, brain and other important body organs are deprived of the much-needed oxygen (Gorman, 2003).
When large quantities of carbon monoxide are inhaled, it can overcome the respiratory system within a few minutes leading to suffocation. In other circumstances, victims may lose consciousness (Gorman, 2003). When a person is exposed to sufficient amounts of carbon monoxide, several other physiological effects occur. One may experience dizziness, vomiting, headache and tightness across the chest. Muscle, oxygen storage in the body is impaired. Low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to mild effects on the heart, cardiovascular system and brain. As a result, victims may vomit and feel dizziness.
Other victims eventually collapse if there is acute poisoning. The victims muscles become weak when there is prolonged exposure. The effects are severe when victims are young, elderly, people of high altitude, people who have heart or lung disease and those with higher levels of carbon monoxide in their blood. According to Gorman, Drewry, Huang and Sames (2003), heart muscle damage occurs when there is acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Victims who survive the poisonings are exposed to long term risks.
Jacks carbon monoxide poisoning is signified by an increased heartbeat rate. Poor supply of oxygen to the heart and other body tissues increased its demand. The body responded by increasing the Heartbeat rate to try to get the much-needed oxygen. The reduced body temperatures can be attributed to disruption of the endocrine system. The disrupted endocrine system may have caused several anomalies in Jacks body due to its failure to produce the right quantities of hormones at the right time.
Blood pressure increased due to the increased heartbeat rate. Jacks body system tried to restore its normal operation and oxygen deficiency after poisoning. Since the chances of improving oxygen content in blood were low, the heart was forced to beat faster to drive blood. This resulted in an increase in blood pressure to 120/90.
Jack became confused because of poor activity and response by his nervous system. Disruption of the endocrine system led to poor production and release of hormones which caused both temperature reduction and increased heartbeat per minute (Gorman, 2003). The same poor production and release of hormones may have led the body to have poor control which caused the confusion and quietness which was seen by Jacks neighbor.
Several pieces of evidence signify carbon monoxide poisoning in Jacks condition. Pain across the chest which he experienced is a common symptom to all victims of carbon dioxide poisoning. Since the pain experienced occurred to him after using kerosene in his house, it was clear evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning. A high level of carbon monoxide exposure affects the respiratory system. Lungs are normally affected more than other body organs. As a result, victims experience chest pains.
Confusion and disorientation were evident. When he was found outside the house by his neighbor, Jack was confused. Due to the high consumption of carbon monoxide, Jacks central nervous system was significantly impaired. Acute poisoning normally causes dizziness, vomiting, coma, confusion and muscle weakness (Gorman, 2003). For jacks case, confusion was the main evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning which affected the nervous system severely (Raub et al. 2000).
The carboxyhemoglobin level reached 40%. This signified that Jack had acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Naturally, carbon monoxide has a high affinity to hemoglobin. When inhaled, it is absorbed in place of oxygen easily. When a considerable percentage has been absorbed, poisoning occurs. This is one of the main laboratory evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning which was seen in Jack.
Jacks heartbeat rate increased to 90 beats per minute. Normally the heartbeat is faster when the body needs more supply of oxygen. When a person inhales carbon monoxide, his or her body becomes deficient in oxygen. According to Raub, Mathieu-Nolf, Hampson and Thom (2000), the heartbeat rate is higher when the body wants to increase oxygen supply. Increased heartbeat rates together with other symptoms are evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning. High blood pressure is caused by high rates of heartbeat per minute. This was one of the pieces of evidence which signified that Jack had carbon dioxide poisoning.
Being a man, the hematocrit in Jack was relatively low. The highest level of Hematocrit for men is 57% and the lowest is 40%. This means that the percentage of red blood cells in blood was low but not below the minimum required for a healthy person. Carbon monoxide poisoning reduced the percentage of red blood cells in the blood. The body responded by an increasing generation of red blood cells because of the chronic poisoning (Raub et al. 2000). This is clear evidence of poisoning in Jacks system.
Due to the poor supply of oxygen into Jacks body tissues, a continuous reduction of oxygen content in alveolar air occurred. At the same time, oxygen tension in veins and arteries continued to fall. As a result, a hypoxia state occurred. Diminutions of alveolar PO2 induced hypoxia. Because of the above condition, blood saturation occurred in arteries to reach normal content of oxygen. This is because blood moving from the lungs to the heart had more oxygen as compared to blood moving from the heart to the lungs.
Poisoning had occurred hours earlier which increased carboxyhemoglobin levels to 40%. When Jack was exposed to fresh air, he inhaled oxygen which was immediately absorbed by the blood. However, the carbon monoxide inhaled earlier was still present in blood at the time of tests (Raub et al. 2000) Therefore, results showed a considerable amount of carboxyhemoglobin. Blood taken to various body tissues had normal oxygen levels but veins exhibited hypoxia.
Jacks 40% percent hemoglobin level signifies that the poisoning was acute. This level may have resulted in several acute and delayed onset of neurological impairment effects. Here, poisoning was exhibited by confusion and chest pain. If this level had increased slightly, Jack would have died.
Carbon monoxide poisoning can be treated through several processes. The first step is to remove the victim from the area where he or she has been poisoned and taken to an aerated place (Raub et al. 2000). The second step is to give the victim oxygen therapy. This can be administered as 100% oxygen using a tight fitting mask in a health facility. However, if the victim is not breathing, oxygen therapy should be administered using a machine which increases the rate of inhaling. In some severe cases, a victim can be put under hyperbaric oxygen therapy where this full body is put in a chamber which uses oxygen under pressure (Buckley et al. 2001). This method helps to remove carbon monoxide faster out of the victims body.
Works Cited
Buckley, Nick A, Juurlink David, Isbister Geoff, Bennett Michael, and Lavonas J. Eric. Hyperbaric Oxygen for Carbon Monoxide Poisoning. The Cochrane Library 4.1 (2011): 4-43. Print.
Gorman Des, Drewry Alison, Huang Lin, and Sames Chris. The Clinical Toxicology of Carbon Monoxide. Toxicology 187.1 (2003): 2538. Print.
Raub, Jean A, Mathieu-Nolf Matt, Hampson Neill, Thom Sir. Carbon monoxide poisoning-a public health perspective. Toxicology 145.1 (2000): 114. Print.
Water is a substance that people cannot live without, but drinking too much water can also cause health problems. Similarly, salt is often regarded as a product that causes or increases the risk of certain diseases, but eliminating salt from ones diet is also dangerous (George et al., 2018). Hyponatremia is a condition that describes not only water intoxication but the level of sodium concentration in ones blood. Many causes of hyponatremia exist, including chronic and severe illnesses that cannot be regulated by drinking less water. In some cases, the body cannot regulate salt and water levels, requiring medical assistance.
The most obvious cause of water intoxication is drinking too much water. In such cases, a person rapidly increases their water intake, which lowers the level of sodium in the blood, resulting in serious damage to ones brain and potentially leading to death (NBC News, 2007). Other causes include taking medications that increase the loss of sodium diuretics (Peri, 2019). Furthermore, some illnesses result in the incorrect production of hormones responsible for balancing water and sodium levels. They include a range of kidney, liver, and heart diseases (Peri, 2019). Endocrine disorders can induce hyponatremia if they affect the production of related hormones as well. Moreover, diarrhea, sweating, and vomiting can also lead to hyponatremia because a person loses electrolytes quicker than water (Saladin, 2021). Some drugs, such as ecstasy, also lead to low sodium levels (Peri, 2019). Therefore, natural reasons exist for this condition, and a person may start experiencing water intoxication even if they do not drink more than usual.
The body responds to hyponatremia in the form of neurologic and endocrine changes. The cells swell with water, and the brain tries to protect itself from edema. Hyponatremia causes the stimulation of the adrenal cortex, which increases the output of aldosterone (Saladin, 2021). Aldosterone is responsible for managing the water and salt ratio in the blood the increased production of this hormone helps the body to retain the sodium that is still present. Moreover, if the cause of this condition is tied to water overconsumption, this excess water is excreted to balance the water-salt levels.
However, if the cause of hyponatremia is tied to diseases that affect the adrenal glands, then the body may be unable to compensate for low sodium levels without help. Furthermore, as some conditions that cause water intoxication do not involve water consumption, the person cannot excrete excess water as well. In these cases, medical treatment is urgently required the salt level in ones blood is increased intravenously (George et al., 2018). According to George et al. (2018), rapid correction is dangerous and may result in an increased risk of brain damage. In situations where an underlying condition influences peoples hormone production, intravenous fluids are not enough. As their body consistently cannot balance sodium or water levels, these individuals need to resolve and manage their other health problems. For instance, if ones kidneys retain too much water, the body will not be able to compensate without treating the cause. This process may include removing a tumor, reducing or switching medications, changing ones lifestyle, treating an infection, and more.
Hyponatremia or water intoxication is a problem that can develop because of many conditions and events. If a person simply drinks too much water, the body can regulate its sodium level by producing more aldosterone. However, many cases require medical help as the risk of brain damage is high. Moreover, many underlying conditions do not allow the body to compensate for its low sodium. Therefore, hyponatremia is often connected to other diseases and problems and requires a rapid but careful response.
References
George, J. C., Zafar, W., Bucaloiu, I. D., & Chang, A. R. (2018). Risk factors and outcomes of rapid correction of severe hyponatremia. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 13(7), 984-992.
In her article, Caroline Miles strives to create a link between intoxication and homicide. In her view, drug and alcohol abuse forms part of the factors that act as key contributors to homicide incidents. In her research, Miles chooses to focus on a more localised geographical region, choosing England and Wales as her area of choice. However, the author also notes that most of the current research bases its data on the immediate relationship between intoxication and homicide by analysing cases in which the perpetrators or victims prove intoxicated during the occurrence of a homicide.
However, in her view, a background of intoxication for the perpetrators and the victims contribute to the occurrence of the crimes1, a point that she seeks to prove in her research. She states that a contextual view of the problem, inclusive of the background, creates objectivity and makes her research unique in nature. She further states that her research seeks to prove that intoxication of the victims makes them better targets and enhances their vulnerability to homicides2.
Research methodology
The author applies the use of data analysis and interviews in the compilation of her research. Her sources of choice are the Homicide Index data and police files regarding the topic. The main advantage the use of Homicide Index data is that it portrays a larger picture on the issue as the data represents countrywide results from both England and Wales. In essence, the data shows the severity of the problem, creating emphasis on the significance of the research and the resultant findings. Miles chooses to use data between the years 1995-2005 from forty-three police forces, ensuring that findings from the same indicate more than just technicalities and one-off anomalies.
However, although the Homicide index data has much to contribute in terms of its breadth of coverage, the source lacks in-depth information on the matter. For instance, insight into the background of the offenders and their victims and circumstances surrounding the incidents is critical to enable the researcher to understand the data better. Another disadvantage concerning the data is that some cases change the status from homicide, depending on the outcome of court proceedings. However, the same cases still appear on the listing as intoxication-related homicide, which would require the researcher to filter the data before applying it to his or her research. The filtering process makes use of Homicide Index data inadequate and tedious with regard to holistic research information.3
The author’s use of police files to supplement data from the Homicide Index partially remedies the negative aspects of the homicide index, making her findings based on data analysis more credible. Witness accounts from the reports further enhance her viewpoint on the topic as they offer background information and circumstances surrounding the incidents that would ordinarily be absent in other data sources as is the case with the homicide index. Forensics reports and post-mortem reports also aid in the in-depth analysis the research requires for objective results4. However, the application of police files is not without criticism with some scholars contesting against its application citing institutional bias on the topic.
The author also chose to use police files from one police force, a decision that may have negative implications on the objectivity of the whole process. Lastly, the author also conducted personal interviews with some of the perpetrators of homicides in the country in order to get first-hand accounts into what the incidents entail, including information on how the background of a perpetrator is likely to affect his or her likelihood to be a homicide offender. Although the interviews make the outcome of the research plausible, it is worth noting that Miles used information from male homicide offenders creating the perception of personal bias on the issue. 5The author also admits interviews from homicide offenders without a history of intoxication, which provides a comparison for analysis but also limits the number of cases applicable to the research.
Analysis of conclusions
The author makes her conclusions on the data she presents in the research. The conclusions are plausible and appeal to logic, making the research worthwhile. However, her work indicates the presence of bias that has the effect of negating some of her objectives for the study.
The most prominent of the author’s conclusions are that intoxication-related homicide is a complex multi-dimensional issue that requires extensive research in order to obtain an objective conclusion. The author proves this point through her application of multiple research methodology in order to ensure that her findings are relevant, concise and relatable. Mile’s conclusion is plausible as it lays a basis on extensive research and appeals to logic. For instance, the author’s argument that the background of the perpetrators and victims contribute to the development and eventual occurrence of incidents of intoxication-related homicides explains why some homicide incidents appear spontaneous and involve individuals with little or no prior knowledge of each other’s existence.
The argument also sheds light on reasons why some of the incidents occur without the involvement of drug consumption in the situational equation.
Secondly, the author concludes that although alcohol and drugs are not solely responsible for violent behaviour leading to homicidal tendencies, alcohol and drugs greatly contribute to such behaviour6, especially for perpetrators with a background of drug and alcohol abuse. She notes that this conclusion constitutes immediate factors that lead to the occurrence of such incidents. She also indicates that this conclusion is the basic finding in most research that scholars conduct on the subject, leading to one-dimensional perspectives on the subject. Her focus on the background of the incidents, social-economic factors, and other circumstances surrounding the incidents make her perspective multi-dimensional.
Her conclusion is justified based on her evidence on confessions from homicide offenders during her interviews. Some of the offenders state that their usage of alcohol and drugs over the years led to the development of their temperamental nature that eventually culminated in a fatally violent crime, homicide. Alcohol and drugs such as cocaine and heroin have psychopharmacological effects that alter the normal functions of the body, leading to poor judgment of situations and decisions7.
For instance, drugs that act as hallucinogens cause people to perceive false realities, causing reactions to which an individual would not ordinarily resort. Perceptions of persecution or cruelty by an intoxicated individual would be likely to cause reactions of violence from a perpetrator in use of such substances8.
However, it is also worth noting that in her research, Miles indicates that it is common for perpetrators to justify their actions in a manner that reduces their culpability for their actions. A look at the interviews from the perspective of possible bias, it is possible that some or most of the information she uses in her research from the interviews contains some form of bias that reduces the objectivity of the findings. However, the bias does not negate the author’s efforts to prove the importance of applying numerous research methods in order to obtain multi-dimensional views that result in objectivity in resultant findings.
The author also concludes that focus on pathways leading to intoxication-related homicides creates a better understanding of the problem, including its occurrence and possible solutions. One of the issues she isolates as part of the pathways is an individual’s childhood9. She explains that childhood experiences play a big role in ways in which individuals grow up and the choices they make in adulthood. Various other studies, independent of the research, support this concept, including Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Kohlberg explains that children learn from older members of society, emulating their actions and basing their decisions on such members of society.
Gordon Allport, a proponent of the traits theory, suggests that individuals possess central traits, which form as part of norms to which societies are ascribed. In her research, Miles indicates that most homicide offenders act in a manner fin the family, deprivation, and abuse. In some cases, offenders who experienced violence in their childhoods portray a history of violence in their adulthood, which eventually leads to their portrayal of violence during the homicide incidents10.
Miles also concludes that intoxication contributes to homicide incidents forming part research on the issue to which most researchers do not pay attention. According to her research, intoxicated individuals appear more vulnerable, making them easy targets of violence. In essence, therefore, a victim’s intoxication makes a substantial contribution to the occurrence of homicide incidents in England and Wales11. Although her conclusion seems logical considering the fact that alcohol and drug abuse usually results in impaired judgment and disrupts physical response, it is worth noting that she fails to give appropriate proof of the same in her article. The author gives little information regarding the theory in comparison to her extensive investigation on homicide offender intoxication.
Some issues also arise in her paper that forms the focus for criticism on her general conclusion on the issue in question. First, the author’s personal bias is evident in the investigation, bringing the finding of her research to question. One example of such bias is her choice to interview white, adult, male homicide offenders bringing to question her consideration of factors such as age, race, gender and social status in her research. Her exclusion of such factors creates doubt on the authenticity of her conclusion and findings. It also makes her research seem one-dimensional, negating her objective to provide proof that the research should be multi-faceted.
Overall, Mile’s conclusions based on her assessment of statistics available in the research are most plausible, with only a few criticisms applicable. However, her overall conclusions on the matter appear clouded with bias making them questionable. The main reason for such questionable overall conclusions is her omission of major aspects of the research that would make it more plausible and subsequent conclusions more objective in nature. For instance, her research indicates the focus on white, adult male homicide offenders with little or no financial stability, ruling out women, other races and restricting the age group to adults. The research thus lacks the generality her objectives claim.12
Political dimension
Although most social research emphasises on the social dimension of an issue, sometimes a political dimension into the main agenda is perceivable, as is the case with Miles research. The political dimension of her research mainly concerns policymaking. The author mentions that her research involves a macro-aspect which means that it involves research into elements outside the scope of the main problem but linked to it albeit indirectly.
Government policies on alcohol and drug accessibility and permissible levels of consumptions play a huge role in intoxication -elated homicides. Most governments are in charge of setting the age limit at which alcohol and specific drugs are accessible to individuals in their territory. Lower age limits allow more individuals access to alcohol and drugs resulting in a potential rise in cases of intoxication-related homicides13. Teenagers, for instance, predominantly make questionable decisions as part of their self-discovery process. Hormonal changes in their bodies further make them prone to mistakes that adults with more experience would not normally make. With that in mind, policies that allow such individuals access to drugs and alcohol increase the potential for homicide occurrences.
Policies on the penalties for drug and alcohol-related offences, including homicides, also contribute to some extent to the occurrence of intoxication-related homicides. Penalties on offences serve to punish offenders but also act as deterrents to individuals in circumstances that may result in homicide. The higher the penalty, the more the policy seems to provide deterrence for the offence. A good example of such a scenario is the effect capital punishment has on crimes that warrant it, such as murder and robbery with violence14.
Research ethics
Ethics describe a particular code of conduct that suits specific circumstances. Research ethics dictate how individuals should behave in the conduct of their research in order to prevent the performance of activities that may result in the potential infringement of the rights other individuals possess under law. One of the basic rights prone to infringement by research activities is the right to privacy. Every individual has a right to keep certain information about his or herself without the threat of someone else prying, obtaining it and using it for personal gain.
Research involves the publication of information the researcher obtains and therefore, the publication of information concerning individuals that they consider private would go against the code of ethics and cause reason for legal action. For instance, the publication of personal information an interviewee volunteers during an interview would go against research ethics, possibly causing complications that may lead to the nullification of the entire research project. 15
Research ethics also ensure that researchers do not go beyond their mandate in the expression of their freedoms through acts such as the expression of opinions that mount to incitement. This rule mainly applies in interview scenarios where the interviewer and interviewee usually engage in face-to-face conversations. Research code of conduct ensures that the interviewer protects the interviewee’s private information by filtering information he or she collects before the same is available for public access.
The existence of research ethics assures an interviewee that his or her private information remains private. The importance of this aspect of the research is that it makes the research process possible, ensuring the availability of valuable information for the enhancement of knowledge of important issues affecting society.
Possible issues and solutions the research
One of the issues that may have arisen in the conduct of this research is the maintenance of privacy of the interviewees. Even though the names of the interviewees do not appear anywhere in the research, sometimes revealing substantial details about offenders, victims, or incidents can expose them albeit unintentionally. For instance, Miles’ use of direct quotations does divulge information some of the offenders and witnesses provided may be unique to specific cases, revealing the individuals upon extensive research. It was therefore important for the researcher to ensure the filtration of any information she chose for publication as part of the research.
Another issue that may have arisen during the research is the formulation of ways to approach the issue when interviewing offenders. The researcher had to ensure that her approach was sound enough to encourage homicide offenders to volunteer information that would be useful to the research. As Miles notes in her article, sometimes offenders try to hide their faults by justifying their behaviour through various means. A prudent researcher needs to have the ability to discern instances where offenders give honest information and differentiate it from information offenders give as a means to justify their actions. One of the ways a researcher can handle such instances is through verification from sources such as case files.
In cases where the researcher faces ethical dilemmas, it is vital to apply research ethics and consider the overall outcome of a situation before determining which course of action to take. An example of some of the ethical dilemmas that researchers are likely to face is an offer for information in exchange for a bribe.
Reference List
Belcher, A, ‘Board diversity: can sex discrimination law help’, Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 3, 2005, p. 356-57.
Brammer, S, A Millington & S Pavelin ‘Gender and ethnic diversity among UK corporate boards’, Corporate Governance: An International Review, vol. 15, no. 8, 2007, pp. 393-395.
Darke, S, J Duflou & M Tork, ‘Drugs and Violent Death: Comparative Toxicology of Homicide and Non-Substance Toxicity Suicide Victims’, Addiction, vol. 104, no. 5, 2008, pp. 1000–1005.
Dobash, E & P Dobash, ‘What Were They Thinking? Men Who Murder an Intimate Partner’, Violence Against Women, vol. 17, no. 2, 2011, pp. 111–145.
Dobash, E, P Dobash, K Cavanagh & R Lewis, ‘Not an Ordinary Killer—Just an Ordinary Guy: When Men Murder and Intimate Woman Partner’, Violence against Women, vol. 10, no. 8, 2004, pp. 577–605.
IFF Research Report, Private Company Reporting of Workforce Diversity Data, 2009. Web.
Jones, S, Understanding Violent Crime, Open University Press, Buckingham, 2000.
Kivivouri, J, ‘Sudden Increase of Homicide in Early 1970s Finland’, Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, vol. 3, no. 1, 2002, pp.6–21.
Large, M, & M Saunders, ‘A decision-making model for analysing how the glass ceiling is maintained: unblocking equal promotion opportunities’, The International Journal of Career Management, vol. 2, no.2, 1995, pp. 22–23.
Martin, S, ‘The Links between Alcohol, Crime and the Criminal Justice System: Explanations, Evidence and Interventions’, American Journal on Addictions, vol.10, no. 3, 2002, pp. 136–58.
Miles, C, ‘Intoxication and Homicide: a context-specific approach’, British Journal of Criminology, vol. 52, no.1, 2012, pp. 870-888.
Rossow, I, ‘Alcohol and Homicide: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Relationship in 14 European Countries’, Addiction, vol. 96, no. 4, 2007, pp. 77–92.
Seddon, T, ‘Explaining the Drug–Crime Link: Theoretical, Policy and Research Issues’, Journal of Social Policy, vol. 29, no. 8, 2000, pp. 95–107.
Stretesky, P, ‘National Case–Control Study of Homicide Offending and Metamphetamine use’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol.24, no. 6, 2006, pp. 911–924.
Verster, J, K Brady, M Galanter & P Concord, Drug Abuse and Addiction in Medical Illness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment, Springer, New York, 2012.
Wright, S, & H Klee, ‘Violent Crime, Aggression and Amphetamine: What Are the Implications for Drug Treatment Services’, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, vol. 8, no. 3, 2001, pp.73–90.
Footnotes
E Dobash & P Dobash, ‘What Were They Thinking? Men Who Murder an Intimate Partner’, Violence Against Women, vol. 17, no. 2, 2011, p. 135.
P Stretesky, ‘National Case-Control Study of Homicide Offending and Methamphetamine Use’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol.24, no. 6, 2006, p. 919.
A Belcher ‘Board diversity: can sex discrimination law help?’ Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, vol. 56, 2005, p. 356.
E Dobash, P Dobash, K Cavanagh & R Lewis, ‘Not an Ordinary Killer—Just an Ordinary Guy: When Men Murder and Intimate Woman Partner’, Violence against Women, vol. 10, no. 8, 2004, p. 600.
C Miles, ‘Intoxication and Homicide: a context-specific approach’, British Journal of Criminology, vol. 52, no.1, 2012, p. 877.
I Rossow, ‘Alcohol and Homicide: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of the Relationship in 14 European Countries’, Addiction, vol. 96, no. 4, 2007, p. 79.
S Darke, J Duflou & M Tork, ‘Drugs and Violent Death: Comparative Toxicology of Homicide and Non-Substance Toxicity Suicide Victims’, Addiction, vol. 104, no. 5, 2008, p. 1004.
J Kivivouri, ‘Sudden Increase of Homicide in Early 1970s Finland’, Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, vol. 3, no. 1, 2002, p.12.
Jones, S. Understanding Violent Crime, Open University Press, Buckingham, 2000, p.74.
S Martin, ‘The Links between Alcohol, Crime and the Criminal Justice System: Explanations, Evidence and Interventions’, American Journal on Addictions, vol.10, no. 3, 2002, p. 146.
J Verster, K Brady, M Galanter & P Concord, Drug Abuse and Addiction in Medical Illness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment, Springer, New York, 2012, p. 112.
S Wright & H Klee, ‘Violent Crime, Aggression and Amphetamine: What Are the Implications for Drug Treatment Services?’, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, vol. 8, no. 3, 2001, p. 79.
IFF Research Report, Private Company Reporting of Workforce Diversity Data, 2009. Web.
T Seddon, ‘Explaining the Drug–Crime Link: Theoretical, Policy and Research Issues’, Journal of Social Policy, vol. 29, no. 8, 2000, p. 97.
S Brammer, A Millington & S Pavelin ‘Gender and ethnic diversity among UK corporate boards’ Corporate Governance: An International Review, vol. 15, no. 8, 2007, p. 390.
Carbon monoxide is a gaseous compound composed of two elements carbon and oxygen. The gas is formed due to the incomplete combustion of organic matter, especially fuel. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a situation where the inhaled amount exceeds the acceptable levels and cause undesired effects to one’s body. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when molecules displace oxygen in the blood. The heart, brain and other important body organs are deprived of the much-needed oxygen (Gorman, 2003).
When large quantities of carbon monoxide are inhaled, it can overcome the respiratory system within a few minutes leading to suffocation. In other circumstances, victims may lose consciousness (Gorman, 2003). When a person is exposed to sufficient amounts of carbon monoxide, several other physiological effects occur. One may experience dizziness, vomiting, headache and tightness across the chest. Muscle, oxygen storage in the body is impaired. Low levels of carbon monoxide can lead to mild effects on the heart, cardiovascular system and brain. As a result, victims may vomit and feel dizziness.
Other victims eventually collapse if there is acute poisoning. The victim’s muscles become weak when there is prolonged exposure. The effects are severe when victims are young, elderly, people of high altitude, people who have heart or lung disease and those with higher levels of carbon monoxide in their blood. According to Gorman, Drewry, Huang and Sames (2003), heart muscle damage occurs when there is acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Victims who survive the poisonings are exposed to long term risks.
Jack’s carbon monoxide poisoning is signified by an increased heartbeat rate. Poor supply of oxygen to the heart and other body tissues increased its demand. The body responded by increasing the Heartbeat rate to try to get the much-needed oxygen. The reduced body temperatures can be attributed to disruption of the endocrine system. The disrupted endocrine system may have caused several anomalies in Jack’s body due to its failure to produce the right quantities of hormones at the right time.
Blood pressure increased due to the increased heartbeat rate. Jack’s body system tried to restore its normal operation and oxygen deficiency after poisoning. Since the chances of improving oxygen content in blood were low, the heart was forced to beat faster to drive blood. This resulted in an increase in blood pressure to 120/90.
Jack became confused because of poor activity and response by his nervous system. Disruption of the endocrine system led to poor production and release of hormones which caused both temperature reduction and increased heartbeat per minute (Gorman, 2003). The same poor production and release of hormones may have led the body to have poor control which caused the confusion and quietness which was seen by Jack’s neighbor.
Several pieces of evidence signify carbon monoxide poisoning in Jacks condition. Pain across the chest which he experienced is a common symptom to all victims of carbon dioxide poisoning. Since the pain experienced occurred to him after using kerosene in his house, it was clear evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning. A high level of carbon monoxide exposure affects the respiratory system. Lungs are normally affected more than other body organs. As a result, victims experience chest pains.
Confusion and disorientation were evident. When he was found outside the house by his neighbor, Jack was confused. Due to the high consumption of carbon monoxide, Jack’s central nervous system was significantly impaired. Acute poisoning normally causes dizziness, vomiting, coma, confusion and muscle weakness (Gorman, 2003). For jack’s case, confusion was the main evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning which affected the nervous system severely (Raub et al. 2000).
The carboxyhemoglobin level reached 40%. This signified that Jack had acute carbon monoxide poisoning. Naturally, carbon monoxide has a high affinity to hemoglobin. When inhaled, it is absorbed in place of oxygen easily. When a considerable percentage has been absorbed, poisoning occurs. This is one of the main laboratory evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning which was seen in Jack.
Jack’s heartbeat rate increased to 90 beats per minute. Normally the heartbeat is faster when the body needs more supply of oxygen. When a person inhales carbon monoxide, his or her body becomes deficient in oxygen. According to Raub, Mathieu-Nolf, Hampson and Thom (2000), the heartbeat rate is higher when the body wants to increase oxygen supply. Increased heartbeat rates together with other symptoms are evidence of carbon monoxide poisoning. High blood pressure is caused by high rates of heartbeat per minute. This was one of the pieces of evidence which signified that Jack had carbon dioxide poisoning.
Being a man, the hematocrit in Jack was relatively low. The highest level of Hematocrit for men is 57% and the lowest is 40%. This means that the percentage of red blood cells in blood was low but not below the minimum required for a healthy person. Carbon monoxide poisoning reduced the percentage of red blood cells in the blood. The body responded by an increasing generation of red blood cells because of the chronic poisoning (Raub et al. 2000). This is clear evidence of poisoning in Jack’s system.
Due to the poor supply of oxygen into Jack’s body tissues, a continuous reduction of oxygen content in alveolar air occurred. At the same time, oxygen tension in veins and arteries continued to fall. As a result, a hypoxia state occurred. Diminutions of alveolar PO2 induced hypoxia. Because of the above condition, blood saturation occurred in arteries to reach normal content of oxygen. This is because blood moving from the lungs to the heart had more oxygen as compared to blood moving from the heart to the lungs.
Poisoning had occurred hours earlier which increased carboxyhemoglobin levels to 40%. When Jack was exposed to fresh air, he inhaled oxygen which was immediately absorbed by the blood. However, the carbon monoxide inhaled earlier was still present in blood at the time of tests (Raub et al. 2000) Therefore, results showed a considerable amount of carboxyhemoglobin. Blood taken to various body tissues had normal oxygen levels but veins exhibited hypoxia.
Jack’s 40% percent hemoglobin level signifies that the poisoning was acute. This level may have resulted in several acute and delayed onset of neurological impairment effects. Here, poisoning was exhibited by confusion and chest pain. If this level had increased slightly, Jack would have died.
Carbon monoxide poisoning can be treated through several processes. The first step is to remove the victim from the area where he or she has been poisoned and taken to an aerated place (Raub et al. 2000). The second step is to give the victim oxygen therapy. This can be administered as 100% oxygen using a tight fitting mask in a health facility. However, if the victim is not breathing, oxygen therapy should be administered using a machine which increases the rate of inhaling. In some severe cases, a victim can be put under hyperbaric oxygen therapy where this full body is put in a chamber which uses oxygen under pressure (Buckley et al. 2001). This method helps to remove carbon monoxide faster out of the victim’s body.
Works Cited
Buckley, Nick A, Juurlink David, Isbister Geoff, Bennett Michael, and Lavonas J. Eric. “Hyperbaric Oxygen for Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.” The Cochrane Library 4.1 (2011): 4-43. Print.
Gorman Des, Drewry Alison, Huang Lin, and Sames Chris. “The Clinical Toxicology of Carbon Monoxide.” Toxicology 187.1 (2003): 25–38. Print.
Raub, Jean A, Mathieu-Nolf Matt, Hampson Neill, Thom Sir. “Carbon monoxide poisoning-a public health perspective.” Toxicology 145.1 (2000): 1–14. Print.
Lead poisoning remains hazardous to children because it impairs cognitions and behaviors due to biological and neurological damages. Although levels of lead have fallen considerably over time, traces exist in chemicals, such as paint or in industrial emissions (Foster, 2008). Public health and housing are interested in lead levels, given findings indicating a degree of neurological damage to children when they are exposed even to minimal traces of lead.
Litigation on lead based poisoning is a fixture in areas such as Washington, District of Columbia, which have experienced aggressive lead poisoning in the past. The number of suits is rising as more children are diagnosed with lead poisoning and property owners remain unmoved to carry out inspections (Foster, 2008). The effects of lead poisoning introduced housing regulation, which define levels of lead that are habitable for families with children who are the most affected. The following paper discusses the problem of lead poisoning and the liability issues that attorneys and courts face every day.
Housing regulations
Lawsuits targeting the recovery of damages associated with lead poisoning have increased over the past few years, as the government cracks down of inerrant property owners. Property owners are the main targets of the lawsuits after the federal government published procedures for removing lead from housing premises (Foster, 2008). Federal statutes such as the Housing Regulations 707.3 are disclosures that define the acceptable bounds of premises that may have lead poisoning. Verdict of cases that were passed earlier define practice today, as they have a bearing on how cases are handled.
For instance, the case of Tiffany Childs et al. versus Samuel B. Purl, Jr. et al. details the duties imposed on a property owner before they engage in renting of property. Housing regulations define the acceptable standards required from property owners, who wish to put up residential houses for tenants to rent. The Housing Regulation 707.3 also dictates what is unsafe for residential habitations (Foster, 2008).
Courts make a strong case for negligence where there is proof beyond doubt that a property owner violates the housing regulations. The regulations state that property owners should keep the interior surfaces of the premises lead free if there are children below the age of eight. In the case study, the quantity of lead in the premises constitute a health hazard, since the residents had two children, Tiffany Childs and Robbie Davis, who entered the premises at one and three years old respectively.
Courts agree that housing regulations are a shelter of the public from inerrant property owners. Property owners are more inclined to satisfy their own needs rather than those of the tenants. Courts impose a duty on all property owners to provide lead free environments (Kamisnky & Campbell, 2010). In the case, the company remains liable for lead poisoning charges whether they are aware of lead poisoning within the premises or not.
Property owners should take on the responsibility of caring for their tenants, who violate the standards of housing codes if they fail to do so. Under the current laws, proof that a property owner violates a statute is evident that he or she is negligent (Kamisnky & Campbell, 2010).
Although no law deters property owners from using prohibits lead paint in residences, it is required that property owners do away with lead hazards upon identification. The proof of knowledge that lead paint hazard exists in a building should be determined before an accuser is injured. This is the principle of constructive notice.
Constructive notice
Constructive notice occurs where property owners are aware that their premises are in dangerous conditions but fail to fix the hazards or to warn prospective tenants. When property owners are aware of a danger, actual notices apply, while where they should be aware of dangers, the doctrine of constructive notice applies (Kamisnky & Campbell, 2010). Constructive notice applies to facts that are too obvious for one to remain unaware.
Property owners should be aware of the state of their properties because health hazards attract lawsuits. The duty of awareness allows property owners to fix dangerous conditions or provide warning signs where there is danger. This case holds for all property owners who invite publics into their property. Kamisnky and Campbell (2010) state that regular inspection of properties is necessary because previous owners may have created dangerous conditions that are unknown.
Therefore, property owners have to be on the lookout for such health hazards. For a liability case to proceed, constructive notice is proven using many approaches. Careful investigations often reveal that property owners were aware or should have known that a hazardous condition existed in their premises. The property owners did very little to gain knowledge of the steps required to fix the hazards.
The doctrine of constructive notice applies to Tiffany Childs et al. versus Samuel B. Purl, Jr. et al.’s case given the property owner’s failure to correct the lead paint hazard in the premises. The violation was not excusable because they allegedly demonstrated disregards for a law meant to protect the public. Where property owners fail to provide evidence that they tried everything in their power to promote safety of the tenants, the case is a clear violation of the housing regulations.
This is the case outlined in Tiffany Childs et al. versus Samuel B. Purl, Jr. et al. (Foster, 2008). Evidence affirms that property owners can walk free if plaintiffs fail to prove their knowledge of lead-bearing substances when leasing the property. Thus, constructive knowledge is important to prove that property owners had knowledge of the dangerous situations to base the case on negligence. Cases such as Garcia versus Jiminez were rules based on property owners having constructive knowledge about health hazards in their premises.
The case satisfies the constructive doctrine, since the housing regulations define the age groups that should be in the lead-poisoned houses. In similar cases, courts in Illinois have failed to institute a strict liability standard (Foster, 2008). However, other courts impose strict liability on landowners who fail to carry out inspections to determine that their premises are lead free. The Housing regulation guards against such arguments in their quest to make rental property habitable.
Given the dangers associated with lead poisoning, and the significant suits that have risen to recover lead associated damages; each claim comes close to determining a case for liability. In Tiffany Childs et al. versus Samuel B. Purl, Jr. et al., the courts closely examine the case and finds that the property owner is liable for violating the housing regulations and exposing the children to lead. The liability is partly associated with the property owner’s knowledge that he should have conducted investigations to ascertain the condition of the house before leaving it to the plaintiffs. The case shapes future cases that seek to find negligence of property owners in providing lead-free environments.
References
Foster, S. (2008). The Law of Environmental Justice: Theories and Procedures to Address Disproportionate Risks. Chicago, US: American Bar Association.
Kamisnky, A., & Campbell, K. (2010). The Lawyer’s Guide to Lead Paint, Asbestos, and Chinese Drywall. Chicago, US: American Bar Association.
Theobromine is a chemical substance naturally occurring in cocoa beans, tea plant leaves, and kola nuts (Gans, Korson, Cater & Ackerly 481). It belongs to a family of chemicals called methylxanthines. It has been consumed by humans for centuries. Cocoa bean husks are added to animal feeds in cocoa producing regions. Theobromine poisoning can occur when large amounts of the chemical are ingested.
Dogs, cats, rodents, cattle, horses and pigs can be intoxicated by theobromine. Dogs are by far the most susceptible farm animals. This paper will discuss the mechanism, signs and symptoms, treatment, and prevention of theobromine poisoning in animals.
Toxicity in dogs and cats follows ingestion of a lot chocolate. Different types of chocolate contain different concentrations of theobromine. Ingestion of large amounts of the alkaloid can cause death. Dogs are likely to get intoxicated because they like sweet food (Drolet et. al 902). Husks fed to cattle may contain high concentrations of theobromine.
Toxicity correlates well with concentration of the chemical and the weight of the animal (toxicity is caused by an overdose). Small animals are likely to be affected by small amounts of the chemical. The lethal dose, also known as LD50, of theobromine is 100 to 200mg per kilogram (Gwaltney-Brant 1). However, as little as 20mg per kilogram can cause serious poisoning.
Theobromine exerts its effect by inhibiting phosphodiesterase and blocking adenosine receptors. The net result is prolonged effect of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Cyclic adenosine monophosphate is a second messenger in excitatory pathways. Signs and symptoms of toxicity are a result of exaggerated pharmacological effects of the chemical. Toxicity in animals is related to ability to metabolize the compound.
Animals like dogs, cats and horses break it down slowly. The average half life of theobromine in dogs is above 17 hours. Body systems react to theobromine differently. However, theobromine is primarily a vasodilator, a bronchodilator, and a heart stimulant. It also causes increased urine output.
Signs and symptoms vary depending on the animal affected. Generally, initial signs and symptoms of toxicity in animals are diarrhoea, hyper-excitability, nausea, vomiting, and increased urinary urgency.
Signs and symptoms of life threatening toxicity are bradycardia, tachycardia, seizures, internal bleeding, and heart attacks. Dogs and rodents may suffer additional problems like testicular damage. Theobromine toxicity in cattle reduces the amount of milk. Thyroid and hepatic toxicity occurs in horses.
Animals presenting with theobromine poisoning can be treated symptomatically. A veterinary doctor can either induce vomiting or administer an active agent that can block the effects of the chemical. Other treatment modalities include management of seizures and cardiac arrhythmias.
Seizures are treated using anticonvulsants like barbiturates and benzodiazepines (Boothe 387). Cardiac toxicity can be treated using thiazides (Plumb 118). Fluid replacement is initiated to restore fluid and electrolytes balance.
Farmers and pet owners should be aware of the danger posed by theobromine. Clients should be informed that cats and dogs are particularly vulnerable to the chemical. Farmers should not allow farm animals and pets to eat chocolate. If signs and symptoms of theobromine toxicity appear, clients should call a veterinary doctor immediately.
Theobromine poisoning is caused by ingestion of large amounts of the chemical. The chemical is naturally occurring in cocoa plants and tea plants. Signs and symptoms include hyper-excitability, diarrhoea, vomiting, arrhythmias, and seizures. Toxicity can be treated using barbiturates and benzodiazepines.
Works Cited
Boothe, Dawn. “Anticonvulsant drugs and Analeptic Agents.” Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Ed. H. R. Adams. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 2001. 387-388. Print.
Drolet et al. “Cacao Bean Shell Poisoning in a Dog.” J. Am. Vet. Med. Association 185.8 (1984): 902. Print.
Gans, Joseph, Roy Korson, Marilyn Cater & Cynthia Ackerly. “Effects of short-term and long-term theobromine administration to male dogs.” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology.53.3 (1980): 481–496. Web.
Gwaltney-Brant, Sharon. 2001. Chocolate intoxication. PDF file. Web.
Plumb, Donald. Veterinary Drug Handbook, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1999. Print.
Water is a substance that people cannot live without, but drinking too much water can also cause health problems. Similarly, salt is often regarded as a product that causes or increases the risk of certain diseases, but eliminating salt from one’s diet is also dangerous (George et al., 2018). Hyponatremia is a condition that describes not only water intoxication but the level of sodium concentration in one’s blood. Many causes of hyponatremia exist, including chronic and severe illnesses that cannot be regulated by drinking less water. In some cases, the body cannot regulate salt and water levels, requiring medical assistance.
The most obvious cause of water intoxication is drinking too much water. In such cases, a person rapidly increases their water intake, which lowers the level of sodium in the blood, resulting in serious damage to one’s brain and potentially leading to death (NBC News, 2007). Other causes include taking medications that increase the loss of sodium – diuretics (Peri, 2019). Furthermore, some illnesses result in the incorrect production of hormones responsible for balancing water and sodium levels. They include a range of kidney, liver, and heart diseases (Peri, 2019). Endocrine disorders can induce hyponatremia if they affect the production of related hormones as well. Moreover, diarrhea, sweating, and vomiting can also lead to hyponatremia because a person loses electrolytes quicker than water (Saladin, 2021). Some drugs, such as ecstasy, also lead to low sodium levels (Peri, 2019). Therefore, natural reasons exist for this condition, and a person may start experiencing water intoxication even if they do not drink more than usual.
The body responds to hyponatremia in the form of neurologic and endocrine changes. The cells swell with water, and the brain tries to protect itself from edema. Hyponatremia causes the stimulation of the adrenal cortex, which increases the output of aldosterone (Saladin, 2021). Aldosterone is responsible for managing the water and salt ratio in the blood – the increased production of this hormone helps the body to retain the sodium that is still present. Moreover, if the cause of this condition is tied to water overconsumption, this excess water is excreted to balance the water-salt levels.
However, if the cause of hyponatremia is tied to diseases that affect the adrenal glands, then the body may be unable to compensate for low sodium levels without help. Furthermore, as some conditions that cause water intoxication do not involve water consumption, the person cannot excrete excess water as well. In these cases, medical treatment is urgently required – the salt level in one’s blood is increased intravenously (George et al., 2018). According to George et al. (2018), rapid correction is dangerous and may result in an increased risk of brain damage. In situations where an underlying condition influences people’s hormone production, intravenous fluids are not enough. As their body consistently cannot balance sodium or water levels, these individuals need to resolve and manage their other health problems. For instance, if one’s kidneys retain too much water, the body will not be able to compensate without treating the cause. This process may include removing a tumor, reducing or switching medications, changing one’s lifestyle, treating an infection, and more.
Hyponatremia or water intoxication is a problem that can develop because of many conditions and events. If a person simply drinks too much water, the body can regulate its sodium level by producing more aldosterone. However, many cases require medical help as the risk of brain damage is high. Moreover, many underlying conditions do not allow the body to compensate for its low sodium. Therefore, hyponatremia is often connected to other diseases and problems and requires a rapid but careful response.
References
George, J. C., Zafar, W., Bucaloiu, I. D., & Chang, A. R. (2018). Risk factors and outcomes of rapid correction of severe hyponatremia. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 13(7), 984-992.
An outbreak has erupted in Zamfara province in the northwestern section of Nigeria. Doctors confirmed that three villages within Zamfara province are at the heart of the crisis (CDC, n.d). The deadly outbreak known as lead poisoning has claimed 118 children below the age of five. The number of sick children has grown to 1,400, with 1,150 victims hospitalized. A first stop outside the villages depicts a horrific scene of 100 small newly dug graveyards (CDC, n.d). The situation is alarming because the outbreak came from the mining activities done within the area. The challenge is that the natives cannot stop this business because it is their only source of income. The most exposed population are children because they play on the ground where the contaminants are more concentrated (Kurup et al., 2019). Their parents also return from work soaked in dust that is confirmed to be toxic which increases poisoning. This paper explores some of the epidemiological processes applied in the identification process of lead poisoning (Kurup et al., 2019).
Solve the Outbreak Challenge
“The Village of Gold” is a Center for Disease Control and Prevention game that requires an individual to answer specific entries to define an outbreak (CDC, n.d). After answering the prompts in the game, I discovered the outbreak affecting the people of Zamfara Province (CDC, n.d). Lead poisoning was an outbreak that emerged from the mining activities performed in the area, and this contributed to the poisoning and death of children in the region. The causes, effects, and impact of mineral extractions are revealed through the use of epidemiological processes.
The Epidemiological Processes Applied
Epidemiology is an unbiased process of collection, evaluation, and interpretation of data within a specific population. The principles of epidemiology seek to define the frequency and the pattern of a health situation in a specified area (CDC, n.d). In this scenario of lead poisoning in the Zamfara province, I applied some of the epidemiological checklists approved by the Field Epidemiology Training Program (FETP), which helps extract data on the overall characteristics of an outbreak report and the steps applied (Kurup et al., 2019). The FETP approach used to identify and assess the outbreak included the following steps.
Confirmation of the outbreak.
Verification of the diagnosis.
Case definition.
Case finding.
Descriptive epidemiology.
Hypothesis.
Analytical epidemiology.
Confirmation
The sudden surge in the mortality rate and the number of hospitalized children indicated an epidemic. I used the confirmation technique to analyze data gathered from Zamfara province and concluded that there was a rising curve in the number of affected (CDC, n.d.) Initially, the number of infections was at 150, which increased to a total of 1,400 affected children with more than 1000 hospitalized (CDC, n.d). The rising number of the affected automatically indicated an outbreak.
Verification of Diagnosis
Some of the children admitted to the hospital showed symptoms characterized by abdominal pain, headache, vomiting, and convulsions (CDC, n.d). Doctors had tried administering anti-malaria and antibiotic drugs, and none have worked since the first administration. A laboratory test had to be conducted to confirm the outbreak because it could not be physically examined. Laboratory results reveal that the patients (Majorly children) have a high level of lead in their blood, confirming that they have been exposed to lead poisoning (CDC, n.d).
Case Definition
After the test results, it was evident that the patients were suffering from Lead poisoning, something they acquired from the mining site where they spend most of their time (CDC, n.d). Some reported having extended their mining activities to their homes to make ends meet. The incubation period was unknown, and all the residents were at risk.
Descriptive Epidemiology
This technique helped me to analyze the information about the persons associated with the outbreak (Kurup et al., 2019).
Hypothesis
The primary cause of lead poisoning is exposure to lead-contaminated soil and air. During the extraction of minerals, exposure to lead-contaminated dust and soil is inevitable (Kurup et al., 2019). Children play with the soil, and this interaction increases their risk of being poisoned (CDC, n.d). Also, the natives do not use any protective clothing during mining, which means that they breathe in a lot of contaminated dust. If the natives take extra caution during mining by wearing protective gear and residing in far areas away from the site, the poisoning could decline.
Analytical epidemiology
At this stage, I applied the case-control study, which compares the exposure among cases and controls (Kurup et al., 2019). In this analysis, I realized that the poverty rate in Zamfara province was a contributing factor to poisoning. The people had no alternative income-generating activity, and this meant that they had to mine. Also, they could not afford to buy protective clothing that secured them from lead exposure.
Conclusion
The epidemiological processes of disease identification have played an essential role in explaining the outbreak investigation. For the Zamfara case scenario, the epidemiological techniques have enabled me to describe the outbreak report by focusing on specific characteristics such as the population affected, the prevalence of infection, zoned area, and the type of outbreak. The descriptive and analytic epidemiology have supported the explanation of the occurrence of the outbreak by providing a comprehensive framework that helped assess the exposures and risks associated with this lead poisoning.
Food security is a developing arena in combating potential terrorism. Governmental authorities are preparing protocols for food and agriculture emergency responders to better manage food contamination incidents.
In 2002-3, a disgruntled worker at a Michigan food processing plant contaminated ground beef with potentially lethal amounts of a nicotine containing pesticide. In this incident 124 persons were sickened. The CDC MMWR indicates that the concentration of nicotine in the market ground beef was 300 mg/kg.
Nicotine is a dangerous drug. A lethal dose of nicotine is 60 mg to a 150 pound woman. By dividing the 300 mg dosage between the 148 people who were affected, this rate is much lower than the lethal dose, at 2.02 mg. Regardless, this is an estimate based upon these individuals eating the same amount of ground beef, who weigh approximately 150 pounds (NicotineVictims, n.d.). In the Michigan case of nicotine poisoning, if a child was one of the victims, the outcome could definitely have been more severe (CDC, 2003). In a child, a lethal dose is 10 mg (InChem, n.d.). Although 2.03 mg of nicotine is lower than the 10 mg, severe problems will still exist in a child.
Symptoms to look for in a nicotine overdose include burning of mouth, lips and throat; nausea; vomiting; dizziness; insomnia; anxiety; fatigue; abdominal pain; excessive salivation tachypnea (rapid breathing); dyspnea (shortness of breath); tachycardia (rapid heartbeat); bradycardia (slow heartbeat); tachyarrythmia (rapid heartbeat followed by irregular heartbeat); seizures, and death (EPA, n.d.).. Although there is no known antidote, there are certain medications that can be administered to counteract the symptoms, such as pain relievers, anti-nausea medications, and eye drops. Additionally, a hospital may oversee respiratory therapy, cardiac observation, and prescribed medication to make the patient feel more comfortable (InChem, n.d.). Furthermore, the doctor may also administer activated charcoal, and pump the patient’s stomach in the case of accidental ingestion. For dermal exposure, washing the skin will help deactivate the poisoning (Duldner, 2009).
Although the actual risk of serious ailments with this poisoning were small, it still did make people very ill. However, medical attention should be sought for any overdose. Although nicotine poisoning can be deadly, by seeking immediate medical intervention the patient has a less likely chance of permanent, long term problems, and death (Duldner, 2009).
Nicotine absorbed through skin, lungs, digestive tract, eyes (EPA, n.d.). Lethal dose for adults is 60 mg. and for a child is 10 mg. (InChem, n.d.). Non life threatening side effects include burning of mouth, lips and throat; nausea; vomiting; dizziness; insomnia; anxiety; fatigue; abdominal pain; excessive salivation (EPA, n.d.). Life threatening side effects include tachypnea; dyspnea; tachycardia; bradycardia; tachyarrythmia; death (EPA, n.d.). Chronic conditions include seizures; hypertension; refractory hypotension (EAP, n.d.). Treatment includes pulmonary respiration; digestive decontamination with activated charcoal; cardiac care and monitoring; atropine sulfate to help combat over-salivation and diarrhea; prescription treatments to control cardiac and seizure disorders (EPA, n.d.)
