Category: Pilot

Concepts reasoning

The aviation world is an ever-progressing industry always looking to become more efficient in all facets. However, the commercial airline field runs a fine line with development while also protecting the integral safety of the industry is essential. One aspect the airlines have looked to become more profitable and efficient is the amount of pilot in the aircraft. Overtime the number of pilots has reduced from 5-6 pilots with sometimes having a flight engineer to now 2 pilot in majority of routes and flights. Paying pilots is one of the biggest overheads for a commercial airline, so reducing the number of pilots on flight deck would allow for airlines to become more profitable and thus focus on other areas of the business. The flight crew often represents the highest area of direct running expenses (e.g., 25%) for the airlines (Norman, 2007). However, having two pilots on the flight deck provides a feeling of security and safety to the customers specifically due to incidents in the past where not having two pilots in the flight deck at once has resulted in catastrophic disasters i.e Germanwings Flight. In this report will outlie the overall outlook for this development but also the ambiguous journey SPO operations will undergo in terms of scrutiny and checks and balances to become achievable.

Innovation and Types of Aviation autonomy

In terms of autonomy and making the industry more efficient. The aviation bodies are looking a different type of autonomy which look at reducing the workload for pilot in the cockpit, the automation needs to be developed so that a single pilot can fly the aircraft without the aid of a second human operator. Whether this comes in the form of the aircraft becoming fully autonomous and the pilot monitoring the overall landscape of the operations or the plane being autonomous to the point where no second pilot is needed however the pilot is required conduct other procedures.

One concept that has provided a bright light in regard to SPO success is ATTOL by Airbus which is a extension to the base abilities of a standard autopilot. ATTOL using a vision-based system in order to successfully take-off a A350-1000. With only power input and runway alignment the requirements of the pilot. ATTOL uses image recognition technology with the use of cameras in order to achieve the take-off and rotate. The cameras are able to identify the centreline of the runway and maintain its position on the centreline throughout the duration of the take-off. Although this does not make a second pilot in cockpit redundant, the concept behind ATTOL provides evidence that autonomy can be adapted to normal cockpit operations and thus be. Expanded upon.

Another concept that has come to the forefront of autonomy is the Safe Return Emergency Autoland System by Garmin When activated, it finds the nearest suitable airport, develops flight path that navigates the terrain and identifies any bad weather, while also communicatin with air traffic control, and autonomously configure the aircraft onto the runway and to a complete stop manipulating the throttle and the brakes. This specifically designed for pilot in capitation when in single pilot operations. The Autoland also has the ability to activate when its detects that input in the controls from the pilot is null for a certain amount of time, this can be specifically targeted to situations for example all aeroplane occupants suffer hypoxia and are unconscious. Although this only been trailed in small aircraft such as the Cirrus Vision Jet, it also provides answers to many safety questions in oppose to SPO operations.

Human factors considerations

Although the technological advances of the world of aviation autonomy is truly exciting and one that commercial airlines would love to incorporate in order to create SPO’s in their industry, there are many Human factors considerations that must be made in order for SPO’s to be safe and effective. First, we need to look at the role of the pilot second in-command or the one who’s role is being viewed to be made inept from the cockpit.

What would the. Landscape of the overall operations. Look. Like with a single pilot in the cockpit. Currently in the two pilot cockpit system it allows for workload to be shared while also having sets of eyes to monitor each other’s actions, but they also provide a relief of stress bestowed on one pilot due to high workload and also allow both pilots to be relived of monotony being left alone which is shown by A study conducted by (Mary L. Cummings, Alex Stimpson and Michael Clamann) where commercial airline pilots were interviewed to gather data about necessity of the second pilots role. With having a high workload and relative sense of boredom the Single Pilots level of vigilance that is required with the overall demand of being a Single Pilot operator would reduce dramatically especially on long-haul international flights which is can be justified (Norman Mackworth 1948). A way in which Pilot can sustain alertness and be more vigilant throughout the duration of the flight is to enable the autopilot to be disengaged allowing for the single pilot to perform a variety of tasks, allowing them to feel like they are actually needed in cockpit to do something rather then sit and monitor autopilot and its performance.

One of the main concerns with SPO operations is the security and safety of the overall aircraft and its passengers. Allowing one single pilot be in control of the aircraft could be catastrophic when the pilot’s mental state becomes an issue as seen in (Germanwings flight).

Another past event example that has created a stigma with autonomy with flying passengers is Boeing 737 max-8 crashes, these crashes show what could happen when certain parts of the. Autopilot system have control of the aircraft. Recent past events such as these have placed anxiety in both anxiety in passengers and airlines seeing numerous policies with regards to have two pilots in the cockpit at all times. In order for autonomy to be successful there has to be a feature where no one human or autopilot has full control of the aircraft, where either the autonomy of the plane is able to be disengaged, and there is another pilot or operator outside of the cockpit to be a firewall in case in catastrophic event is imminent without action.

Certain concepts designed at overcoming Human factor difficulties

A way in which companies are looking into overcoming these certain human factor hurdles is through ground base concepts. First Officer be situated in a ground base and is able to support the Pilot in the cockpit when requested. This allows for their to be pilot gradient which is normally the case in a standard Captain to First officer layout, this allows for checks and balances to be performed while also having the First officer relieve the captain of any unnesscary workload. A concept of this ground operational concept is the Harbour Pilot which is showed in Bilimoria, K.D., Johnson, W.W., and Schutte ramework for single pilot operations, where a harbour pilot would occupy and have specialist knowledge in certain airspace and geographical areas such as i.e Inner Melbourne CBD class A airspace. These Harbour pilots would allow for a great deal of speacilization for each pilot due to having only a certain area to focus on.

Opinion

While the world of autonomy provides another avenue for the commercial aviation sector to develop and evolve, the overall success of implementation is profoundly impacted by the human factors aspect tied to operating such any form of SPO. While innovation such as ATTOL and Safe return emergency Autoland system has provided partial autonomy there is still a long way in development of these technologies in order to become to the point where single pilot can fly the aircraft without the aid of a second human operator. In order to accommodate for the concerns of safety and pilots vigilance decrement due to monitoring of the autonomy of the plane, there has to be more innovation and concepts in order to furfill these needs. If SPO operations were to be implemented in would run a fine line with accommodating for the economic benefit while satisfying the human factor concept.

The profession of a commercial pilot is certainly one of the most exciting professions to exist. The tasks and responsibility laid upon a certain person, to navigate a sixty-tonne jet, travelling close to the speed of sound, is something that has sparked my interest. A pilot is someone; you can trust to navigate from point A to Point B with no problems. My interest in Aviation began when I was eight years old, my first ever flight experience. During the flight, I was captivated about how can such structures fly with simple ease.

Travelling is a hobby that my family are extremely keen about. As frequent flyers, we do travel to various destinations. For me, flying on a plane is the best part of the experience. Knowing that 6 to 12 hours later, you’ve arrived at your destination without any trouble or hassle. I genuinely believe that flying is something that does cut stress. I am also a regular plane spotter. It is something I do enjoy during my spare time.

Particular modules in my A-level studies have interested me. The study of Mechanics and Further Mechanics have been very interesting and beneficial. Resolving vectors, advance SUVAT problem solving have been helped me strengthen my understanding of how a pilot plans for descent procedures.

Additionally, the Mechanics section present in A-level Maths is genuinely interesting because the problem solving involved in such topics like Pulleys and vector questions. A-Level maths is a subject that enables me to build upon my knowledge. I have built up essential problem-solving skills such as manipulating Trigonometric functions and Complex Algebra, with such problem-solving skills, it puts a perspective on how a pilot thinks quite critically about a situation, they are unfamiliar with. Also, combining the ideas used in Physics and Maths, it does help to set up a strong foundation

An annual school subscription to the New Scientist opened doors to ancient relics of the Aviation Sector, extremely interesting is the contribution that the Wright brothers have made. Taking it upon myself, I have decided to complete a course of Flight Mechanics.

Last June, I participated in the Duke of Edinburgh Award. I was appointed team leader. As a leader, it is my responsibility to make sure to communicate effectively with my team members and support every member. By doing the Duke of Edinburgh award, it enabled me to build character and self-confidence. The tasks set enabled me to produce effective teamwork and collaboration; as a leader, it allowed me to express my the ability to coordinate my group according to their skill set. I have demonstrated this skill set by identifying my group’s strengths and weaknesses so that we could formulate a plan and meet deadlines. Alongside the Duke of Edinburgh, I have also taken part in the National Citizen Service program, this gave me a chance to expand on my confidence.

My interest expands beyond Physics and Maths. During my spare time, I play for my school’s Cricket team as a wicketkeeper. Alongside the captain, the wicketkeeper remains a key member in making decisions on the field. Off the field, I was part of the School’s senior team. Moving forward with NCS and DofE award, I was able to implement the leadership and teamwork into the senior team. As a team, we have achieved much success and helped our local community. Skills like teamwork and communication are something beneficial as I will be communicating continuously with air traffic controllers and my captain.

About SA in aviation

Many of the accidents nowadays are caused because of the loss of SA. This is happening when the pilots are not realizing that a safety-critical occurrence took place. The pilots sort any event in their mental model of the situation and try to solve the occurrence using the information that recalls in the brain. Perceiving the lost of SA triggers when the pilot realized that the followed pattern is false, and it is not applying to the current environment.

Using the three levels model of SA presented by Endsley, actions made during the take-off procedure could be divided. The first level of SA describes the observation and perception of the elements, in the actual case, the outside environment like airport, weather and runway and the inside environment described as the information given by PFD. The second level of SA involves comprehension, the interpretation, and understanding of the critical information from PFD. Last level, the third one of SA deals with a prediction about the near future and possible actions or events in the environment.

Take-off procedure

Taking into consideration the Airbus A320 PFD design, the pilot should be aware of some functions that PFD’s offering in order to ensure the safety of procedures, also to monitor some data, in order to predict future actions that have to be done.

For a better explanation of SA awareness during take-off procedure, some steps could be described as follows:

1. Shortly after increasing the engine power, a speed trend appears on the PFD.

This is very useful in order to know the estimation of the speed in 10 seconds. The pilot has to monitor this speed in order to know when it is safe to take-off. Firstly, when reaching 100kts they have to read it and to acquire the information. Shortly after, two more indicators appear on the screen, the V1 defined as the speed beyond it’s not recommended to abort take-off, and Vr – defined as the speed where the pilot has to use the stick in order to nose-up the aircraft.

Referring to the SA and Endsley model in this timeframe, some of the situational elements as speed, and signs are perceived and stored in the short-term memory.

After the information is processed from the visual point of view, the brain calls the corresponding knowledge about the situation. This is the link between the first level of SA where the information is just perceived as visual, and the second level of SA, where the brain offers information to the pilot about the procedure and what needs to be done. Because of the training and knowledge of the procedure, the pilot is able to predict the further steps which are necessary to be conducted. This loop is going from level two of SA to level three of SA in a dynamic system because the interpretation and understanding of the current situation are strongly linked to the next steps. After that, level three of SA is going back to level one, where the pilot perceives again the current situation of the aircraft, just after the input commends.

2. After reaching Vr, the pilot pulls the stick in order to nose-up the airplane.

PFD is used in order to monitor the attitude level, speed indications, and altitude. At this point the visual distribution is very important as the mental workload is increasing. There are multiple things to be monitored at the same time, as well as indicators of different modes. Situational awareness in this timeframe is the highest in level 1, decreasing slowly as the pilot absorb and perceive the information – level 2 of SA and predict next steps – level 3 of SA.

3. Once reaching a certain speed and altitude, the automation takes place and some modes are activated:

• a. Navigation ON(NAV) – shows that the aircraft will fly the programmed flight path
• b. Climb thrust & Climb mode
• c. Auto thrust engaged

Level 1 SA involves the visual monitor and get the information from PFD. Then the pilot must understand all the changes made on the screen and prepare for the next steps. During this time, the workload is still high, and the pilot has to be sure that the transaction between manual mode and autopilot doesn’t reduce the performance and SA.

4. In the time that the speed is increasing constantly, there are also two important steps to be made, in order to increase the speed limitations.

There are two letters that, when comes on the screen, the pilot must acknowledge them and retract the flaps and the slats. The letter F indicates the minimum speed for flaps retraction and letter S indicates the minimum speed for slats retraction. Taking into consideration the same three-level of SA developed by Endsley, on level 1 the pilot in command must be aware of the PFD messages and verbally confirm that the minimum speeds were approached. For experienced pilots, this 4th step should be predicted right after gaining the necessary speed for take-off, as it’s mandatory to be done on every take-off procedure. This put in evidence how the loop from level 3 of SA, which stands for prediction, get back to level 1 of SA.

5. After retraction of slats, the aircraft could speed up to the standard speed below flight level 100 – FL100.

During this period, when passing the transition altitude, pilots have to change the QNH pressure to standard (STD). Again, PFD is helping the pilot to maintain situational awareness and high safety standards by showing an alert when the FL060 was reached. Because of the workload decrease, there is also an improve in SA, in the way that the pilot may focus more on the PFD after finishing the necessary steps for take-off.

Micro-cognition

Taking all those steps into consideration, the conclusion about how PFD supports the pilot situational awareness could be drawn. During the take-off phase, there are many safety-critical phases that take place in a short period of time. The pilot must acknowledge a lot of information and it’s incredibly helpful to have most of it on the same system. Because of the high workload, sometimes SA decreases, as many of the processes have to be manually done and still monitored for any other further actions.

Sensors as eyes and ears perceive the information and the long-term memory combined with skills and training conduct the human to have a response on each situation.

Because attention is limited, sometimes pilots are stressed. (Braune and Trollip, 1982) states that working memory is very important, allowing the pilot to modify attention deployment based on its goals. Relating this one to PFD, the pilot may check different parameters during each phase of take-off. This is also affecting the SA in the way that pilots may face a significant reduction in accuracy and a long time is needed to perform actions. SA is limited when the pilot must perceive many items in the same time with strong accuracy. By using long-term memory, the information may be processed faster, which means that the transition from Level 1 SA to Level 2 and 3 SA could me made faster, due to short time taken of interpreting data.

An important finding shows that the attention could be manipulated, so the PFD could be designed in the way that the pilot could see the notifications due to pop-ups. After the information is processed, it become more and more easier for the pilot to proceed with the actions, because after the information is stored in the short term memory, goes to the long-time memory, so next time facing the same situation, the memory for skills is called and the same maneuver can be done in shorter time.

Combining the Endsley model and Baddeley model for working memory, all levels of SA could be described using Phonological and Visuo-spatial loops.

The phonological loop helps the pilot to acknowledge the information during a take-off check with the help of PFD. Firstly, they read the words (i.e. FL100), after they spoke them out to check it with the other pilot. This loop helps for improving the long-term memory and to prepare yourself for the next steps that need to be done. Once perceiving the information (Level 1 SA), the brain stores it in the working memory and with help of existing knowledge, the information is understood (Level 2 SA) and future decisions occurs in the working memory (Level 3 SA).

Visuo-spatial loop combines spatial locations with information that is seen by the pilots on PFD (i.e. the pilot sees on PFD that needs to pull-up the stick right after passing some points from the runway) – Level 1 SA. After storing information and understanding it, the pilot must act properly, doing appropriate actions for the next steps – Level 2 and 3 SA.

Combining all the information and storing them in the brain, the long-term memory is updating the information every time. For example, the pilot recognizes the system messages that comes out in a particular moment during take-off procedure (form level 1 SA). Every message or sign could be linked to a particular situation during this phase (Level 2 SA). Using the long-term memory, the pilot can take actions in accordance with the mental model developed during time (Level 3 SA). Having the high-level of SA, the pilot develops a strongly and precisely scenario which allows him to know the exact time and moment when he must do the actions.

Developing the mental model while acquiring experience, the automaticity tends to appear. Then, the processes tend to be done faster, without lot of effort. In the case of take-off, the automaticity helps pilot in dealing with limited attention capacity in the way that the pilot could already know what needs to be done in certain moments.

This process involves the Central Executive system which connects all the data and prioritizes the attention to the most important tasks first. It could be strongly linked to the Endsley model of SA, more exactly the SA level 2 and 3. Central Executive supports Level 2 SA in the way that the relevant information is selected from PFD and stored in the working memory subsystems. Combining perceived information with task-relevant information given by long-term memory, the Level 2 SA is involved in creating the mental model of procedure. Aretz (1991) found that the pilot SA during navigation is highly supported by the Visuo-Spatial subsystem. When the workload increases, the pilot tends to use both subsystems in order to support performance during take-off procedure. The highest level SA is achieved by the pilot when the execution process starts, involving as well the Level 1 and 2 SA, because the maneuvers must be observed and any change in the system must be usually in the same way that the pilot is expecting to be.

Because there are not many pieces of evidence on the power of the central executive, the capacity and length of storage in the long-term memory couldn’t be measured. Having the interferences in the cockpit such as noises or other systems messages, the PFD is designed to help the pilot to restart the memory processes and to re-call the central executive by reinitiating the Phonological and/or Visuo-Spatial loops.

Conclusions

In order to avoid SA errors in the take-off procedure, the pilots firstly need to monitor and observe any available information on PFD. The SA errors could be identified quicker in the novice pilots’ actions, because their long-term memory may not store as much information as an experienced pilot does. In order to enhance the performance and situational awareness, training programs may be applied, especially in safety-critical phases of flight like take-off. Due to training and experience, the projection of future aircraft states (level 3 of SA) are not sometimes anticipated well by novice pilots. This is because of inflexibility to scan visually all data from the PFD. An experienced pilot could deal better with situational awareness due to his scanning capabilities, as well as interpretation of the data and prediction of future steps.

PFD is designed in a way that all necessary information could be communicated to the pilot in a logic manner. It also helps to monitor the short and long-term expectations, after the input on the system is made. By distributing attention, the human could benefit from real feedback over the actions performed and safely maintain the high level of SA.

References

1. Endsley, Mica R. Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human factors, 1995. 37(1), 32-64
2. Endsley, Mica R. Designing for situation awareness: An approach to user-centered design. CRC press, 2016.
3. Endsley, Mica R. ‘Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems.’ Situational Awareness. Routledge, 2017. 9-42.
4. Endsley, Mica R., and Daniel J. Garland, eds. Situation awareness analysis and measurement. CRC Press, 2000.
5. Endsley, Mica R. Situation awareness misconceptions and misunderstandings. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 2015, 9(1), 4-32
6. Cacciabue, Carlo, et al. Human modelling in assisted transportation. Springer, 2014.
7. Woods, David D., and Nadine B. Sarter. ‘Learning from automation surprises and going sour accidents.’ Cognitive engineering in the aviation domain, 2000, 327-353.
8. Woods, David D., and Nadine B. Sarter. ‘Learning from automation surprises and going sour accidents.’ Cognitive engineering in the aviation domain, 2000, 327-353.
9. Braune, R. J., and Trollip, S. R. Towards an internal model in pilot training. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 1982, 53, 996-999
10. Baddeley, A. ‘The central executive: A concept and some misconceptions.’ Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 4.5, 1998, 523-526.
11. Logan, G. D. ‘Automaticity, resources, and memory: Theoretical controversies and practical implications.’ Human factors 30.5, 1988, 583-598.
12. Aretz, A. J. ‘The design of electronic map displays.’ Human Factors 33.1, 1991, 85-101.

Ever since that glorious day on December 17, 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina where Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first aircraft, planes have always fascinated us. Amelia Earhart, an American aviation pioneer and author, once said, “I have often been asked what I think about at the moment of take-off. Of course, no pilot sits and feels his pulse as he flies. He has to be part of the machine. If he thinks of anything but the task at hand, then trouble is probably just around the corner.” Then there was Chesley Burnett Sullenberger III who crash-landed US Airways Flight 1549 into the Hudson River in Manhattan on January 15, 2009 saving all 155 passengers. Many of us know of these courageous heroes and pioneers, but what we don’t know is that the industry they fought so hard to build is beginning to crumble. According to the 2019 Boeing Pilot and Technician Outlook, by 2038 there will be a need of approximately 804,000 new civil aviation pilots. Due to the catastrophe of September 11, 2001, the high cost of pilot training, the retirement of the boomer generation, the interest of foreign aviation students, as well as the low starting salary for regional airlines, this shortage of pilots is and will become an even bigger problem if not addressed.

Some believe this pilot shortage to be factual while others believe it to be a myth based on perception. For some aviation authors, the pilot shortage is true depending on whether the shortage is referenced to major carriers or to regional airlines. For others, the pilot shortage is not about a decrease in the number of qualified pilots, but rather a refusal of pilots to work at companies (airlines) that offer low wages and minimal benefits (Smith,2016). Yet for others, the pilot shortage is fallacious, and does not exist – due to the large numbers of unemployed pilots, and the even greater number of pilots on furlough (Smith, 2016). These three views provide further insight on the reality (or lack thereof), of the pilot shortage.

The first view of the pilot shortage is that it is relative: being that the shortage is affecting the regional airlines more than it is affecting the legacy carriers (Smith, 2016) This view is based on the belief that legacy carriers will always have a larger pool of pilots to choose from among regional airlines such as the military and seasoned pilots – a pool that is not quickly exhausted. Regional airlines, on the other hand, do not have the luxury of choosing from a large pool of qualified experienced pilots as their main employee base is pilots seeking to build and earn flying hours. On top of this, regional airlines have grown at an extremely high rate to the point where the available pilot pool cannot meet their demands. According to an article written by Patrick Smith, regional airlines have grown to make up 53% of all domestic flights in the United States – yet the number of graduating pilots has not been growing as fast (Smith, 2016). Due to this imbalance, the legacy carriers aren’t as affected by the shortage.

The second view notes that the pilot shortage is mainly driven by the refusal to work in airlines offering lower pay by qualified and experienced pilots. Before the recent increase in pilot pay, many pilots began their career with a low starting salary of about $20,000 a year, mostly on regional airlines. This low salary was also accompanied by unattractive healthcare and 401k benefits (Smith, 2016). Compared to the amount of money pilots put into their training – a total of about $100,000, the low starting wages mean a slow return on investment. It prompted many potential pilots to change careers; causing the pilot shortage.

Lastly, the belief by some that the pilot shortage is a myth based on the numbers of pilots who are unemployed. In the United States in 2004, 10.20% of the pilot population was laid off, in efforts to reduce their operational costs (Aero News

Network., 2003). In 2008, United Airlines and Frontier Airlines laid off 950 pilots and 465 pilots respectively – following the bad economic season caused by the recession (Peterson, 2008; Tsai, 2008). More recently, American Airlines in 2010 planned to lay off about 175 pilots and in 2012 announced its plans to lay off 11,000 employees of whom 400 are pilots (Koenig, 2012). This layoff of pilots isn’t only happening in the United States however. For example, in 2015, Air France made public its intention by laying off 2,900 pilots in order to reduce the money spent on pilot wages (Willsher, 2015).

If there are so many unemployed pilots and many more are being laid off, how is it that there is a pilot shortage? Statistical data provides us with more insight to the answer of this question. “The 2019 Boeing Pilot & Technician Outlook, a respected industry forecast of personnel demand, projects that 804,000 new civil aviation pilots, 769,000 new maintenance technicians, and 914,000 new cabin crew will be needed to fly and maintain the world fleet over the next 20 years. The forecast is inclusive of the commercial aviation, business aviation, and civil helicopter industries” (Boeing, 2019) In 2018, according to the Future and Active Pilot Advisors, the top airlines globally hired 4,606 pilots. (FAPA) When these figures are compared to the actual number of pilots pursuing the FAA pilot licenses, we see a conflicting view. In the U.S. as of December 31, 2018, there was a total of 633,317 active airmen certificates held by pilots, of which 162,145 are Airline Transport Pilot Licenses (ATPL) (FAA, 2018). All in all, the shortage depends on which perspective you view it from, and you will believe which one you’re more inclined to. However, there is a general agreement that there is a shortage of pilots affecting the regional airlines more than anyone else.

One major cause of the current lack of organization in the airline industry is the effects of September 11, 2001. Financially, according to the International Air Transport Association, It took three years to recover the $22 billion revenue drop (6%) between 2000 and 2001 (IATA, 1). Although devastating to the aviation community financially, it better prepared them for the recession in 2008 where they suffered less losses.

The IATA also states five major lessons in security over the last decade in response to 9/11:

• Governments must coordinate the development and deployment of security measures to ensure harmonized global standards and eliminate overlapping and redundant requirements among nations.
• Governments are obliged to foot the bill for security threats which are national challenges in the same manner as they would do in any other sector. Airlines and their passengers currently pay a security bill that had ballooned to $7.4 billion by 2010.
• Passengers should and do play an important role in helping keep air travel safe. Vigilance and cooperation with authorities are crucial.
• Governments need to embrace a risk-based approach to security screening.

We must accept that there is no such thing as 100% risk-free security. Governments must focus on the probable and not all that is possible and avoid policies driven by knee-jerk reactions (IATA, 1).

Overall, 9/11 greatly impacted the aviation industry in more ways than one, and it is vital to understand that this is the basis of the economic states most airlines are in currently.

I believe the main causes of this perceived pilot shortage to be fewer local U.S. students having an interest in careers as pilots, fewer certified flight instructors interested in becoming airline pilots, the high cost of pilot training, low entry lever pilot wages, more strict government regulations, and the retirement of airline captains.

In this day and age many young people aren’t as fascinated to become pilots as they once were. Many students are now well informed of the realities of being a pilot such as rough hours, and schedules that may keep them from home for days or even weeks at a time. Another thing discouraging young kids from becoming pilots is the low wages offered by regional carriers, as well as the high cost of training. According to the Federal Aviation Administration, the number of student pilot certificates between 2007 and 2016 has reduced from a high of 66,953 to a low of 36,145 (FAA, 2016). This decrease in students directly affects the regional airlines as they tap into graduating student pilots as their employee base.

In addition to the decrease in student pilots, the number of commercial flight instructors who wish to become airline pilots is also on the decline. According to a study conducted by the

University of North Dakota (UND) in collaboration with other universities, approximately only 53.67% of CFI’s are looking into becoming long-term airline pilots (Higgins, J, et.al., 2013).

Another factor causing the decline of pilots is the high cost of pilot training. This cost is one of the biggest and most profound factors in discouraging people away from a career in the industry. To obtain an Airline Transport Pilot’s License, one may need approximately $60,000 to $100,000 to cover the costs of individual flight training (Smith, 2016). This cost is separate from tuition for those attending universities. Many pilots provide testimonials for not being able to continue training because of financial constraints. One example of this is Travis Evan who in an interview by Mashable expressed his dismay in that he had to stop flight training because the high cost of the training was too much to bear (Pilot Career News, 2016). This is the case for many students in fact, eight in ten student pilots give up and quit flight training due to various reasons (Beckett, 2016).

Now that we have discussed potential sides as well as various causes, it is time to discuss possible solutions for the pilot shortage. I believe that there are many ways we can use to increase the appeal to soon to be pilots and the younger generations such as, increasing wages for entry level pilots and setting up gateway programs with universities or school to job bridge agreements.

Airlines have already begun increasing their airline starting wages. Many regional airlines have raised their starting wages from $20,000 to approximately $60,000 (Templeton, 2016). This increase in wage will encourage pilots to seek airline careers as they begin to get a return on investment sooner. One option could be to provide sign on bonuses, however this only appeals in the short term and does not support a sound business structure.

Another solution is to set up gateway programs between universities and airlines, this would allow students to go directly from school into a stable job. Through these programs, airlines can select soon to be pilots and project them through training and into a job on their airline. These programs also give students to opportunity to repay training costs back to the company as they work. Some airlines such as American Airlines has its own training program known as the Envoy Cadet Program that offers various benefits such as tuition reimbursement, mentorship and internships with American Airlines (American Airlines Group, 2016). Not only do these programs help with the cost of training, but they also help to build real world experience for these students.

In addition to gateway programs, another way to push students from training to the airlines is through school to job bridge agreements. This is yet another way to help students build their hours and progress to working on the airlines. SkyWest Airlines has partnered with Utah Valley University (UVU) to offer a bridge program where graduates of UVU’s pilot program with certain qualifications are hired to work in SkyWest Airlines (Ballard, 2013). For this bridge program, the qualifications are to graduate with a good grade point average, having attained an FAA CFI license (Ballard, 2013). These bridge programs give students the assurance that they will get a job if they work hard in their academics. This motivates them to study hard knowing that their hard work will reap rewards.

In conclusion, the pilot shortage presents an issue for the aviation community as a whole, but it also presents an opportunity for airlines to reevaluate their methods and increase their intakes of pilots. Although I myself cannot tell you whether or not this pilot shortage is fact or fallacy, the number of kids becoming pilots has most definitely decreased over the years. Although a tough time for the aviation industry, it is up to top-level management to decide whether this is a quick fix or if we will continue to feel the effects of this shortage, and it is up to aspiring pilots to take advantage of this highly demanding position.

The largest part of back wheel drive and some front wheel drive automobile with manual transmissions utilize a pilot bearing or bushing. The pilot bearing or bushing is responsible for offering ¬support to the alternator input shaft and clutch disc. When the clutch is detached, the pilot bearing permits the flywheel, also called balance wheel, to ¬maintain engine RPM even as the input shaft is halting.

There are different types of pilot bearing or bushing. They include:

• Conventional ball bearings
• Needle bearings
• Sintered bronze bushings

Once a pilot bearing or bushing begins to develop issues, a vehicle may display certain symptoms. Now let’s look at the symptoms of bad pilot bearing.

Symptoms of a Bad Pilot Bearing

Symptoms of a bad pilot bad pilot bearing include:

• Noise
• Vibration
• No release
• Transmission pop out of gear
• Catastrophic malfunction of the alternator if not rectified

Early symptoms of a bad pilot bearing might be noise every time the clutch is disconnected. The alternator may also be rigid to shift between gears or stiff to put into reverse or first gear after stopping the vehicle. When the pilot is weakening, or has malfunctioned, the input shaft will be allowed to walk around causing it to go off midpoint. This causes the alternator input duct to move about within the air brake triggering the mechanism and synchronizers to be off center resulting in the alternator popping out of gear.

If the automobile has a high output engine, the misalignment will cause the input shaft gear to not connect with the counter shaft gear accurately and eventually will lead to failure of the gears. This causes the release bearing to release the clutch. The released bearing is intended to work with lowest amount friction between the revolving and fixed points of contact. Examine the bell housing area if noises come from it.

You can begin by performing a road assessment of your car. Pay attention to check if you can hear noises with the air brake in gear and the clutch pedal to the floor. After that, release the clutch with the alternator in first gear. Noise under this condition indicates a worn release bearing or a worn pilot bearing. To separate the two, keep the clutch pedal on the floor and move the alternator into neutral. If you still hear the noise after this, it means the release bearing is bad. However, if the noise disappears, then it means the pilot bearing is bad.

A pilot bearing noise that occurs when unhanding the clutch pedal to employ the clutch while in neutral, but disappears when the pedal is depressed is caused by a bad pilot bearing. Ensure that all other gears are in good condition. Check the clutch connection for binding. Check the clutch fork and input shafts for proper positioning.

Pilot Bearing Install Direction

The direction of the pilot bearing is achieved by putting the bronze pilot bushing with the taper towards the air brake and the flat end into the crank. The pilot bearing is positioned it in clean engine oil and then fixed with thinning end to alternator. Avoid using grease or anti-seize as this will plug the pores in the bushing and it will fall short. The bushings are produced using powdered bronze and saturated with oil.

Some persons prefer to use only just a bearing because worn bushing can break the input shaft bearing and make it tasking to get attain 4th gear. The bearing will live longer than the clutch as long as you replace it every time the clutch is out. Removing a defective pilot bearing can be a complicated duty and may call for a unique tool. Fixing a pilot bearing is typically uncomplicated as long as you ensure it is accurately balanced.

Ensure the pilot bearing race is cut by means of a cutter to eliminate all fragments from the hole. In some cases, removing a bearing may only require stuffing the middle of the bearing with thick lubricant, and using a hammer to strike a rod that sits securely in the midpoint.

When the clutch is disconnected, the transmission’s input shaft and the engine’s camshaft are revolving at dissimilar rate. The pilot bearing permits this dissimilarity. This causes a defective pilot bearing to produce its most noise when the clutch pedal is totally depressed and the clutch itself is entirely disconnected. It’s situated in the middle of the balance wheel.

How Far Does a Pilot Bearing Go In?

The pilot bearing has an o-ring gasket around the outer border to stop lubricant from leaking out onto the disc. A pilot bearing is roughly an inch across and it seats in a small fissure that is at the back. You may have to dismantle everything since you’ll need to use a pilot bushing which is about two inches across and sits flush with the crank. Just keep driving the pilot bearing in until it’s flush with the crank end. The new one had a projection on the outside circumference. The extension allows the pilot bearing to go in one way and let it go to the right deepness which is the entire outside race into the camshaft and prevents it from being driven in excessively far.

When lubricating, use only a pea-sized quantity of grease to daub around the rollers. Most excess grease standing above the rollers gets hard-pressed into the rear when the alternator is installed.

Pilot Bearing Replacement Cost

The pilot bearing replacement cost will vary between $7.00 and $23.00 (US) which is obtainable from Amazon or the local parts store. If you are a novice who is unable to replace the pilot bearing, then you have to contact a local auto-repair shop. They will have to remove the alternator and clutch, making the labor cost to fall between $350.00 and $650.00 (US).

If putting back the whole clutch as a kit, the pilot bearing will occasionally be added. Ensure you check the contents of the kit to be certain. The longevity of a pilot bearing should match the clutch. However, bearing can have a malfunction within 45,000 to 65,000 miles.

How to Remove Pilot Bearing Race

Removing a pilot bearing race can be achieved with set of special tools. However, a layperson may not be willing to buy a tool they wouldn’t always use. The pilot bearing race helps support the input shaft of a manual ABS. It has to be replaced when worn to prevent destroying the input shaft seal on the alternator. If this happens, it can pump out oil from the alternator, leading to clutch breakdown.

Contemporary vehicles now make use of an anti-friction bearing (roller bearing), while older automobiles employ a bronze bushing which is pushed into the end of the camshaft.

It is vital to removing the pilot bearing race cautiously to avoid damaging the interference fit in the camshaft. Then proceed to pack the area behind the bearing with bread and apply pressure through the opening for the input shaft. This will cause the bearing to push out efficiently. To apply pressure, utilize a rod of the similar diameter as the input shaft.

Pilot Bearing Removal Tips

Before you commence, the transmission has to be removed together with the clutch assembly.

1. Obtain a Pilot Bearing Removal Tool

To remove the pilot bearing race, you need a removal tool which is sold on Amazon at $34.00. You don’t necessarily have to buy if you can rent it at an auto store.

2. Insert the Removal Tool

Then proceed to slot in the removal tool into the pilot bearing, with the jam nut completely backed off. Turn the handle clockwise to extend the tool fingers outward in the rear of the bearing. The tool will relax beside the balance wheel which will maintain the pulling process.

3. Pull the Pilot Bearing Outward

Take a tight hold of the tool and make tighter the jam nut using a wrench; you would hear a small ‘pop’, indicating that the bearing is starting to move from the camshaft. At this position the nut will get easier to move alongside the wrench. Maintain this act pending when the bearing is completely detached.

4. Inspect the Pilot Bearing

Once the bearing has been detached examine the end of the camshaft and bearing which will be held in the tool. Let loose the bearing by spinning the tool handle counterclockwise. Employ a shop towel to wipe clean the end of the camshaft where the new bearing will be mounted. Ensure the surface is devoid of dirt and grease to keep the bearing in place.

5. Match the New Pilot Bearing

Examine both the original and previous bearings ensure the inside and outside diameters are the identical. If there are disparities, the new bearing won’t fit into the camshaft and may not permit the ABS input shaft to fit within if it which in turn will not allow the alternator to be reinstalled. To ensure proper functioning of the pilot bearing, fit it over the input shaft while the alternator is removed.

6. Install the New Pilot Bearing

Place the pilot bearing in the freezer for about 30 minutes to shrink it a little to help ease the installation. Then lightly place the bearing into the end of the camshaft. Make use of a hammer and metallic drift to gently tap the bearing into position. Avoid hitting the bearing to hard so as not to destroy it.

7. Lubricate the Pilot Bearing

Ensure you appropriately grease the pilot bearing to guarantee it would function accurately. Apply a small quantity of axle bearing or silicone-based grease to the interior the pilot bearing. Avoid adding excess quantity of lubricant so it wouldn’t get into the clutch disc.

At this state, the clutch is prepared for replacement and the ABS for re-installation.

Conclusion

A defective pilot bearing will make a buzzing or grinding sound, which increases in intensity when the bearing gets completely condemned. It will be very loud if the bearing is completely damaged. It happens every time the camshaft and input shaft are revolving at diverse speeds. On the other hand, a clutch release bearing will give off a tweeting or squealing noise as soon as the bearing touches the pressure plate’s diaphragm.

Pilot bearings can be bearings or bushings. The bearing type can be ball, roller or needle bearings crammed in grease. If the manufacturer proposes adding bearing grease, be careful not to contaminate the clutch disk or the exterior of the balance wheel. Pilot bushings are brass and instilled with lubrication. Adding lubrication will actually increase friction. Verify from manufacturer’s reference before adding any lubrication to a pilot bearing.

A worn or damaged pilot bearing will make a whining or grinding noise. It will be very loud if the bearing is completely damaged. It occurs whenever the camshaft and input shaft are rotating at different speeds. A clutch release bearing is different; it will make a chirping or squealing noise as soon as the bearing touches the pressure plate’s diaphragm. Note that release bearings make noise with much less pedal travel. Endeavor to mark the position of balance wheel in relation to camshaft prior to removing it. This is to avoid disproportion when the balance wheel is reinstalled.