Category: Physical education

Sue Combs, together with her colleagues from the University of North Carolina, investigated the attitudes of the physical education teachers towards the inclusion of children with special needs in their lessons. The team identified two physical education teachers who had a positive attitude towards the kids with special needs and two who had a negative attitude. All of them were from an elementary school. Their aim was to find out how their attitude developed, and how it affects their teaching.

It is a requirement for students with special needs to be included in the general physical education classes. However, these kids attend these classes without their teachers and this has given physical educators a lot of challenges.

These tutors have to teach and train kids with special needs without neglecting the others. Over the years, there have been studies done to find out how a teachers attitude affects his teaching. Theories have been formulated, and all have come to one general conclusion; a teachers philosophy or thinking towards children with disabilities, directly influences the success of the students.

The method used was PEATID-III; this method has been universally accepted. Four physical educators were chosen using purposeful sampling technique which looks for situations with a lot of information. The four teachers selected had a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 18 years in the teaching service, and all had had children with disabilities in their classes. Jan and Jennifer were positive regarding inclusion of kids with special needs in their lessons, while Sean and Tammy were not.

The teachers were asked a series of questions separately regarding their experiences and their philosophy regarding the inclusion. The questions were not the same, some were excluded and others were included depending on the response of the interviewee.

Analysis of the data started from analysing individual interview transcripts and ended by group scrutiny. In the individual transcripts, key themes were identified and were later compared with others during group scrutiny. The method had some limitations though, because the study was focused on elementary schools, the results could not be used in other levels of education such as the secondary level. Also the number of subjects interviewed was small and a conclusive recommendation was not possible.

It was found out that the educators, who had positive attitudes, already had developed teaching methods that accommodated children with disabilities, while the other two stuck to the convectional teaching methods. The conventional methods usually leave little room for adjusting the programme to suite the disabled.

The study continued to disclose that, only those teachers who had received formal education on children with special needs, developed positive approach. On the other hand, the other two teachers who had a negative attitude had received no education regarding children with special needs. Researchers have concluded that; including lessons dealing with disabilities to physical educators, made them develop a more positive outlook.

The discoveries made in this study may be used when it comes to hiring of physical education teachers. This study will help them hire educators who have a positive outlook and uses modern teaching methods rather than the convectional ones. Furthermore, non convectional teachers would aid the other old teachers by giving them tips on handling children with disabilities. Administrators should incorporate disability lessons during the training of physical educators.

All children deserve top quality physical education regardless of their abilities and inabilities. Laws ensuring that the disabled get physical education should be enforced to ensure that they benefit from physical education. In future studies researchers should find out how the teachers attitude affects those without disabilities, by getting feedbacks from the student themselves.

Reference

Combs, S., Elliott, S., & Whipple, K. (2008). Elementary Physical Education Teachers Attitudes Towards the Inclusion of Children With Special Needs: A Qualitative Investigation. Physical Education , 1-12.

Physical education should be an integral part of the curriculum. It is amazing that schools can compromise physical education with all its benefits. Schools in particular know the benefits of physical education in a students life and should be able to fight for the childrens rights.

Physical exercise promotes blood circulation in the body especially in the brain and such activity works to reduce stress and improve on mood and attitude of the student as work without play makes Jack a dull boy. Moreover studies have proved that physically active children achieve more in class.

The national association for sports and physical education recommend at least sixty minutes of exercise daily or for most days of the week.

Statistics show that over ten million children aged between six and nineteen are overweight in the United States. Among the adolescents, the number of the over weights toady is four times than in the last decade; a very alarming rate. The dangers of being overweight are too adverse to be true.

Some of the health risks associated with obesity and overweight are polygenic disorders like pre-diabetes and diabetes, heart diseases, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, apnea and many more.

Additionally, nutritionists say that an obese child is likely to be an obese adult. The fact that fat cells are capable of increasing in number during childhood but in adulthood the body system can only work to fill the existing ones and not to form new ones supports this claim.

Obesity is a major health concern in most of the countries and especially in the US as aforementioned. Obesity is hard to manage not mentioning its health related risks; it calls for specialist medical care, which is very expensive to a given country; therefore, nations cannot afford to cut down the programs that help to manage and/or prevent obesity.

With most foods working to accumulate fats in the body and the changes in lifestyle, policy makers cannot ignore this pertinent issue. Physical exercise in schools should draw their support from family members, the society and the government.

The government should set aside money for physical exercises in particular in the national budget as it does not only affect the students positively but also saves the countrys economy greatly for a sick nation is an unproductive nation.

There are other benefits associated with physical education, which should compel parents and the government to embrace the activity. Physical activity improves on the students overall confidence; for instance, performing in the field instills courage in the student.

In addition, many students learn of their talents in school sports most of whom secure sporting jobs internationally which is beneficial to the individual student, the parents and the nation and this underscores the need to revive this dying yet necessary activity.

Physical activity also promotes a healthy lifestyle in adulthood. Students grow into responsible citizens who influence their children positively; the best news is that this behavior passes from generation to generation hence giving rise to a healthy nation.

Hygiene and sex education are part of the physical education curriculum. These work together to give birth to an all round person. Another virtue learnt is teamwork as most sports in schools are holistic and this promotes the spirit of unity in a students life.

The factors above would be lost if the government does not intervene to save the dying physical education. Schools will not be a place of molding one into a responsible citizen, as the curriculum would be incomplete without physical education.

Introduction

To provide a clear context for this assignment, the focus will be on the question “How are the changing values and visions of Physical Education reflected within new curricula?”. To answer this question, there will be a clear outline as to what curriculum is, a view on why it needs to be considered and then will state the importance to Physical Educators, of the need to consider the connections between changing values and visions for PE and the new curricula being developed. This assignment aims to reflect on how curricula are changing and are being used to promote and educate young children on the underlying causes of long-term physical inactivity. Childhood obesity is one of the primary example factors.

Young (2005), states how the importance of health and well-being will eventually be an enormous focus within curricula and supports the need for change. This is underlined by his comment ‘As health promotion initiatives become more integral to mainstream educational practice, I would predict that it will become more and more evident that the factors that produce effective schools from the viewpoint of educational achievement will be essentially the same factors which produce schools which promote health effectively’ this suggests the value and importance of physical education in effective schools.

Physical Education (PE) is now part of a collective alongside physical activity and sport, subsumed by the newly created curriculum area of ‘Health and Wellbeing’ (HWB), (Scottish Government, 2009). The fundamental aim of the Health and Well Being curricula area is to develop pupils’ knowledge and understanding, skills, capabilities, and attributes necessary for mental, emotional, social, and physical well-being now and in the future (Scottish Government 2009). Bernstein (1977) has curriculum down as being a key structure in the process of schooling. Whereas Priestly (2019) states curriculum as a “multi-layered social practice, including infrastructures, pedagogy and assessment through which education is structured, enacted and evaluated”. The curriculum is needed for teachers and staff to know what they need to be teaching the pupils within physical education and also to work with the law besides the government guidelines and policies to keep their students abiding by the legislation.

Each curriculum includes its policy as a discourse to provide an opportunity to consider ‘the interplay between policy creation and response’ (Adams, 2011, p59). The ‘policy cycle’ when applied to the development of Physical Education within Health and Well Being, illuminates complex and contextualized policy processes that involve debate, conflict, and a struggle for power identified as the ‘context of influence’, the ‘context of policy text production’ and the ‘context of practice’ (Bowe et al,1992).

Discussion

Physical education is a critical part of a child’s development during their growth from a child into an adult. Not only does it keep them physically active, but it also educates them and gives them endless streams of information on how to stay healthy. Eileen Marchant (2014) discusses how physical education has changed from when it started years ago to where it is now in two entirely different locations, and she proceeds to focus on how it will continually improve. The development of the curricula is vital to keep educators up to date with their teaching. At the end of each stage of education, known as the Key Stages in school (numbers 1-4), the English curriculum has evolved tremendously to now include an evaluation to improve equality, fairness, and inclusion for all teachers and students involved. The English method is viewed by Curtner-Smith (1999) as a ‘top-down approach’ implying that the curriculum is built around the framework of the school and then shown to the teaching practitioners to interpret the curriculum as they feel. Very little instruction is given to teachers about how schools are going to accomplish the program, which may lead to uncertainty about how teachers conform to that curriculum.

The English curriculum does not see physical education as a ‘core subject”. Unlike English and maths. It is referred to as a ‘foundation subject’ and has been made mandatory over the years. This has specifically been put to ensure the physical welfare of all pupils. The English curriculum has been made aware of the lack of training that exists today in PE. The ‘PE and school sports premium’ support, however, is significant and has been extended from 2014 to 2020. This helps both primary and secondary educators to advance their awareness and then display curriculum visions and values to the children of safe active lifestyles.

In his ‘Not a Diet’ book, (James Smith 2020) reflects on how the fitness industry in the UK and Australia has developed itself into a very simplistic ‘one size fits all’ structure that is a failure. He continues to focus on how the system is very one-sided and misinformed. This can lead us humans, to be misled with poor or incorrect information, which often leads to people ignoring the value of maintaining a healthy body, due to this very selfish industry. If you had just one car for the rest of your life, you would have done all you could to take care of it, right? Therefore, why is the human body not seen in the same way? Where is this going? Children, at the beginning of their lives, often encounter physical education being marginalised by the establishment resulting in them ending up being physically unhealthy and another statistic in the category of obese. How does this link to curriculum and physical education? The ‘one size fits all’ system that the fitness industry has developed, can also be found within the educational industry. As the curriculum has changed over the years, ‘one size fits all’ is being replaced with more of an equitable and inclusive framework that can accommodate all children in various areas of their lives. The government and teachers now have more than ever (with the present COVID-19 pandemic) a much greater awareness of the accessibility and ability needs of individuals to participate in physical education. The significance of a stable curriculum for development is enormous.

Curriculum is a key structure in the process of schooling (Bernstein 1977). Curriculum is seen as a glue to hold the teaching department together, then in turn guides them into how they can display their pedagogical skills and pass their knowledge onto the younger generation. Australia uses its curriculum to develop the knowledge, understanding, and skills to enable students to use the information they have been taught. This will then enhance and encourage the pupils to be physically active, healthy human beings. The Australian curriculum has a very unique take on education and is always looking to develop through its visions and values. As a country, they value their physical education as a core subject and have over time developed their structure into two different types; personal, social, and community health being one whilst movement and physical activity being another. Unlike other parts of the world, physical education (PE) is taught within the Key Learning Area of Health and Physical Education (HPE) in Australia. They class Physical education as QPE (quality physical education). QPE is fundamental to improving student learning (Armour et al., 2017). The Australian educational system has adapted, which has allowed them to recently implement a system that allows teachers to view the up-to-date curriculum and see their existing practices, it also allows them to see how they are viewed as practitioners, this keeps not only the curriculum honest but also the people involved in the curriculum too.

The reasoning behind the purpose of the curriculum within Wales is to promote the positivity behind health among children and young people. This then develops children into a growing adult by being “ambitious, capable learners, ready to learn throughout their lives” (Professor Graham Donaldson CB, 2015). The Welsh government uses a curriculum to educate and develop not only the children but also the teachers’ pedagogical skills. This is done by consistent evaluation and change in the curriculum. Through questioning the curriculum, teachers have managed to gain a very good understanding of why the curriculum is needed. Curriculum in Wales has evolved over the years but first came to terms with (Plowden 1967) using the child-centered philosophy. The philosophy by Plowden then was developed in (1988) into the subject rationale of the national curriculum. The reasoning for change between 1967 and 1988 came from the evaluation of the educational inconsistencies. The Welsh curriculum felt there needed to be a better system for children to move through the stages of school which also helped the teachers and staff to have a better understanding of where the children were in terms of their education.

The Welsh curriculum is always being improved and is always looking to improve through the constant assessment by the Welsh government, which listens to the views of teachers, evaluates their guidelines by the government and then develops a sustainable curriculum to meet the needs of children from all environments. Similarly, to England, Wales has teacher training. This gives educators a chance to report their views and seek help from individuals further up the educational system with guidance around the curriculum. To find out why some are different and how they can counteract the problem, Wales also has an evaluation system that evaluates the success of schools and the failure of other schools to then set up a curriculum that will be consistent through their values.

The visions and values of the curriculum are also shown by their goals and what they are seeking to accomplish by having a curriculum. The curriculum is so critical that it provides a basis for those in the education sector to start the teaching process. Because of the diversity of all individual governments, all countries have different curricula. However, on an overall scale, the visions and values remain hugely similar across the board. The OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) has built a structure for the curriculum and has the same visions and values in all countries. Yes, due to culture, the methodologies of each country are different, but the idea remains the same providing a meaningful education, a meaningful physical education in this case. The OECD idea and framework are in place until 2030 to potentially enable children to be much more educated by then and to have a better understanding of the value of physical education. This gives teachers and educators a lot of time to reflect and adjust their practices between where we are now in 2021 and 2030 before it is reviewed and updated by the OECD.

Between Wales, England, and Australia. The changes made through their curricula are apparent through their constant effort to adapt to the evolving environment. Including this year’s pandemic (COVID-19), each country has had to respond at a very rapid pace, leaving little time to plan. This results in a huge amount of pressure on teachers and the government to ensure a balanced curriculum. The biggest improvement in the curriculum needs to be in online learning. Online learning is a fundamental shift in the way education is delivered, but instead of seeing it as an obstacle, it has become a highly successful way of learning for the majority of students. The exciting part about online learning is that everything is right in front of you. Students would have difficulties studying online. However, it is our job as a practitioner to be a step ahead and to fight against all the obstacles that will come with a unique adjustment.

Conclusion

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world”, says former South African President (Nelson Mandela 1990). Although this statement is very true, there are a few limits to this statement. Children, if it is not engaging, are less inclined to listen and take up their education. It underlines the importance of why the curriculum’s values and visions need to be sustainable with an enjoyable education. This then encourages the children to also give them an appreciation of physical education to develop and remain safe as human beings. If students do not want to reap all the benefits of education, they will not be as likely to have an effect in the future. We need to ensure, therefore, that we have an education that facilitates their crucial development through an equitable, equal, and inclusive curriculum.

The value of having a good education, following on from (Mandela 1990), of being able to find meaning in something from an education will end up having a significant impact on your future as an individual. If it can promote your physical health alongside mental health within physical education, this demonstrates how vital a sustainable curriculum is. In my future practice, I’ve found all this stuff. I now have a lot more understanding of how curricula work and how I can use them for the greater benefit of students and the advancement of their education. I will now take into account the use of pedagogy. The user (the learner) is at the forefront of my approach to educating students about the value of physical activity and why meaningful PE plays a major role in their lives.

References

1. Scottish Government. (2009). Curriculum for excellence: health and wellbeing: experiences and outcomes Glasgow, Learning and Teaching Scotland.
2. Adams, P. (2011) From ‘ritual’ to ‘mindfulness’: policy and pedagogic positioning. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education. 32(1): 57-69.
3. Department of Health and Social Care: Global Public Health Directorate: Obesity, Food and Nutrition 10800 (2018) Childhood obesity: an action plan, Chapter 2. Available at: https:assets.publishing.service.gov.ukgovernmentuploadssystemuploadsattachment_datafile718903childhood-obesity-a-plan-for-action-chapter-2.pdf (Accessed: 241120).
4. Young, I. (2005). Health promotion in School – a historical perspective. Global Health Promotion 23:112-117.
5. Bowe, R. Ball, S.J and Gold, A. (1992). Reforming Educational and Changing Schools: case studies in policy sociology. London: Routledge.
6. Professor Graham Donaldson CB (2015) Independent Review of Curriculum and Assessment Arrangements in Wales. Available at: https:dera.ioe.ac.uk221652150225-successful-futures-en_Redacted.pdf (Accessed: 12012021).
7. James Smith, J. S. (2020) NOT A DIET BOOK. Available at: https:www.jamessmithacademy.com (Accessed: 13012021).
8. Education is the most powerful weapon that you can use to change the world. speech, Madison Park High School, Boston, 23 June 1990; reported in various forms

Chances are you have participated in or watched sports sometime in the past month the past week or maybe even today. Have you ever wondered why people are interested in sports? Why do people participate in and watch sports when there are seemingly more important things to pursue (e.g., working, caring for family, serving in the community)? How can something like sport attract the attention and interest of so many people?

The philosophy of sport is an academic subdiscipline of kinesiology that examines the meaning and significance of sport, the relationships between sport and other practices such as art and play, the ethics of sport (e.g., fair play, cheating, PEDs), and other sport-related sociopolitical issues. The methods, insights, and research found in the philosophy of sports can be used to investigate why people are interested in sports.

Since sport has a long history of being included in physical education programs, considering answers to the questions above is a valuable intellectual exercise for physical education professionals. The purpose of this editorial is to briefly examine why people are interested in sports using ideas from the philosophy of sports and to propose recommendations for utilizing sports effectively in physical education programs.

Why People Are Interested in Sport

One of the main reasons people find sport interesting is because of its connection to play. But how is sport connected to play? As one philosopher of sport has observed, sport is a game of physical skill where participants ‘voluntarily attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles’ (Suits, 2007, p. 14). The ‘unnecessary obstacles’ of sport are things such as manipulating a ball using the legs, feet, chest, and head through a goal more times than an opponent (soccer); hitting a little ball with clubs until it gets in a hole and trying to do so in as few strokes as possible (golf), and striking a ball over a net and into an undefended area on the floor more times than an opponent (volleyball).

The whole purpose of sports is to pursue an artificial challenge that is outside the boundaries of real life, a contrived challenge. As a result, sport feels like a second or make-believe world. Both its nature and the attitude one needs to engage in it are deeply rooted in play. As a general rule, people do not pursue the goal of sport because they have to but rather because they want to. It is a fun, absorbing, and exhilarating challenge. They choose to engage in sport for its own sake, as an end in itself. In these ways (among other ways, too), sport and play are closely related. In a world where boredom and monotony are not uncommon, people turn to sport as a way to invigorate, enliven, and refresh themselves. Without question, people are interested in sport because – at its best – it is a form of play.

In addition to sport’s connection to play, there are several other ‘goods’ that can be experienced or obtained as a result of sports participation and involvement. The quest to acquire these goods is also a key reason why people play sports. Philosophers differentiate between the goods of sport using the following two categories: external and internal goods (MacIntyre, 1984; Reid, 2012).

The External Goods of Sport. External goods are outcomes of sports participation such as better health or improved physical fitness, a sense of community by belonging to a team, making a living (or sometimes a fortune), becoming famous, and so on. These types of goods are not exclusive to sport. They can be realized or obtained through other means as well. For example, someone can improve health or physical fitness through exercise or eating better; a person can find community in a religious group or social club; people can become wealthy or famous via business, music, art, politics, and so on. The point is that one does not have to participate in sports to achieve external good. They can be secured in many other ways.

Some external goods found in sporting contexts are more easily obtained than others. Goods such as improved health and fitness, having fun, and making friends are accessible to anyone who participates in sports. These goods can (or should) happen for everyone. Other external goods, such as fame and fortune, are unattainable for most people who play sports because they are typically secured only by elite performers. Despite the low probability of obtaining fame and fortune through sports, the prospect of getting a college scholarship or becoming a professional athlete is very attractive to many.

What should be clear from the discussion of external goods is that sports participation and involvement can lead to outcomes that people want. Sport is popular because it can be used as a tool to get some other real good. Who doesn’t want better health, quality friendships, a college scholarship, fame, or fortune? While the external goods of sport are important and highly desirable, they do not, however, tell the whole story about the appeal of sport.

The Internal Goods of Sport. Internal goods are also reasons people are interested in and play sports. They are quite different from external goods. All runners would exclaim that running a personal best is sweet, even sweeter than just completing the race. Every golfer would proclaim a birdie is something ‘good’ to experience. It feels different than a bogey or even a par. To the softball player, turning a double play is beautiful. As can be seen, internal goods can be achieved only in a specific sporting context where a player’s performance is compared with the standards of excellence in a sport.

The standards of excellence are the ways a sports community defines quality play; they are achievements that can be realized only by participating in and performing the activity well. Furthermore, part of the process of achieving the standards of excellence is by seeing team individual improvement even if current performance levels are not superior to another team individual’s performance. Also, experiencing the internal goods of sport is not only reserved for those who participate at the highest level of sport. Achievements are available at any level, even in recreational leagues, physical education classes, and pick-up games. A great offensive play in basketball (such as a ‘give and go’ or a ‘no-look pass’) that leads to an easy basket is a great play regardless of whether it is performed in the NBA or a physical education class. Granted, the level of play (including the defense that resists the offense) is different, but excellence can be exemplified in both settings. More importantly, the experience is meaningful in both settings. The only real difference is the number of people who care about what happens on the court. In the case of the NBA millions of people care about the result, whereas not many (except for those participating) care about the result in a physical education class.

A great offensive play in basketball (such as a ‘give and go’ or a ‘no-look pass’) that leads to an easy basket is a great play regardless of whether it is performed in the NBA or a physical education class.

I recently had a golf outing with my 11-year-old daughter that illustrates the process of experiencing the internal goods of sport. My daughter has played golf inconsistently with me for the past few years. I taught her some of the basics such as the grip, chipping and putting, and the full swing, but not much else. This year I asked if she would like to play in a junior golf tournament for a new challenge. She agreed. We practiced a few times before her tournament, but nothing more. Her first tournament – a nine-hole event – opened her eyes to what was possible with the game. Even though she took last place, she came away from the experience with an enhanced vision of how golf could be played, the meaning it could produce, and the joy it could bring. She saw firsthand the skills and scores of the girls her age, and she resolved to improve. Every day following her first tournament, she asked me to take her to practice or play. We went golfing nearly every day over the next few weeks; her desire to learn and improve was very evident. She recently competed in her second tournament and scored a personal best nine-hole round and improved her score by multiple strokes. She finished in the middle of the girls her age. After her performance it was easy to discern the level of satisfaction she felt. Her efforts to practice led to improvement. After having experienced a few of the internal goods of golf such as hitting quality shots, making difficult putts, and posting a personal best golf score, her interest in golf is at an all-time high.

What should be readily apparent is that the internal goods of sport cannot be achieved in any way other than participating in a specific sport. These goods are meaningless anywhere and everywhere else in the world. Making a three-point shot in a close basketball game matters only in basketball, not in business science, or tennis. A person can obtain the internal goods of a basketball on the basketball floor only by becoming a basketball player. Without question, people play sports to experience the unique joy and satisfaction that comes with playing a specific sport well. Such are the internal goods of sport.

Some people may question whether the internal goods of sport can be secured by students in physical education. However, plenty of research and personal accounts show that it is possible (Johnson, 2016; Sinelnikov & Hastie, 2010; Wessinger, 1994). Students love to ‘score goals,’ ‘make baskets,’ ‘intercept passes,’ ‘win points,’ and so on. The prospect of experiencing the internal goods of sport, even in physical education, is very appealing to students. Therefore, both teachers and students are responsible for manufacturing legitimate opportunities for all students to experience and achieve the internal goods of sport.

Recommendations for Physical Education Teachers

While the popularity of sport is indisputable, this does not mean that all students in physical education will be naturally or immediately drawn to or have an interest in sport. Initial reluctance or disinterest from some students should not deter teachers from including sports in physical education programs. After all, not all students are immediately interested in math Shakespeare, or science either. If sport is important, and it is, a love for it needs to be nurtured in all students, even the most reluctant or skeptical. Here are a few recommendations to guide this process.

Use Sport Education. The curriculum and instruction model known as sport education (SE) is designed to create an authentic sport experience in the context of physical education (Siedentop, 1998). It emphasizes the key features of sports such as seasons, team affiliation, formal competition, culminating events, record keeping, and festivity (Siedentop, 1998). These features distinguish SE from the commonly used multi-activity curriculum model where students only practice or play a specific sport for short periods. Seasons in SE are significantly longer, allowing more time for students to develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to become ‘competent, literate, and enthusiastic’ sports people (Siedentop, 1998, p. 20). In short, SE provides legitimate opportunities for students to experience the internal goods of sport. Several books and articles (such as the Siedentop article referenced above) have been written about SE. Physical education teachers should take the time to study and learn how to implement SE effectively. The resources are out there.

Be Patient and Persistent. Achieving or experiencing the internal goods of sport, for most students, does not happen quickly and easily. Growing interest in a specific sport takes time and effort; it also requires involvement in a sports community that already values the challenge of the game and understands its internal goods (Kretchmar, 2000). Teachers and students must commit to the process and be patient through the ups and downs of teaching and learning the skills, history, and traditions of a sport. While sport is closely connected to play, this does not mean it will always be something students want to do. Students should be taught that learning how to play a sport is not always going to be fun; it takes consistent and concerted effort for a sport to become something meaningful (Kretchmar, 2005). Generally speaking, the goods of sport are earned more than simply had.

Utilize Students Who Already Have an Interest in a Sport. Some students who attend physical education already have an interest in a specific sport. Their interest, knowledge, and skills can be utilized to create a better experience for all students in a class. When these students know the goal of the class is to assist others less familiar with the sport to develop the skills to play the game, they are likely to provide ideas related to performance cues, skill challenge drills, and lead-up or small-sided games. This is one way to show students that teaching and learning are the responsibility not only of the teacher but everyone in a class. There is an increased likelihood of experiencing the internal goods of a specific sport when students are more involved in the teaching process.

Match Students Appropriately for Game Play. How students are placed in groups for gameplay is a very important consideration when the goal is to help students experience the internal goods of sport. Sometimes it may be best for students to play a sport with others of similar skill abilities (homogenous grouping); other times, it may be best for students to play with others who have more skill (heterogenous grouping). The point is to take the time to prepare grouping combinations thoughtfully and to give students various kinds of experiences.

Create Multiple Opportunities to Participate in Sport. There are several ways physical education teachers can create opportunities for students to participate in sports beyond physical education class time, such as before- and after-school clubs, intramurals, and pick-up games during recess or lunch breaks. While these programs will require some upfront work, they can be excellent ways for many students to grow their competence in and love for sports. Delegating administrative and supervisory responsibilities to other faculty staff, parent volunteers, and even students can make the administration of these programs more manageable.

Share Opportunities to Participate in Sport. Advertise opportunities to participate in sports outside of school-sponsored programs such as city recreation leagues, pick-up games, tournaments, and other programs. Use a few minutes at the beginning of class, one day a week, to announce these opportunities. Post fliers in and around the gymnasium or school. Post information on social media sites. All of these strategies will increase student awareness of these programs and increase participation. The bottom line is students need to be continually reminded of opportunities in the community to participate in sports. Furthermore, teachers should encourage students to periodically discuss their experiences in other sports programs during physical education classes

Conclusion

Sport is popular across the world. While the appeal of sport may vary across cultures and individuals, there are clear reasons why sport is interesting to so many people. Ideas from the philosophy of sport, such as the connection between sport and play and the external and internal goods of sport, offer insights into the allure of sport. Physical education teachers should accept and embrace the challenge to help students of all ability levels become lovers of sports.

“Children learn as they play. Most importantly, in play, children learn how to learn.” Says O. Fred Donaldson. Donaldson has a PH. D in his ongoing researching the use of play with children. Physical Education helps develop; knowledge, behaviors, and motor skills. It has been suggested that physical education in schools is pointless and a waste of time. I must respectfully disagree with the author for the following reasons. First, exercise helps relieve anxiety and stress. Second, it helps prevent sleep deprivation and builds self-confidence. And third, for healthy growth and development. On the other hand, physical education classes take up time that could be used for academic classes. But with physical education classes, the student will improve in their academic classes. They can improve their teamwork, leadership skills, and be focused in class.

Physical education is a key factor in helping develop a child’s ability to stay focused in the classroom. There have been several studies for students in elementary through college, showing when a student is performing in physical activities it enlarges the basal ganglia of the brain. The basal ganglia are part of the brain responsible for motor controls. Such as executive functions, emotions, behaviors, and motor learning. Due to technology getting better, students are having more of a difficult time staying on task. However, with the help of physical education, the physical games they play help students concentrate on the game taking a break from schoolwork. Thus, leading to maintain a healthy mind and body.

As a college athlete, I have learned to love physical education for lots of reasons. One reason is that there is not a coach yelling or pressuring you to do better. Instead, you can have fun and be productive. PE classes also give you a way out to try sports that you have never done before. Even doing them at your own pace. For me, during high school, I would take weightlifting for the last class hour of the day. I liked it a lot because school is stressful, and weightlifting gave me a way out to clear my mind and reset. However, I did have practice after school every day but that is different because I was not lifting weights. Physical education classes are fun. As sports were stressful and a lot of pressure to succeed.

Some people say that physical education classes are a waste of valuable class time. Although class schedules vary from school to school. I was raised in Genesee, Idaho with a population of nine hundred. A small farming town. Everyone knows everyone there. I had a graduating class of twenty-one people. I have been with those people since fourth grade. We had the same seven classes a day each semester that we choose. Some schools did the A B system, but we did not. I did weightlift classes every day for four years in high school. I improved not only in becoming physically stronger, but I had a great lifting teacher that helped me mentally improve as well.

It has been counseled that physical education in schools is needless and a waste of valuable class time. I need to respectfully disagree with the writer for the following reasons. First, exercise helps relieve anxiety and stress. Second, it helps prevent sleep deprivation and builds self-confidence. And third, for healthy development. On the opposite hand, physical education classes take on time that would be used for academic classes. But with physical training classes, the student will improve in their academic classes. They can improve their teamwork, leadership skills, and be focused in class. By giving them a break from focusing on schoolwork they can relieve stress while burning a few calories.

Introduction

This Path Finder with annotated bibliography is intended to assist students in acquiring information properly on the History and development of Physical Education & Sport. The intent of a pathfinder is to acquire and display information from different creditable sources namely, online library books and journals as well as hard copies from your local library. Over the year’s students have been acquiring information incorrectly this is to demonstrate good information acquiring source.

Intended Audience`

The intended audience would be physical education teachers, sporting athletes, P.E students mainly college students perusing a career in Physical Education.

Subject Headings

The following sub-topics can also be found under topic history and development of Physical Education & Sport

• Sport
• Sports In Ancient Times
• Medieval Sports
• Industrial Revolution
• 20th Century
• Physical Education

Overview of Topic

The topic that I have selected with annotated bibliography is done on the history and development of Physical Education& Sport. The pathfinder shows how a proper portfolio is done, using Proper citation from different creditable source both online and at our local school library. In this pathfinder you can find books, articles, and journal that has to deal with Physical Education it summarizes a book that speaks on the development of physical education over the past years, it also summarizes information an article written on the history and development of physical education, along with other topics.

Annotated Bibliography

[bookmark: _Hlk26817220]Mechioff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (2006). A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.

Mechioff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. speaks on health and your life style. A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education – From Ancient Civilizations to the Modern World, has been meaningfully written to engage readers with essential information and critical introspection that is meant to inspire and educate. This edition highlights salient individuals, movements, beliefs, and events that have impacted the long and storied historical and philosophical development of sport, physical education, and kinesiology. Robert Mechikoff offers students a layered and scholarly look into the sports and physical activities of the world – ranging from Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome to the emergence of the professional and academic disciplines of physical education and kinesiology in the modern world, as well as the political and social modern realities of the Olympic Games.

Reason for Choosing Book

I have chosen this book because the words are printed very large and it has information that help the reader to understand the topics easier. The language that it is written in is a language everyone can understand, and it relates to my topic.

Annotated Bibliography

Ellison-Brown, J. (2015, September 29). History and development of physical education and sport [Letter to the editor]. The Gleaner.

In this Article it speaks about the history and development of physical education and sport and how sport has evolved in the different eras over the past years. The article also states that One of the most significant developments is the growth of televised sports. Sports will continue to change and develop in the future as technology progresses. The standard of sports has continued to be influenced by social change, commercialisation, media, sponsorship, government, and education. In the Article it places emphasis on the development of Sport in the different eras such as; Sport in Ancient times, Medieval Sport, Industrial Revolution, and 20th Century.

Reason for Selecting this Article

I choose this Journal because it had the article on someone who studied at my country and has made tremendous contributions to society. Therefore it is nice for the readers to understand the contributions of our country to the development of the Caribbean. Not only that but the content is quite easy to understand, it is precise and straight to the point.

Annotated Bibliography

Welch, P. D. (2004). History of American Physical Education And Sport. Springfield: Charles C Thomas.

This E-book speaks about the traces the sources and development of today’s games, sports dances and physical education programs. Major topics include: The games of native Americans, Recreational and sporting activities of colonial Americans, Adaptation of sports by the westward pioneers, Physical education professionals and students as well as those in allied recreation fields will find this book to be an essential reference.

Reason for choosing this Book

I have selected this book because it basically provides adequate information on the history and development of Physical Education & Sport in the country of America, the information is also creditable and explain ways the reader can understand easily.

Annotated Bibliography

Skrijelj, R., Beganovic, k., Skrijelj, F., & Mededovic, A. (2013). Outstanding Pedagogical thinkers on Sport and Physical Education vol 3.

In this Journal it speaks about Fundamentals of sport and physical education were emceed since there was no human society at all, and since then it is constantly evolving and improving, changing its character and content In consideration of the fundamental problems of sport and physical education, toward completing its function, it is necessary to analyse the development of the social character of education, taking into account its necessary historical dimensions and continuity of development Along with the overall social development – changing the political and economic organization – there has been a fundamental change in the system of physical education. Sport and physical education in the advanced bourgeois pedagogical thought perceive the impact and contribution of prominent figures of pedagogical personality: J.A. Comeniiis, J. Locke, J.J. Rousseau, J.H. Pestalozzi, J.B. Bazedov, Guts-Muts, Francisco Amoros, J.F. Herbart, Adolf Disterveg, Herbart Spenser, De

Reason for choosing this Journal

I selected this source because it speaks a lot about the fundamentals of Physical Education & Sport and some of the persons of prominent figures of pedagogical personality who has made social development changes contribution. was the only one I could find from the source. I don’t think it is a very good journal for the intended audience it is user friend and it is easy to understand if you have prior knowledge about some of the contributions that the journal speaks about and the contribution they made to society.

Steps Used in the Research

First Step: I had to read and understand the information that was given to me, I got a number of topics to choose from I chose the one that was most applicable to me and the one I thought I had enough resource to Complete.

Second Step: After Selecting the Topic, I made some sub topics that made it a little easier to acquire my information. The sub topics acted as the hidden stuff in a scavenger hunt the area, I would look would be the Books.

Third Step: I started looking for each of my topics using the areas I was told to look

• 1 book from my School Library
• 1 Article from the Gleaner website
• 1 electronic book from E-book central
• 1 electronic journal articles from Ebscohost

Fourth Step: I basically read the chapter that dealt with my topic and summarized it explaining what can be found in it as it relates my topic. I did this for all my Sources. I made sure to write down all the reference for all the sources I used.

Fifth Step: For each book I got I made sure to include the reason why I chose that source, just giving information on the source.

Sixth Step: I wrote a general introduction that entailed information on the entire pathfinder, this tells you about the purpose, the intended audience and an overview of the topic.

Website evaluation checklist

Criteria

Y

N

Explanation

Readability

• Do you understand the information without relying on other sources?

yes

• The website has sufficient information which is related to history and development of Physical Education& Sport.

Accuracy

• Is the information correct? Do other websites or books give you the same information?

yes

• There are other websites display the same information.

Author

• Is the web page associated with an organization that has a good reputation? Is the author an expert?

yes

• The website is a credible source used to broadcast information in the Jamaican society.

Purpose

• Is the website’s main goal to educate and inform, rather than try to sell you something?

yes

• It is informative and can be used to gain knowledge.

Timeliness

• Does the web page include the date it was created or updated?

Yes

• The article was published on September 29,2015 @ 12:00Am.

Links

• Do the links take you to good websites? Do they work?

Yes

URL

• Does the website have an official owner:, org ( nonprofit), .edu (educational institution), or .gov (government)?

Yes

The Gleaner Company, founded by the brothers Jacob and Joshua deCordova, was established in 1834. Its first publication was a four-page weekly newspaper, issued on Saturday, September 13, 1834 as an octavio-sized weekly paper. Today, it is a multi-sectioned broad sheet newspaper which is published daily.

Citation Styles

1. Mechioff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (2006). A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies. The citation used in this annotated bibliography is APA (American Psychological Association)
2. Estes, S.G. & Robert. A. Mechioff A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education. New York. McGraw-Hill 2006. Print. The citation used in this annotated bibliography is MLA (Modern Language Association)

Reference

1. Mechioff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (2006). A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
2. Ellison-Brown, J. (2015, September 29). History and development of physical education and sport [Letter to the editor]. The Gleaner.
3. Welch, P. D. (2004). History of American Physical Education And Sport. Springfield: Charles C Thomas.
4. Skrijelj, R., Beganovic, k., Skrijelj, F., & Mededovic, A. (2013). Outstanding Pedagogical thinkers on Sport and Physical Education vol 3.

Figueroa’s Framework is a device used to explore the issues encompassing access, uniformity and value in sport and physical activity. It comprises of 5 distinct levels being, Individual, Interpersonal, Institutional, Structural and Cultural. Each level inside the system team up and cooperate to shape the general impact. This model/system demonstrates the various capacities that fortify, make, expel and dispose of hindrances in sport and physical movement. Each level assumes a key job in viably dispensing with and beating these boundaries. Therefore, to clarify and demonstrate how my access to canoeing in senior physical education, was enhanced I will concentrate on breaking down how the interpersonal level and institutional levels relationship, as well as the agents of socialisation which all collaborated in enabling my access to canoeing. My overall success in canoeing has been enhanced over the two years of physical education, through my geographical location, peer group, experienced teacher and my access to the facilities and equipment; through the school/institutional (Figueroa’s Framework, 2019).

The interpersonal level examines our interactions with others, our relationships with peers, teachers, friends et al, likewise as our patterns of influence and the way these would possibly associate effect on an individual’s access and equity to exercise, sport and physical education. The socialisation process is the process, by which individuals are taught to conform to society. This is only relevant at the interpersonal level and it normally occurs subconsciously. Schools and the schooling environment are major factors in the socialisation process, and individuals are exposed to and given access to various activities such as canoeing whilst in the schooling environment. Other influential aspects which enhance and expose individuals to certain activities include peers, friends and teachers – and their attitudes, values and beliefs which stem from the individual level.

As sports psychology (Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 2008) suggests that canoeing with friends and peers, increases the enjoyment levels which also increases the successful outcome. The theory concerning a hierarchy of human needs, developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow breaks down the five human needs – for participation in exercise, sport and physical activity. The five levels are arranged from being needs which refer to self-actualisation, esteem needs, belonging needs, safety needs and physiological needs – which fall into deficit needs. In this framework, the demands of the second level cannot be fulfilled, until the demands of the first are and so forth. The needs of this hierarchy theory, relate to the interpersonal level as my peer/class group, teachers and friends all contribute to the fulfilment of these levels, concerning my participation in exercise, sport and physical education – in canoeing. Safety was a very critical and influential psychology factor, which played a key role in enabling my successes. ‘We become increasingly interested in finding safe circumstances and developing a sense of stability and protection. We might also develop a need for structure, for order and some limits, such as rules or procedures (Amezdroz, G, et al, 2010). At the commencement of canoeing in year 11, I struggled with water confidence, and not being familiar with my class group – lowered my safety factors, which hindered my participation and enjoyment levels in physical education – which limited my overall success. At the completion of canoeing in year 11 and year 12, my safety needs were heavily satisfied which greatly influenced my psychological outlook, success and completion in canoeing in physical education. As I became more familiar with my partner (Ella) and her high experience and success in kayaking, as well as encouragement from my teacher and peers – all were significant agents of socialisation which influenced my success. Furthermore, my attitude and goals in grade 11 revolved around getting in the canoe and not capsizing, as I gained water confidence and had successes, my goals included further perfecting and increasing my skills as well as perform under A/B standard time; to compete given obstacle courses.

The institutional level relates further to the interpersonal level, schools can have a critical role, in the socialisation of students into sport and physical education. The institutional level examines the way institutions affect equity and access, to exercise and physical activity. This level of Figueroa’s framework links to the socialisation process/es, as it further expands on the levels of socialisation being peers, teachers and the environment. It examines the role of the family, as well as the impact of schools. ‘The Institutional level examines how laws, patterns and structures within different agencies and how organisational structures operate to advantage some and disadvantage others’ (Figueroa’s Framework, 2015). My access was enhanced by the institution, being Palm Beach Currumbin State High School, scheduled/timetabled classes, so that our class was the only one using the canoes during this period.

The schooling environment presents adolescents with the opportunity to participate in physical activity, as is a part of the Australian curriculum and a provided elective in Senior School. ‘The institutional level encourages organisations to think critically about their own rules, policies and procedures that may advantage or disadvantage specific groups that would like to be involved in exercise, sport and physical activity at the institutional level’ (Amezdroz, G, et al, 2010). Students who take part in sport within school institutions are given the possibility to be rewarded for their skills, abilities and performances outside the classroom and intern supply them with socialisation which can assist in advantageous improvement of beliefs closer to physical undertaking (Amezdroz et al., 2012).

Prior institutions I attended did not have the same facilities, that Palm Beach Currumbin offer to students, this hindered my access to canoeing before grade 11. Undoubtedly, the school’s geographical location is a fundamental role in my exposure and successes in canoeing. As I was exposed to this new environment, as well as water/water sports I became more confident, as I progressed from year 11 and 12. This positively impacted my attitudes around canoeing and was shown through my grades and high attendance and participation in class. Furthermore, the sporting or as its commonly known ‘REDS’ culture, at Palm Beach Currumbin is a strong influential factor and enabler for students to participate in sport in general. With the sporting culture at PBC being so broad, provides students socialisation which positivity develops their attitudes and beliefs towards physical activity. I know from personal experiences at other schools, that without a big sporting culture – which creates a positive attitude/morale of students – who want to have a go and a willingness to succeed in everything they do, I am less likely to participate in and enjoy new sports like canoeing. Not having this strong value and not being predisposed to such a big sporting culture, was a strong barrier that impacted my performance as well as my values, attitudes and beliefs towards canoeing and physical education. This was evident, in my first few lessons of canoeing in grade 11 when I would not bring my uniform or participate with little to no effort. However, my attitudes, values and beliefs quickly changed and reflected that of my peers, friends and teachers.

Therefore, elucidating the impression that, my experiences in senior physical education were enhanced not only at the interpersonal level, but additionally at the institutional level. My friends, peers and teacher have played a crucial role, in my socialisation and success to canoeing in senior physical education. Furthermore, my access and success were improved at the institutional level, by not only my schooling environment, the geographical location, facilities and socialisation from the school institution. I believe taking into consideration my high marks from grade 11 canoeing, as well as the further progress and success I have had this year in canoeing I believe I will receive an A grade for the canoeing practical exam.

Bibliography

1. Amezdroz, G, et al, 2010, Queensland Senior Physical Education, 3rd Edition edn, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Yarra, Victoria, Chapter 18.
2. Amezdroz, G, et al, 2010, Queensland Senior Physical Education, 3rd Edition edn, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Yarra, Victoria, Chapter 19.
3. Amezdroz, G, et al, 2010, Queensland Senior Physical Education, 3rd Edition edn, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd, South Yarra, Victoria, Chapter 20.
4. Chapter 8. 2010.
5. Figueroa’s Framework. 2019, sportsaerobicsipswich.weebly.com/figueroas-framework.html. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019.
6. ‘Figueroas Framework.’ Yr 12 Physical Education Board, 2019, 12peboard.weebly.com/figueroas-framework.html. Accessed 2 Oct. 2019.
7. ‘Institutional Level.’ Figueroa’s Framework, 2015, myinvolvmentinafl.weebly.com/institutional-level.html. Accessed 3 Oct. 2019.
8. —. Figueroa’s Framework, 2015, myinvolvmentinafl.weebly.com/institutional-level.html. Accessed 3 Oct. 2019.
9. Jayden Torrisi. ‘Access and Equity – Figueroa’s Framework.’ Prezi.Com, 27 Oct. 2014, prezi.com/dp5fdcy2x3hx/access-and-equity-figueroas-framework/. Accessed 3 Oct. 2019.
10. Murcia, Juan Antonio Moreno, et al. ‘Peers’ Influence on Exercise Enjoyment: A Self-Determination Theory Approach.’ Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, vol. 7, no. 1, 2008, pp. 23-31, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3763348/.

Introduction

We are in critical point in history where there are more children being inactive due to digitalisation. Research by (Kohl et al., 2012) states that, “physical inactivity is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide”. Thus, Physical Education (PE) and Youth Sport (YS) are an essential part of a school’s curriculum in shaping today’s children and youths, leading to the policies being made. One policy this essay will be exploring in-depth is PE and sport premium for primary schools. In this essay, we will investigate how policy informs practice with the support of relevant literature, why PE and sport premium for primary schools was introduced and its implications on practitioners as well as a reflection on how policy and pedagogy impact practice.

Policy and Pedagogy

Existentialism is the philosophical concept that our individuality and personality is comprised because of our involvement of experiences within the world (Michelman, 2008). This concept suggests that interaction is key to stimulating our development. Ultimately by “doing” we can develop and learn, which suggests that a person who is physically literate can further develop their abilities, by interacting with various experiences. However, to become physically literate, the practitioner must initiate that interaction and either create or have created those environments for the child. Bates et al (2011) define educational policy as, “The raft of laws and initiatives that determine the shape and functioning of educational systems at both a national and local level”. The policy thus creates an environment for which practitioners can act upon the development of the child using pedagogical underpinnings. Pedagogy as defined by (Watkins & Mortimore, 1999) is, “any conscious activity by one person designed to enhance learning in another” whereas (Siedentop, 1991) considers pedagogy as “the skillful arrangement of an environment in such a way that students acquire specifically intended learnings”. From these definitions, we can infer that pedagogy links teachers’ actions with students’ outcomes. Thus, policy dictates how the practitioner carries out the lesson therefore, informing practice. It sets out guidelines and is a key component of any organization providing structure for daily operations. It is an essential part of running of schools; ensuring compliance with laws and regulations, provide guidance for decision-making, and streamline internal processes (Willoughby, 2010).

When, Why and How?

The precedent of setting out legacy commitments by host cities and their respective governments has become common practice in recent years, as seen in the London 2012 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games (DCMS 2007). A key point within the London legacy commitments was how the games ‘Inspire a generation of young people’ (DCMS 2007). Both during the Games and in its wake, government rhetoric was awash in the media concerning the different ways in which young people were going to be inspired. Significantly, however, it was on 11 August 2012, on the eve of the close of the games that the then UK Prime Minister (PM), David Cameron, published a statement on the Number 10 webpage stating that, “we will put competitive sport for children at the heart of Olympics legacy” (HM Government 2012). These words came amidst a dual pressure on being seen to deliver on how the Olympic Games were to ‘Inspire a generation of young people’ (DCMS 2007) and against a backdrop of austerity cuts which had removed all funding for PE and school sport in England just two years prior (Griggs & Ward, 2013). Two key resultant polices followed: firstly, in the form of an updated national Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE), which is considerably smaller and more focused towards competition (DfE 2014a) and secondly, a substantial funding commitment to all English state-funded primary schools (DfE 2013).

The updated NCPE will require every primary school child to take part in competitive team sport like football, netball and hockey, and will include team outdoor and adventurous activity. The PE programme of study aims to: enable pupils to be physically active for sustained periods of time; develop pupils’ competence in a broad range of physical activities; provide opportunities for pupils to engage in competitive sports and activities and help pupils to lead healthy and active lifestyles.’

In March 2013, this statement was realised when the UK government announced a major new funding initiative titled: Primary Physical Education (PE) and Sport Premium (SP) which promises new funding for school sport and PE worth 150million pounds a year for the next two years (Roan, 2013).

On November 2013, further details were released which states the funding was provided jointly by the Departments for Education, Health and Culture, Media and Sport and was allocated to primary school head teachers. All primary schools in England with 17 or more primary-aged pupils would receive a lump sum of £8000 plus a premium of £5 per pupil per annum. Smaller schools with fewer than 17 pupils received £500 per pupil (DfE 2014b).

In the 2013 Autumn Statement, Chancellor George Osborne announced an additional year’s £150 million extended funding, bringing the total investment to the end of the 2016 academic year (HM Treasury 2013). PM David Cameron further committed to continue the funding for the Primary PE and Sport Premium until 2020 on February 2014 (Wintour, 2014).

Unlike previous PE and school sport strategies, this funding has been ring-fenced and therefore, can only be spent on provision of PE and sport with schools having free reign to choose how they do this. Additionally, schools are to be held accountable for their spending by publicly publishing their spending plans and outlining the impact made (DfE 2014b) with the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) having also required to report on PE and sport premium as a matter of routine during school inspection visits (OFSTED, 2014) .

Implications

As soon as Primary PE and Sport Premium was introduced (Callanan, Fry, Plunkett, Chanfreau, & Tanner, 2015) found with it, the appearance of the “white van man” who comes with the bag of balls and some qualification in football coaching. This appearance does not translate to quality nor is it sustainable. As cited by a head teacher in their report, “That’s somebody that’s making money out of schools where that money can be better spent”. This is supported by case study schools that had stopped using an external coach because of unsatisfactory performance in the same report (Callanan et al., 2015). Examples included coaches with poor teaching skills, those who could not manage behaviour, or where the coach did not provide the level of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) required and were unreliable. Rural schools also reflected that it was hard for them to access high quality coaching, because of their geographical location (Callanan et al., 2015).

Griggs (2015) further adds and highlight some recurring themes; insufficient challenge in lessons, an over-concentration on performance, the delivery of an imbalanced curriculum (dominated by games) and poor assessment and recording. What results in practice is the continuation of lessons in which children are being ‘busy, happy, and good’ (Placek 1983, 46) with minimal learning taking place and little or no consideration of theoretical underpinning (Light 2008).

In addition, with a sport-centric teaching practice, it can create for social exclusion amongst the less-abled children giving them a negative view of sport. According to Sport England (2013a), 47% of 16-25-year olds don’t take part in sport or physical activity at all. The number of individuals that drop out of sport and physical activity also increases with age (Sport England, 2013b). This highlights the dropout rate of those doing physical activity after compulsory school age.

While it has been shown that sport can be beneficial for children’s development, it has also been discovered that the frequency, intensity and duration of these activities are not enough to reap the health benefits of physical activity. (Health Education Authority,1998; Department of Health, 1999).

Considering that physical literacy development through the school curriculum defined by (Whitehead, 2010) as “the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding that individuals develop in order to maintain physical activity at an appropriate level throughout the life course”, it only partially meets these criteria as it aims to have children confident and competent in a range of physical activity which includes team-based games and individual sports such as running. However, there remains to be seen on how they will maintain children’s interest and engagement beyond school and throughout life with the use of additional funding, and according to the theory of physical literacy it should be the end-goal of a PE curriculum for children as it enables individuals to maintain these ideals of physical activity and health into adulthood.

(Tinning, 2010) aptly portrays this as he highlights that it is unrealistic to expect individuals to change their lifestyles and behaviours simply because they acquire some new knowledge, and to expect that knowing ‘that’, will translate into ‘doing’, is naïve.

Findings suggest that the biggest hurdle for quality PE in primary schools, is the qualifications and preparation of teachers. Lynch & Soukup (2017) recommended that opportunities for developmentally appropriate PE specialisations be included within degrees, allowing every primary school over time to have a sustainable infrastructure of PE expertise and advocacy. This recommendation will in time provide quality PE experiences for all children; offering a comprehensive orientation for learning in the physical domain and consequently, optimise holistic education (Lynch & Soukup, 2017). Also, international research notes that the preparation time of classroom teachers is impeded by systemic barriers, resulting in low-classroom teacher confidence, competence and subsequent interest (Lynch & Soukup, 2017).

Teaching styles variation.

(Mosston & Ashworth, 2008) lists a variation of teaching styles and understanding them in relation to PE and youth sport delivery will aid practitioners in engaging the students. Some examples of teaching styles are;

Direct Instruction.

A traditional method where the teacher leads the class through a task which usually sees all the students performing the same task at the same time.

• Advantages. Can be time efficient; Provides plenty of practice opportunities which are good for introducing new skills.
• Disadvantages. A teacher centred approach, as such it is difficult to provide feedback and variations to all students.
• Teacher’s Role. To plan tasks, lead students through them, and provide feedback.
• Learners’ Role. To follow the teacher’s ‘commands’.

Convergent Discovery.

Students are given an issue with one solution and are allowed the opportunity to discover the answer themselves. The teambuilding activity ‘One Way’ is a great example of convergent discovery.

• Advantages. Promotes the use of critical thinking skills which are good for working on social skills.
• Disadvantages. Grouping students is more important and students need to be self-motivated.
• Teacher’s Role. Design the problem and provide tasks that will guide the students to discover the solution.
• Learners’ Role. Cooperate with one another to find the solution whilst doing the tasks the teacher has prepared.

There are no proper delivery styles with regards to each individual and remains a dynamic area. Onus is on the practitioner to plan and manage according to the situation, adapting the session based on the needs and requirements of the students as well as be in line with philosophical assumptions of physical literacy (Mosston & Ashworth, 2008).

Fortunately, practitioners can develop confidence, physical competence, motivation and knowledge and understanding by inculcating a mastery-oriented climate in their approach which includes; creating a deliberate practice to challenge and engage students; spending sufficient time in deliberate practice to ensure skill acquisition; and including systematic assessment to track individual student learning (Roetert & MacDonald, 2015). With Primary PE and sport premium funding, it may address these issues with training.

How Policy and Pedagogy Impact Practice

In tracing the evolution of educational policy, Bates et al. (2011) very aptly link the development of education policy in England to the change in how education is now perceived from what it was once; a precious civic gift as a means to develop society and citizens, to a transformed commodity which through the influence of economics and politicians, has to deliver a workforce which can add to the economic wealth of the country and be accountable for doing so to society (Bates, Lewis, & Pickard, 2011). Policy is analysed in terms of how people appropriate its meanings. Appropriation is a kind of taking of policy and developing it as one’s own (Sutton & Levinson, 2001). Appropriation, highlights the way practitioners perceive elements of policy, thereby incorporating these discursive and institutional resources into their own schemes of interest, motivation, and action (Sutton & Levinson, 2001). The policy is interpreted by practitioners to which is then carried out according to the provision of PE and youth sport thus impacting practice.

In a study by (Blair & Capel, 2011), it was found that coaches did not understand the importance of using a range of different pedagogical approaches when delivering a sport session to children which led to an increase in disengagement during the session. However, after having went through the CPD programme, the data show that coaches changed their pedagogical approach when working with children. Coaches’ reported the CPD programme had impacted or modified the way in which they coached. For example, five coaches explicitly stated that they used much more question and answer techniques and a further two coaches highlighted their increased awareness of letting the children make more decisions, recognising the significant positive impact pedagogy has on the changes to their practice and interaction with children.

Conclusion

Historically, PE have fluctuated between a prescribed list of narrow sporting activities and an emphasis upon breadth and balance. Primary PE and premium funding coupled with revised primary NCPE policy has also demanded a focus upon competitive sport to develop future sporting champions, in addition to alleviating contemporary concerns with increasing sedentary behaviour by training pupils to adopt lifelong participation in physical activity. Teachers tasked with navigating this policy space are increasingly ill-equipped to meet these conflicting demands and therefore have subcontracted delivery to coaches who offer an inexpensive but superficial solution. If PE teachers, coaches, and others working within PE and youth sport could be encouraged and supported with pedagogical underpinnings and additional training in their delivery when promoting learning about health, then they will be more likely to successfully engage more young people in a healthy, active lifestyle throughout their life course.

References

1. Bates, J., Lewis, S., & Pickard, A. (2011). Education policy, practice and the professional. London [u.a.]: Continuum.
2. Blair, R., & Capel, S. (2011). Primary physical education, coaches and continuing professional development. Sport, Education and Society, 16(4), 485-505. doi:10.1080/13573322.2011.589645
3. Callanan, M., Fry, A., Plunkett, M., Chanfreau, J., & Tanner, E. (2015). PE and sport premium: An investigation in primary schools. ().Department for Education (DfE).
4. Griggs, G., & Ward, G. (2013). The london 2012 legacy for primary physical education: Policy by the way? Retrieved from https://www.openaire.eu/search/publication?articleId=od_______645::fef3b6049bc28a0a9a2e79a2caa25e1b
5. Kohl, H. W., Craig, C. L., Lambert, E. V., Inoue, S., Alkandari, J. R., Leetongin, G., & Kahlmeier, S. (2012). The pandemic of physical inactivity: Global action for public health. Lancet (London, England), 380(9838), 294-305. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60898-8
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Introduction

P.E is currently compulsory from the age of 7 up to 16 within the Welsh Curriculum (Welsh Assembly Government (WAG), 2008), but it can often be seen as a waste of time and money in a school’s timetable when the effects aren’t as vocalised compared to other aspects of a school, and especially when you see many student’s sitting at the side-lines for the hour instead of participating in the lessons. It’s easy for it to be pushed aside by schools to make way for more time to be given towards it’s academic subjects, but when you look at the impact good Physical Education can have on different parts of an individual’s life compared to the negatives around the subject it can be argued that it’s actually one of the most important parts of the curriculum. This essay will look at whether P.E should be compulsory within the school curriculum.

Health Impact

With today’s young generation getting more and more inactive as technology has become more prevalent in daily life so has the concerns around physical health in children. According to Wales NHS (2018) “27.1% of children in Wales are overweight or obese compared to 22.6% in England.”, the bad health in children leads through to their adulthood, this doesn’t just affect the individual at hand but the country as a whole, The National Assembly of Wales (2019) have said that “Physical inactivity is considered to be the fourth leading risk factor for mortality.”, inactivity is a high leading factor to multiple health conditions (NHS 2012) such as:

• coronary heart disease
• high blood pressure
• stroke
• type 2 diabetes
• breast and colon cancer

The likelihood of someone having one of these health conditions in their future can be drastically reduced if physical activity was improved during childhood. The amount of physical activity children between the ages of 5 and 18 should be getting is at least 60 minutes a day (Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children (GOSH) 2013), this activity can range from brisk walks to running. Depending on the child this is either easily achievable or not being hit at all, if they walk to and from school each day that’ll be a up to half of their daily activity being done but not everyone walks, a lot get lifts to and from school, especially in primary when they’re not quite old enough to walk themselves to school. If you also add in break and lunch times the minutes can add up 60, but once again some children run around for the full break where as some can be sedentary during them, so we can’t say how many are hitting the minimum of 60 minutes a day since all children are different. As the Association for Physical Education (2015) defines Physical Education as “the planned, progressive learning that takes place in school curriculum timetabled time and which is delivered to all pupils.

The context for the learning is physical activity, with children experiencing a broad range of activities, including sport and dance”, this is where compulsory physical education can help, if we have all pupils taking part in these PE lessons we can guarantee that they have at least 60 minutes of a varied type of activity during their school day it lands on. If you look at the downsides you’ll find that PE is usually only timetabled around 2 days a week in majority of schools and fitting in more means an effect on expenses within those schools while simultaneously taking time away from other subjects, but with the small improvement on the lack of activity they would otherwise get, this little habit of weekly activity can lead to bigger healthier habits as adults.

Physical health isn’t the only concern in children, the NHS (2017) stated that “one in eight (12.8%) 5 to 19-year olds had at least one mental disorder when assessed in 2017”. The amount of anxiety and depression within young people has become high over the past years. It’s becoming common knowledge that exercise pushes endorphins to your brain; these are powerful chemicals that can improve a person’s happiness while lowering someone’s stress, in time leading to lowering the chance of severe depression and anxiety in children. So PE lessons vastly help with the physical health of children but underneath that, and harder to see visually is that it can help them mentally. Some could argue how PE can negatively affect some individuals depending on those around them, with bullying still being a huge problem within schools there’s no doubt that PE is another way for bullying to be present. If a student is bullied for their athletic skills or appearance with PE and it isn’t handled properly by the school it can lead to worse mental health and them not enjoying or taking part in PE lessons long term., therefore not being able to gain the positive effects that can come from activity.

Academic Impact

Furthermore, with the mental health improvements children can gain from activity it doesn’t stop with the positive effects in that one lessons or life outside of school; the improved focus and lowered stress can help them in other areas during school. Help Guide (2019) have written that “Physical activity immediately boosts the brain’s dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels—all of which affect focus and attention.”, if students have PE for an hour at the start of their day it can improve their focus during their next couple of lessons that same day. There have been many studies done on what effects daily physical activity have on a student’s academic achievements, one of which being a three-year trial called Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC). The results they got from their trial show that there was a positive difference between the academic performance of students partaking in the PAAC trial to those who weren’t, as shown in Figure 1. (PAAC, 2009) below: Figure 1. Change in academic score baseline to 3 years in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). All between group differences were significant (pb0.01). PAAC(n=117). Control (n=86). Improved academics isn’t surprising when you look at what effects exercise has on mental health, if a student’s mental health is good it leads to them doing better in school and if it’s bad it can lead to them doing worse. The academic improvement’s that can come from daily activity is a huge positive to schools, with our current education system in the UK teenagers become overly stressed around their GCSE’s which can affect the average grades each year, but with daily physical activity we can look at giving those student’s a way to deal with the stresses that come from the exam periods, improving a schools average results as well as the overall country in regards to final results and it’s education standings compared to the rest of the world. Social Impact It’s more than just physical and academic skills that can be gained through PE, children learn a lot of social skills through involvement in PE, such as teamwork, communication, empathy, and how to deal with their emotions overall whether positive or negatives. The social skills learned thanks to sport in PE are important to the development of people of all ages. Conclusion In conclusion, Physical Education being a compulsory part of the school curriculum is necessary and despite there being negatives that can come from PE the positives heavily out way them. The number of areas physical education can improve and the fact that they can be lifelong improvements suggests how important the subject is. It can work towards lowering the child obesity problem within the country in turn lowering the stress on our NHS due the likelihood of specific health conditions being decreased, as well as improving the academic performance throughout school and allowing young people to gain positive habits to follow them through life. Children can learn beneficial social and emotional skills, such as learning to understand their own emotions in positive and negative situations and being empathetic to others during their negative situations. All of these being things that not only improve their childhood but will follow them into adulthood. Overall it would be hard to argue against Physical Education being a compulsory part of the curriculum when taking into account all the effects it has. It can be argued that PE should be considered one of the most important subjects within schools due to all the positives it can have on other areas, if one subject can help with all the other subjects it’s obvious the importance of it, however these positive improvements will be dependent on the quality of teaching in regards to the lessons.

Reflective practice is a method of looking back on your own experiences and looking at the positives (what work well) and the negatives (what didn’t go as well). It is an opportunity to develop sessions/skills and make yourself an overall more professional and top-level Physical Educator. Through reflection, we are able to improve the quality of our sessions as a PE teacher and subsequently this can boost our confidence in terms of teaching because when we reflect, we work on the areas of teaching that we need most work/help with. ‘Reflective practice is a process that facilitates teaching, learning and understanding, and it plays a central role in teachers’ professional development’. (Mathew et el, 2017)

Being able to critically analyse your performance is a key quality of a person who is always looking to learn and develop their teaching style and performance. It is easy to point out things that may have gone wrong or things that could’ve gone/been better but on the other hand you need to be able to show you can fix your own problem or change the order so that you get the desired result. When evaluating there are many things that need to be considered, like ‘Am I being too critical? Not critical enough?’, and to make sure your being critical enough it may be an idea to have someone evaluate your session separately and then compared the results and come to a joint conclusion of things that you may need to work on.

There are 2 main models that I have looked at in terms of my reflection from the adapted physical education:

• Kolb Model (1975)
• Gibbs Model (1988)

These reflective models are essential for continuous professional development (CPD) and it leads them to be more efficient in their jobs and is a major boost in terms of confidence for teachers in their teaching environment. (Anderson et al, 2004), KOLB (1975)

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984). Kolb and Fry is based upon 4 stages:

1. Concrete Experience – new situation/experience faced, or an old experience seen from a different point of view
2. Observation and Reflection – reflecting on the elements of importance from the experience that you observed
3. Forming abstract concepts – this is where you use the elements observed get a new idea or make altercations to the existing idea in order to get the desired result
4. Testing – trying out the new idea or the altercated idea to see if it delivers the desired result (Hickcox, L.K., 1990)

Kolb sees learning as the above 4 stage process where each stage feeds and supports the next stage and there is a certain sequence involved. ‘Effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model’. (McLeod, 2017)

Although this model is proven and highly regarded, I believe that the Gibbs model is more accurate, and I think that I would benefit more from using it as any of the papers I have looked at about the Gibbs model has been based around teachers and their desire to improve. GIBBS (1988)

The Gibbs reflective cycle is a model that has 6 stages:

1. Description – breakdown of the experience (who, what, where, when, why).
2. Feelings – how you felt before, during and after and how you thought it went.
3. Evaluation – what went well and what could be improved/changed and how did you react.
4. Analysis – comparison to other experiences (self, literature etc.) and what could have helped or what could have hindered you.
5. Conclusion – what you have learnt, potential changes, how you could have stop negative results and how you can recreate, if positive.
6. Action plan – requirements for improvements, seek advice or shadowing a professional. (Dye, 2011)

Gibbs’ model encourages you to reflect is a systematic style and it is also essential that each and every step is filled with essential relevant detail and to the point. (Finlay, 2008)

Reflections on my experiences of teaching adapted physical activity

For my own analysis of the experience of coaching Adapted Physical Education, I have decided to use the Gibbs model as I feel like it is the best of the 2 models that I looked at and I feel like I would get a better evaluation using the model. It is similar to that of Kolb, but Gibbs has 6 components compared to Kolb’s 4, but Gibbs’ model seems to be more popular and after consideration and research I decided to use Gibbs’ model. As a Physical Educator it is easy to be conscious of your performance & ability and whether or not it went well or not. The Evaluation stage makes you analyse the positives while also helping concentrate on what can be worked on. Using the Gibbs model below, I have completed a thorough examination/analysis of my experience of coaching the children in the adapted PE environment. It has been a very rewarding experience and I have enjoyed every moment of the coaching.

Description

The session took place on Thursday 5th December in An Danlann in LYIT. There were 16 students from St. Bernadette’s school. We had a simple session lined out to help the children develop their motor skills as well as their co-ordination while also having fun. The warm up was an easy exercise called ‘Through the Jungle’ that was designed to help the children get their heart rate elevated and prepare them for the remainder of the session. Following that we had one more warm-up game called ‘Corners’ that consisted of a range of different movements that got the children active. Next, we split the group into two smaller groups. One group took part in different relay games, meanwhile the other group took part in a game called ‘angry birds’, which concentrated on hand-eye co-ordination and certain motor skills. After that we moved onto a dancing game called ‘Stop and Go’ and to finish off the session we played a game of ‘Duck, Duck, Goose’ as we felt it was a good way to settle the children and have them sitting in a circle at the end, so it was easier for to organise them. Games were very easily modified so when it came to making games harder/easier for certain children that were further developed compared to others. In relation to the Gibbs model it is clear to see that the above description covers the requirements of what is required in this stage.

Feelings

The Gibbs model highlights the importance that honesty is key, and it is significant to the rest of the model to be critical as each stage leads into one another, so highlighting the positives and negatives will provide better results and therefore lead to better/more improvement. Before the session I was confident enough as I feel like I am a good PE teacher but the more I thought about the session I began to become nervous as I had little experiences dealing with children with special needs and I wasn’t sure about how they would react to the games we had chosen, and I didn’t know how I’d deal with them if they were react in a negative way. Once the session began, I settled in well and felt confident to take the lead in most things and feel like I dealt very well with their reactions to our games and I contained them very well. Afterwards, once I received the feedback from the examiner, I was very happy with how things went and thought the experience with the children was very fulfilling and would have no problem doing this on a day to day basis.

Evaluation

As I mentioned above, the Evaluation stage makes you analyse the positives while also helping concentrate on what can be worked on. It is crucial that you figure what went wrong and why, while also choosing a different way to deliver that part of the session so that desired result becomes more achievable. On a couple of occasions games broke down, and creative thinking was imperative. Every child seemed to be enjoying the session and none of the children were excluded due to ability or disinterest in a game. Organisation and time management within the group was superlative as we used the whole hall and had very little down time between games.

Analysis

In this stage a teacher must make meaning from their experience. They must determine what techniques worked and what could be done to help better the negatives. Reference to literature is essential in this stage of the cycle. My performance throughout the session was staggered at the beginning but became more and more smooth as the session went on. Once I learnt how to deal with the behaviour of the children, by finding ways to keep them interested and talking to them in a clear and concise tone while also projecting my voice, I began to settle into the session and become more confident. As a result of this, I was able to build a good relationship with children and allow them to also become more settled and confidence. I thought I experienced good communication, with both my colleagues and the children. I was constantly involved whether it was in the lead role or in the background assisting. If the children had any problem with anything, it was important to get to their level and use a gentle tone while also using little complicated words/phrases. Having good communication and relationships with the children was key to keeping their discipline on a good level that worked for everyone. Lastly, I noticed that maintaining a positive and fun environment was key to the session and this was the main reason as to why the session went as well as it did.

Conclusion

According to Gibbs, this stage is where the teacher takes all their ideas together and use these insights to improve the negatives and use the research to come up with different methods in a better attempt to make a more positive impact on each session. In conclusion, I have developed a better understanding of what it takes to be successful in an adapted PE environment. I learned that parts of the session is unpredictable and will require creativity to deal with certain problems. It is all about analysing the session as it happens and dealing with issues as soon as possible. Using all equipment that may be available is a key part of making the session unique and enjoyable. Week on week there were different games, and this is one of the main reasons that all 4 weeks of coaching APA sessions were such a success.

Action Plan

The teacher, in this stage, takes time to evaluate the previous stages. Once evaluated, it is important to create a detailed session incorporating all the new ideas discovered and created, which will be the description in the next evaluation. You need to decide on what to use again, what will need to be developed/progressed and what will need to be removed. In any future teaching of children with special needs, I will recall on this experience to help that future session succeed. I have decided that I will volunteer for special needs sports while also shadowing the experienced and professional teachers/coaches and taking ideas from their sessions and adapting them into my own. It may also be an idea to get info ahead of the session off parents/teachers etc.

References

1. Mathew, P., Mathew, P. and Peechattu, P.J., 2017. Reflective practices: A means to teacher development. Asia Pacific Journal of Contemporary Education and Communication Technology (APJCECT), 3(1), pp.126-131.
2. McLeod, S. A. (2017, Oct 24). Kolb – learning styles. Simply Psychology.
3. Hickcox, L.K., 1990. An historical review of Kolb’s formulation of experiential learning theory.
4. Dye, V. (2011) ‘Reflection, Reflection, Reflection. I’m thinking all the time, why do I need a theory or model of reflection?’, in McGregor, D. and Cartwright, L. (ed.) Developing Reflective Practice: A guide for beginning teachers. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education (pp. 217-234).
5. Finlay, L., 2008. Reflecting on reflective practice. PBPL paper, 52, pp.1-27.
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8. Standal, Ø.F. and Moe, V.F., 2013. Reflective practice in physical education and physical education teacher education: A review of the literature since 1995. Quest, 65(2), pp.220-240.