Category: Phobias

Understand, accept, realize, and dwell with the fact that failure is not fatal. There is a way to correct most of the mistakes we make, and most of them have a second chance you can use to right your wrongs, so you don’t have to fear failure. Each time you try and fail, you’re left with the wisdom to learn from your mistakes, which gives you a step ahead of those who never tried. Nevertheless, never start a task with the hope to fail; only be realistic that you’re not perfect, so you’re prone to mistakes and failure. If you can conquer the fear of failure, you’re a step closer to increasing your productivity.

Obsession with Perfection: Procrastination also takes over when one is engrossed in the thought of doing the perfect job. They have the expectation that everything from them must be perfect. This can be related to the fear caused by failure; the difference here is that you are only scared you can’t perform as high as you picture in your head. An obsessive perfectionist will find it difficult, if not impossible, to start any new tasks. Procrastination sets in when there is a need to try out something alien to him/her. This is so because every perfectionist is primarily scared of ‘what will people say if I’m not up to the standard?’ Funny enough, they are unnecessarily worried about whether they will like the outcome of the action they never take or not.

Don’t get things mixed up here; it is a beautiful feeling to be proud of whatever you do and aim to do better always. Nonetheless, there is a problem somewhere if the mental picture you have for your success if far beyond what you can reasonably do. For that reason, you’ll be more comfortable to procrastinate and do nothing. It’s a great thing to be proud of the work that you do and to want to do your best.

Strategic Approach

Cultivate the act of doing your best and learn to be happy with whatever output you get. Believe that you can always do better until you reach the best. I can confirm to you that there is no perfect job anywhere because there are some people somewhere who are ready to criticize and bring out the faults in every ‘perfect job.’ Shun the habit of perfectionism and watch yourself increase in productivity.

Energy Mismanagement: We are biological machines, and just like the artificial machines, energy is required for the execution of tasks and for carrying out activities, both mental and physical. However, the most given excuse for procrastination is low energy level, even though it’s not the reason in most cases – ‘I’m seriously tired right now, I’ll do it later.’ It is natural that if you don’t have enough or the required energy, you won’t be able to do much; hence, people frequently use this reason to procrastinate. Energy, however, is a limited resource that can be exhausted and become insufficient at any point; this means it needs to be appropriately managed. This cause of procrastination is common among the people who relatively live an unhealthy lifestyle (poor energy management), such as ‘not getting enough sleep,’ ‘constant intake of imbalanced diet,’ and so on. The lifestyle you live plays a vital role in your energy level, which is a factor for procrastination – a tangible factor in your productivity. This problem is easy to identify because it is more physical than mental. When the mind is willing to work, but the body is not helping the situation, then there is a problem of low energy levels.

The solution to this is obvious. Avoid whatever that can drain your energy. Live a healthier lifestyle. Involve in an excellent sleep, balanced diet, and frequently exercise your body to locate a balance that suits your system. In a situation whereby the self-help methods up there seems not working, you may need to consult a healthcare professional to help you cure the low energy level. Say no to unproductive living!

Lack of Concentration: Your inability to focus or concentrate simply means you don’t have a goal. The people in this category believe the saying, ‘a traveler with no definite destination travels further.’ If I can ask, what’s the essence of traveling further and get nothing done eventually? It is apparent that anyone who lacks focus in life easily falls for procrastination. Your life seems like you’re just drifting through life if you often feel you don’t have a direction, or you think that you lack purpose in life. Procrastination is invited when one has no set goals he/she is working toward. You’ll have no tangible reason to keep up with tasks.

Cautiously set your goals on whatever task or action you want to execute. Learning, specifically, requires you to set attainable, concise, unambiguous, feasible, and realistic goals (I’ll still get these explained later in this book). It is advisable to target a high bar that will encourage you, but not too high that it will exhaust you and cause your failure. Having goals is important, but having realistic goals is much more important.

I was once a chronic procrastinator, thankfully I fought the war and won. In the process of battling procrastination, I leafed through many books, listened to tapes, attended seminars, and even consulted professionals. One of the effective weapons I used is what I call TCP.

The Countdown

As strong as procrastination seems, Mel Robbins discovered a rule he called The Five-Second Rule, which has been put to test by me and several others. Not ordinarily does this rule, which I’ll call The Countdown Push conquers procrastination; it does it magically and works for almost everything that pertains to procrastination. It is simple and may seem stupid, but then, employing it to your life will definitely push you out of procrastination zone to an active zone, then increased productivity follows.

Introduction

Nowadays, phobia is one of the major problems that affects in our society. Phobia is a severe fear of specific thing or situation. It is a part of anxiety disorder that results negative emotional responses. Phobia is usually happen when fear is formed by danger situation which can be moved to other situations that the fear is originally forgotten. For example, a boy had the experience that was bitten by a dog. The next day when he saw the dog, he might get extreme fear and show the negative emotional responses because of the experience that he was bitten by dog. Therefore the boy had a phobia about dogs. However, there are some ways to overcome the phobia. As we know, treatments or therapies are the examples to treat disorders. These various therapies have cured phobia and made our lives more comfortable.

Classification of phobia

Phobias are divided into two main groups, specific phobia and social phobia. Specific phobia is an uncommon fear about specific situations and objects. For example lots of people fear when they saw spider (arachnophobia) and heights (acrophobia). However some people reacts with objects and situation exaggerating. Although they do not get any threat, they show negative emotions such as panic or terror. These refers to specific phobia. People who got specific phobia usually fears exaggerated and shows uncontrollable responses. Social phobia is one of the anxiety disorders that related with social situations. People who confront social phobia shows continuous fears about being judged or criticised. When people who realises that social anxiety is overwhelmed, they feel that they cannot change or control the feelings. Moreover, people who feared situations that avoided with extreme anxiety shows the social phobia. People who confront social phobia may experience various symptoms such as nausea, stomach pain or trembling.

Specific phobia

Compared to generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobias occurs in various forms. They are classified into 4 types which are animal phobias natural environment phobias, situational phobias and other phobias as the avoidance of situations that relates to vomiting or chocking or the other illness. Especially, specific phobias develop during childhood or teenage. These phobias caused by various factors such as traumatic event, unexpected panic attack or informational transmission. Traumatic event is an event that relates to physical, emotional or psychological harm. For example a boy who suffers distressing event results negative feelings as anxious or frightened. This boy need technically support and relieve himself (having time) to recover the traumatic event for positive emotional and stabilized his mentality. There are many cases of traumatic event as death of family member, physical pain or injury and serious illness. After experiencing threatening event, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs. It is a type of anxiety disorder that shows the changes of body responses because of stress. As a result, it causes strong physical and emotional response to the memory of the event. To manage traumatic stress it is important to maintain daily routine or spend time with other people to avoid becoming withdrawn. Moreover give time to ourselves and realise that cannot control everything. Communicating the experience to people who really close as family or friends is a great idea to manage traumatic stress.

Treatments

There are some treatments to overcome specific phobia. Especially, exposure therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy are the main treatments that are well known. Exposure therapy is based on changing responses to the objects or situations that people are fear about it. By repeating exposure to the specific phobia and linked thoughts or feelings help us to care anxiety. For example, a boy who has claustrophobia of elevator, the therapy is to think repeatedly of elevator. The first day, let a boy stays inside the elevator for 1 minute. And the next day, he stays for 2 minutes and so on. From this method, the boy will exposure to the elevator with positive image that he can overcome his anxiety disorder.

Cognitive behavioural therapy is a part of exposure but added with other techniques to show the feared objects or situations into various view. It is effective to reduce post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Firstly, let the patient has PTSD and more aware of thinking automatically to maintain PTSD. Secondly, he writes the major sentences that he knows about the reason that traumatic event happens and the impacts that affect the world. Then, he will write his worst experience that he try to avoid the thought of traumatic experience. The therapist asks the patient about unhelpful thoughts about his traumatic experience to modify maladaptive thinking. Lastly, the patient developed skills for unhelpful thinking and keep doing the previous process as modifying beliefs of traumatic experiences. This time, therapist helps the patient to develop the skill that can use adaptive strategies and improve his life better by focusing on safety, control and esteem.

Moreover, medications help to overcome the anxiety and symptoms. These are used in initial treatment or situations as public speaking, airplane or in MRI procedure. There are two main medications, one is beta blocker and the other is sedative. Beta blocker is a drug that blocks the effects of adrenaline as increasing heart rate, blood pressure. Sedative is a medication that helps to decrease the amount of anxiety that people feel. It is causative since it is addictive and should be banned while having alcohol.

Conclusion

Ultimately, fear is something that we all confront. From our anxieties and past experiences, the degree of fear is getting higher or lower. There are some ways to overcome the anxiety disorders as Cognitive behavioural therapy, medications or exposure therapy. However, the most appropriate way is not to depend on the treatment as technology. We need to overcome ourselves such as managing our daily routine. For example when a person who had serious anxiety disorder, it is better to plan himself like meeting close friend and tell his problem sincerely or do something different that can be helpful to reduce anxiety. Moreover a girl who gets over her fear by the way she went through it, as seeing a syringe every day. From her firm will, he overcame the fear of syringe and eventually no longer afraid of syringes and be treated. In our society, we showed that lots of people are afraid of simple things but can face and confront these things. It is not easy to face the fear but it is essential the way to overcome the anxiety disorders.

As a result of ever-changing conditions and environments, humans have evolved to adapt. Evolution has changed how we respond to fear. Fear can be defined as an intense negative emotion when an organism encounters a threat or dangerous situation (Gullone, 2020). In humans, fear can be displayed in multiple ways. For example, physiological symptoms of fear can include but are not limited to chest pain, shortness of breath and an increased heart rate (Fritscher, 2020). The individual may also feel overwhelmed or distressed. This fear can often manifest itself into phobias, an anxiety disorder involving the feeling of fear and distress whilst also incorporating avoidance behaviour to reduce the intensity of negative emotions (Eaton, Bienvenu & Miloyan, 2018). Consequently, phobias can result in freeze, flight, fight or fright reactions (Bracha, 2004). Phobias can be classified into three categories: specific phobias, agoraphobia and social phobias (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Specific phobias can be sub-categorized into the four categories of the natural environment, animal, situational and blood-injection-injury types (LeBeau et al., 2010). Phobias can significantly damage a person’s quality of life if triggered by a common stimulus, for example, hydrophobia (the fear of water). As a result, it is essential to understand the causes of fear and consequently phobias. Theoretically, human evolution should have created a way for us to minimise or remove fear as humans are intelligent and versatile enough to survive in a vast range of environments. This essay will therefore discuss the neurological explanations of fear and phobia behaviours and their limitations and applications by looking at the role of the amygdala.

In general, the most common area associated with fear and phobias is the amygdala, located at the base of the brain, specifically the medial temporal lobe. Research suggests that the amygdala plays a large role in the detection of fear with it often being an essential component in identifying facial expressions (Öhman, 2005), thus explaining why individuals with social phobias are triggered by the presence of faces (for example large crowds). In addition, the amygdala plays a significant role in fear conditioning, which works in a similar way to classical conditioning – the amygdala causes an association with a negative stimulus which induces a fear response in the individual; this is what leads to a phobia being formed. Through the use of fMRI studies, Goossens et al. (2007) found increased levels of baseline amygdala activity in participants before being exposed to a phobic stimulus. This research suggests that the amygdala may influence fear conditioning as well as suggesting that subcortical structures can be changed as a result of exposure therapy. In addition, the use of fMRI imaging increases the reliability of the results as it is a standardised and objective technique. The amygdala has also been shown to be involved in memory consolidation – more specifically the basolateral amygdala (McIntyre, 2003). This can be done by neurone excitability via the collective efforts of dopamine, cholinergic and beta-2 adrenergic receptors, which cause the activation of phospholipase C resulting in the inhibition of potassium-voltage gated channels that conduct M current; the M current regulates neurone excitability (Schroeder et al., 2000). When a neurone becomes excitable, the chances of a memory being consolidated is improved (Young & Thomas, 2014). These results, therefore, highlight the role of the amygdala in the production and storage of phobias. The following results could be applied as to why phobias are difficult to extinguish after the association between the phobic cue and the feeling of fear has been made.

In addition to the role of the amygdala itself, it can also cause the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters that influence behaviour. There is research to suggest that these neurotransmitters and hormones are part of the mechanism of fear and reinforcement. For example, dopamine (a hormone and neurotransmitter required for reward processing) is released should avoidance behaviour occur. Research from Gentry, Lee & Roesch (2016) found that when looking at dopamine levels in rats, there was a higher release of dopamine during avoidance and reward behaviour. Similar results have also been found in mice (Menegas et al., 2018). When engaging in avoidance behaviour, the secretion of dopamine causes the individual to feel pleasure from not engaging with the phobic stimulus. As a result, the avoidant behaviour is reinforced as the individual can avoid the distress and negative emotions related to the phobic stimulus. As mice and rats can be genetically similar to humans, some generalisations can be made regarding the role of dopamine as a reinforcing agent. However, it should not be taken as concrete evidence as factors such as previous experiences and complex emotions cannot be considered.

Another set of neurotransmitters that are involved in a response to phobias are those that cause the ‘fight-or-flight’ response- this occurs when an individual encounter’s a phobic stimulus (Bracha, 2004). The fight-or-flight response can be defined as a physiological response to a stimulus perceived as harmful in order to aid survival. The fight-or-flight response is controlled by the autonomous nervous system resulting in responses such as increased heart rate and respiratory rate and decreased digestion. Upon seeing a phobic stimulus, the sympathetic nervous system activates physiological changes in the autonomous nervous system. The amygdala activates a neural response in the hypothalamus which is soon followed by the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the adrenal glands which encourages the production of epinephrine (adrenaline) and thus, cortisol in order to create more energy (McCarty, 2016). There is research to suggest that individuals that suffer from social phobias, may exhibit signs of increased levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline (Van Zijderveld et al., 1991) for example, shaking. In addition, more recent research has shown norepinephrine (noradrenaline) to play a vital role in the identification of fearful stimuli. Onur et al. (2009) used 18 healthy participants in a double-blind trial and administered reboxetine (a type of norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor) or a sugar placebo – the use of reboxetine encourages the uptake of norepinephrine in the synapse rather than presynaptically. Through fMRI imaging, it was shown that the use of reboxetine produced a response via the basolateral amygdala in response to fearful stimuli. It could therefore be suggested that the disinhibition of internal norepinephrine could be a reason for an exaggerated reaction from the basolateral amygdala should fear stimuli be encountered. Although this research initiative focuses on the role of norepinephrine in stress-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, the research could explain why people with phobias may experience certain symptoms such as shaking and sweating.

There is also evidence to suggest that Hebbian synaptic plasticity is also a factor in fear detection. Originally suggested by Donald Hebb in 1949, Hebbian theory claims that ‘neurones that fire together, wire together (Chechik & Horn, 2000). The main concept of Hebbian theory is that the persistent and repeated stimulation of a postsynaptic cell from a presynaptic cell causes an increase in synaptic effectiveness (Hebb, 2005). Some research has shown that the Hebbian theory can be used to explain fear acquisition and memory consolidation. Langwieser et al., (2010) investigated the role of postsynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels involved in the thalamus-amygdala pathway in mice; more specifically the Cav1.2 channels (these channels could possibly be involved in the process of Hebbian plasticity). Through the use of auditory fear conditioning, the study found that when these pathways are blocked pharmaceutically (by a class of calcium blockers called isradipine), the fear acquisition was minimised due to the blocking of Cav1.2 channels. Consequently, this research could provide evidence for the use of voltage-gated calcium channels in Hebbian plasticity in the amygdala pathway, and therefore fear acquisition. It could provide possible biological treatments for people with phobias through the use of calcium channel blockers. However, this area would have to be thoroughly researched as present research use mice and therefore may lack external validity when generalising to human neurological processes. There is also cause to believe that N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are associated with Hebbian plasticity as they allow for an influx of calcium, inducing long-term potentiation. However, there is a type of long-term potentiation that requires NMDARs which occur in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (Fourcaudot et al., 2009). This could suggest that fear acquisition is not due to Hebbian plasticity as the depolarisation of the postsynaptic neurone is not required. It could be possible for this research to influence extensive research in the role of Hebbian plasticity and phobia acquisition.

There is no question that the acquisition of phobias can be largely influenced by the role of neurological factors as stated above. In addition to research, there is also evidence to support these claims by looking at deficits when these areas are damaged. For instance, damage to the cortical areas of the brain, more specifically areas in the limbic system can result in severe emotional variations (Bear, Conors & Paradisco, 2007). There is also evidence to suggest that damage to the amygdala can inhibit a person’s ability to identify facial expressions and therefore fear. Patient SM endured a rare form of bilateral amygdala damage as a result of Urbach-Wiethe disease (a rare genetic disorder affecting the medial temporal lobes and causing calcification of the surrounding areas of the amygdala (Hurlemann et al., 2007)). Patient SM, therefore, didn’t respond to fearful stimuli in a way that would be expected; they often responded with expressions of excitement and curiosity (Feinstein et al., 2011). One advantage of the case study of Patient SM is that it has allowed for a rich collection of data regarding the effects of damage to the amygdala and its relationship with fear. However, the case of Patient SM should be used as evidence with caution. As the case of Patient SM is a case study, it is difficult to generalise to the public as the results are not replicated with more than one participant- this replication would also not be ethical as it would involve the surgical damage of the amygdala.

To conclude, there are multiple neurological aspects that must be considered when looking at what may cause fear and consequently the behaviour that can be observed when individuals are exposed to a phobic stimulus. It can be argued that the amygdala plays a significant role in the acquisition of fear and how a person may respond to a phobic stimulus. Whilst there is research to suggest other components of the brain are involved, the vast majority of these involve the amygdala one way or another. For example, the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine when the fight-or-flight response occurs. It should be noted that the majority of studies investigating the role of neurological components on the fear acquisition and consequently the following behaviour use animals – usually mice or rats. There are a few advantages when using mice and rats in research. For example, they are similar to humans in terms of genetics as they have a 99% match to the human genome (Vandamme, 2014), in addition to being a relatively cost-effective option should a large-scale study be conducted. However, it must be noted that the research must ethically comply with the appropriate governing body (such as BPS or APA) in addition to the use of animals being a last resort as a research participant. It could be argued that the use of rodents is ethical in this scenario as it could be considered unethical to subject a participant to phobic stimuli, knowing it will cause distress. It could also be argued that the use of animals decreases the external validity of results when applying the data to humans – for example, it cannot be assumed that the amygdala and Cav1.2 channels would work in the same way in humans as they do in mice. However, when looking at human participants, objective methods such as fMRI are used in order to investigate the roles of brain structures such as the amygdala (Goossens et al., 2007). Consequently, the internal validity of studies that use such methods increases, making results more reliable and generalisable. In addition, fMRI is a non-invasive method of measurement thus making the drop-out rate for these studies relatively low. One advantage of research into neurological explanations of phobic behaviour is that it may be possible to produce relevant treatments for individuals should their phobia become difficult to handle, for example, it could be possible to produce a treatment involving voltage-gated calcium channels should further research suggest this as a viable option. However, it is important to note that whilst the majority of research suggests the amygdala plays a large role in the production of phobia responses, it is important to recognise that there may be other explanations as to why people respond this way. For example, a popular theory to explain phobia behaviour is rooted in evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology states that individuals respond to phobic stimuli as a result of a natural instinct to survive and that relevant evolutionary fears such as heights or predators could present themselves without a relevant cue or experience (Coelho & Purkins, 2009). In conclusion, it can be shown that the amygdala plays a significant role in phobia acquisition and behaviour, but other factors must be considered in order to appreciate the complexity of fear.

What do you fear? Some people might have to think long and hard for an answer, while some answer ‘clowns!’ And there are the plucky ones who answer ‘nothing!’ but secretly have nightmares about heights. But what lines must ‘fear’ cross, to be considered ‘phobia’? Fear is feeling threatened by a certain stimulus; an object, organism, or situation. However, phobias are self-acknowledged, irrational fears of stimuli. People facing that type of anxiety disorder, experience extreme distress in response to the stimulus. In this essay, I will be examining specific phobias; (the most common type of phobias that people face), how they come about, and possible treatments for them.

Specific phobias are divided into 5 categories; animal phobias, blood-injection-injury phobias, situational phobias (e.g. finding themselves in closed spaces), natural environment phobias (e.g. phobia of heights), and others (for the types of phobias that weren’t already included).

Phobias can drastically affect occupational and social functioning, among other things, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-V) by the American Psychiatric Association (2013). The symptoms that fit the description of phobias listed under the DSM-V include; having a significant fear/anxiety about a specific stimulus last for six months or more, having the stimulus almost always provoking responses of immediate fear or anxiety, and stimulus being avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety. The fear and anxiety felt must also be disproportionate, in comparison to the legitimate threat of the stimulus. Lastly, it is only considered a phobia if the symptoms cannot be described better by another disorder.

Psychologists have several theories about specific phobias. One is the theory of biological preparedness by Seligman (1971). It claims that we are biologically vulnerable to developing certain specific phobias because of the potentially dangerous nature of the feared stimulus. This theory explains phobias through an evolutionary lens; it believes that the vulnerabilities we have toward certain phobias (e.g. phobia of snakes) is our way of adaptation, to avoid life-threatening stimuli.

There are biological ways to counter phobias; through medication. Certain medications, such as antidepressants, are able to assist people to control the immediate anxiety response that occurs, whenever they are faced with a feared stimulus. An example is Prozac; a Serotonin-Specific Re-uptake Inhibitor (SSRI). Serotonin, a neurotransmitter that affects cognition and how we process information (Spoont, 1992), helps us regulate our emotions and reactions to different stimuli. SSRIs block the presynaptic re-uptake of serotonin, increasing the levels of serotonin available.

Phobias can also be developed and maintained psychologically, as explained by Mowrer’s (1947) two-factor theory of avoidance. It reasons that phobias develop and are maintained through classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is essentially a neutral stimulus (an object, situation, etc.) getting paired with an unconditioned, usually aversive stimulus, in order to cue an unconditioned response, (e.g. fear of the stimulus). The fear of the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned response, if repeated enough. Watson and Raynor (1920) proved this, in their experiment with Little Albert, an 11-month-old, who wasn’t initially scared of the toys they presented him. Every time he reached for a white mouse (neutral stimulus), they hit a metal bar with a hammer, right behind his head (an unconditioned stimulus). Albert cried in fear (an unconditioned response). Each time he tried to reach for the white mouse, they struck the bar, (conditioned stimulus), and he coiled away in fear (a conditioned response.) Specific phobias can therefore be the result of a psychologically traumatic event, but what causes it to continue on, is the next factor.

The second part of this explanation involves operant conditioning, a process that positive/negative associate actions and consequences and whether they’re reinforced or punished. For example, if I had a phobia of snakes, I would avoid them at all costs. This is an example of negative reinforcement; negative because I wish to avoid the stimulus (snakes), reinforcement because I make an active effort to change my behavior in order to avoid the feared stimulus.

There is a psychological treatment to address specific phobias; systematic desensitization via exposure therapy (ET). ET is a form of cognitive behavioral therapy that targets the lack of rationale behind certain phobias. The patient provides a hierarchy of scenarios that involve them facing the feared stimulus, at different levels of intensity. Together with a professional, they work through the scenarios of facing the stimulus, in a controlled environment; one where the patient is capable of seeing how irrationally disproportionate their fear is to the specific stimulus presented. In a study that combined the results of different studies, “ten studies directly compared one or more exposure treatments to a non-exposure treatment. As predicted, exposure treatment led to significantly greater improvement.” (K.B. Wolitzky-Taylor et al, 2008)

This treatment is advantageous because of its high generalisability. This treatment allows each patient to personally tailor their treatment to what they are comfortable with, at their own pace. It doesn’t force them to face their fears all at once, as, for example, flooding does. However, some disadvantages are that; it’s a long process. Exposure therapy sessions can go on for weeks, usually lasting 3-4 hours per session. This could mean high dropout rates because patients get weary of facing the phobic stimulus.

Specific phobias can also be developed via observation. According to Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory (SLT), phobias can be learned based on individuals observing others fear a certain stimulus. People affect the way someone perceives their surroundings; certain things leave them vulnerable to developing certain phobias. In a laboratory experiment, Mineka et al (1984) observed that monkeys born in captivity didn’t fear snakes the way that the wild-born monkeys did. Their hypothesis was that “observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys” (Mineka ea, 1984) would occur for the wild-born ones. The monkeys learned to fear snakes based on, to put simply, ’monkey sees, monkey do. The experiment proved that the SLT accounts for the way certain specific phobias being learned.

Phobias can be treated socially as well. Treatments like CBT administered in the form of group therapy have been proven to show satisfactory results (Gelernter et al.,1991). In that form of group therapy, the patients happened to have social phobia, so they were exposed to social situations, Vivo exposure assignments, and associated restructuring (Turk, Heimberg,& Hope, 2001). This could be applicable to patients with specific phobia, e.g. if patients were to discuss their fear of rabbits together.

It’s advantageous because this treatment has high usefulness; some people can take comfort in the fact of knowing that they aren’t facing the phobia, or the treatment of the phobia, on their own. However, it’s difficult to standardize the procedure of group therapy, which causes it to have low reliability. It. Individuals might not get the attention they require, but there’s no way to examine it. With minimal controls, it’s difficult to replicate and repeat to review the effectiveness.

Conclusively, the development and maintenance of specific phobias can depend on a variety of different factors, just like the effectiveness of the different types of treatments administered.

A phobia is defined as “a persistent, irrational fear of an object, event, activity, or situation called a phobic stimulus, resulting in a compelling desire to avoid it” [1]. Although we understand what phobias are, the reasons for their acquisition are a subject of debate. Many psychologists have presented theories as to why phobias develop. Some psychologists believe they develop on a biological basis, whereas Freud presented a theory in relation to the three stages of conscience, or the “id, ego and superego”. The most compelling theory however is that phobias are learned through a process called classical conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov.

Classical conditioning is a process of learning “ through which an initially neutral stimulus (1), such as the ticking of a metronome, comes to elicit a particular response, such as salivation, as a consequence of being paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus, such as food”. [1]

With phobias, for example, people may associate the presence of a dog (US) with fear (CR) after being bit. Many studies have been conducted to apply classical conditioning to phobias, particularly Watson and Rayner’s paper entitled “conditioned emotional reaction” in 1920, which is a notable example of unethical experimentation in psychology. A white rat was presented to a child who, in typical child-like nature, reacted positively and seemed to enjoy its presence. The researchers then presented the white rat to the child once more and struck an iron bar, producing a loud and startling noise that caused the baby to become distressed. The process was repeated several times until eventually, the baby would become extremely distressed even being in presence of the white rat. This concept is the fundamental basis for many phobias. The child learned to associate the fear induced by the sound of the iron bar with the presence of the white rat, despite the rat not evoking that kind of a response prior to the experiment. [4]

Although the findings of this study are quite remarkable, they have not gone unchallenged. Although response of fear was elicited, it is unlikely that it lasted a lifetime as a phobia. Watson did emphasize the necessity to periodically “freshen the reaction”. This implies that although a conditioned response was attained, over time the response will have been reduced greatly or have completely vanished. This weakening of the conditioned response is known as extinction. Extinction is defined as “The diminution in the strength or frequency of a conditioned response as a result of its having been elicited repeatedly without reinforcement” [1]. Despite this inadequacy, the theory that phobias are acquired through conditioning is popular due to its simplicity.

A pavlovian theory doesn’t exclusively refer to classical conditioning, however. In relation to the development of phobias, there is observational learning also referred to as vicarious conditioning. Vicarious conditioning is defined as “the learning of various attitudes, feelings, beliefs, and emotions, not through direct exposure to a stimulus, but through observing how others react to it” [1]. This form of conditioning is commonly observed in children who often learn vicariously through their parents. For example, when a child sees a parent figure licking their finger before turning a page, they often mimic this behavior without understanding why and oftentimes do it incorrectly.

In relation to phobias, scientists conducted a study [2] where one group of lab-reared monkeys and another group of wild monkeys were placed in a similar environment and were presented with food and a wild snake. In order to reach the food, the monkeys would have to reach past the snake which was placed inside a clear box. The wild monkeys were extremely distressed by the presence of the snake and demonstrated a great reluctance to reach for the food. The lab-reared monkeys however reacted quite indifferently and liberally reached for the food. The lab-reared monkeys were then shown the distressed responses of the wild monkeys. Despite their previous indifference, they subsequently developed a fearful response to the wild snake. This acquired fear remained for 3 months but gradually lessened due to the process of extinction. The studies demonstrate overall that fears can be acquired and do not have to be conditioned. In relation to humans, a child may acquire a fear due to their parents or other prominent figures eliciting a fearful response to a stimulus.

Although Pavlov’s theories are commonly used to explain the acquisition of phobias, his theory of conditioning is also commonly used to treat them in a process called systematic desensitization, which is defined as a behavior modification technique, used especially in treating phobias, in which panic or other undesirable emotional response to a given stimulus is reduced or extinguished, especially by repeated exposure to that stimulus”[1]. The goal of the therapy is to extinguish the negative response of the phobia and to instead substitute a positive response using counter conditioning.

The procedure itself is split into three phases. The patient is taught breathing techniques or meditation in order to induce a feeling of relaxation. The logic behind this is that the relaxation cancels out the fear induced by the phobia as the two feelings are incompatible i.e. only one can be experienced at any given time. The patient in question then writes a fear hierarchy ranking certain stimuli from the least fear-inducing to the most fear-inducing. The patient then imagines the listed stimuli starting from the least fear-inducing and working upward to the most fear-inducing. The goal of the procedure is that the patient will learn to associate the stimuli with a feeling of relaxation (CR) instead of fear (UR). It is vital that the procedure is performed gradually.

Joseph Wolpe, a psychologist who specialized in behavioral therapy utilized this form of therapy quite often in his work. He had moderate success with this method in treating obsessional patients, achieving a success rate of 7 out of 10. For example, a boy reportedly grew obsessed with not contaminating others after urinating and would spend hours compulsively showering and scrubbing his genitalia. In a lengthy process spanning over 5 months, Wolpe successfully desensitized the obsessional boy to the presence of urine. The case report overall gives “an indication of the time, patience, and ingenuity that behavior therapy can demand”.[3]

This form of therapy has many flaws, however. The procedure relies on the patient’s ability to vividly picture the fearful stimulus in their head. It is also, as outlined above, an extremely slow and grueling process with success not always being guaranteed. Systematic desensitization is also extremely limited in the phobias it can treat. Although it can successfully treat fears of objects or situations, it may not treat disorders such as schizophrenia as effectively. This can lead to therapists using SD in unsuitable situations. For example, someone with a fear of public speaking may benefit more from being taught social skills rather than being desensitized to the experience itself.

1. Colman, A. M. (2015). A dictionary of psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. (Joslin et al.,1964; Mineka, Davidson, Cook, & Keir, 1984; Mineka, Keir, & Price, 1980; Murray & King, 1973)
3. Wolpe, J. (1964). Behavior therapy in complex neurotic states. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 110(464), 28-34.
4. Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), 1-14.

Understanding Phobias.

Everyone is not born with phobias, we might born with fear, but if you check on young children, they are born without fear until what they did harms them in some ways. A phobia is learned because it has become a connection with an object or an experience that is unpleasant and uncomfortable. According to the psychological behaviorist, a phobia has to be learned. This will happen in one or two ways: classical or operant conditioning.

Everyone is afraid of something. Everyone experiences nervousness, anxiety and even in superior feelings on or around certain people. Some people felt these feelings so deeply that their fear is considered irrational. Even they realize that it is irrational and slowly this habit became a phobia, which eventually causes them to have phobias. Millions of people suffer from phobias every day of their lives. I am one of them myself. I have several phobias that are uncommon to others.

The third largest psychological disorder in the United States is what psychologists have labeled a social phobia. A social phobia is the fear of social situations and interactions with other people that can automatically bring on feelings of self-consciousness, judgment, evaluation, and scrutiny. (Olesen, 2018) A friend of mine once told me a story about her aunt who didn’t ‘t leave her house for 15 years because she was too afraid of socializing with people, and it was the only place she felt safe, I was so curious about it and I ended up found out that this woman suffered from agoraphobia.

A phobia can be defined as an abnormal, intense, and irrational fear. This fear can be of a given situation, organism, or object. Dictionary website (2010) states that the word phobia comes from the Greek word that means fear. For every letter in the alphabet, there are phobias that start with the letters A to Z. An estimated 18 percent of the U.S adult population is estimated to suffer some kind of phobia as stated in the Electronic Ardell Wellness Report (2010). In the mind of the person who has the fear, the phobias are really terrifying to them. Most ordinary people would be surprised at the common everyday people, places, or things that some individuals are afraid of.

Many people claim to be afraid of spiders, which included my best friend back in my country. I ask her why she is so afraid of spiders just by seeing them running around or just by seeing pictures or videos about the spiders, she mentioned that she could feel those spiders crawling on her skin even when she just looking at them. 35-year-old Anna Murray from California. Anna went to many lengths to be spider-free, including sealing her windows and doors with duct tape, spraying her car with bug killer, and putting every single piece of washed and ironed clothing into its own sealed plastic bag. She wasn’t just afraid of spiders; she have arachnophobia, a phobia that was extremely terrified of spiders, not to be confused with a simple fear like my friend. Phobias are not simple; they are complex in both their origin and diagnosis, with many types that people suffer from and any number of treatments that exist to date.

There is still insufficient research in the field of phobias to determine a specific clear cause. What is known is that phobias are common in children and do not represent an abnormality. Phobias can start in childhood or adulthood. Some people have suddenly become terrified of things they’ve been doing for years, somewhat like a flight attendant that suddenly begins to have panic attacks on her 500th flight. In most cases, phobias are thought to branch from a connection with the feared object, living thing, or situation. Most phobias do not have any connection with an individual’s normal functioning to the point of seeking treatment. There is usually no family history of mental illness or of the same phobia. For example, a person with the fear of being in tight spaces such as an elevator, also called claustrophobia does not necessarily have a relative that is mentally ill or claustrophobic as they are not genetically relatable.

What are Fear and Phobia? Phobia root is always fear. Fear and Phobia will always have that connection in between. We will eventually gain phobia when the fear we had takes over us. Fear is the main point that leads the fear slowly to phobia. Fear is the word we use to explain our emotional reaction to something that is harmful for us. People fear things or situations that make them feel unsafe or insecure. For instance, someone who isn’t a strong runner might have a fear of losing. In this case, fear is helpful because it cautions the person to stay safe without injuring themselves. Someone could overcome this fear by learning how to run safely. Many people have a fear of public speaking. By overcoming the fear, they could join clubs that will help them to speak confidently in front of the crowd.

People tend to avoid situations or things they fear. But this doesn’t help them overcome fear, in fact, it can be the reverse and lead to something worst, until becoming a phobia. Avoiding something scary reinforces a fear and keeps it strong. People can overcome unnecessary fears by giving themselves the chance to learn about and gradually get used to the thing or situation they’re afraid of. For example, people with a fear of speed could go for a ride in a moderate type of roller coaster to help them to understand the concept behind the speed, experience it, and know how speed works, when they know how it works, even it might take times for them to overcome the fear, they will gradually face their fear and eventually conquer it.

Phobias are highly treatable even without medication, and people who have them are nearly always aware of their disorder. People can learn to overcome phobias by gradually facing their fears. This is not easy at first. It takes willingness and bravery. Overcoming a phobia usually starts with making a long list of the person’s fears in the least-to-worst order. For example, with a dog phobia, the list might start with the things the person is least afraid of, such as looking at a photo of a dog. It will then work all the way up to worst fears, such as standing next to someone who’s petting a dog, petting a dog on a leash, and walking a dog. The person isn’t forced to do anything and works on each fear until he or she feels comfortable, taking as long as needed. Speaking to a psychologist or psychiatrist is a useful first step in treating a phobia that has already been identified. (Lyness, 2013) A therapist could also show someone with a dog phobia how to approach, pet, and walk a dog, and help the person to try it, too. The person may expect terrible things to happen when near a dog.

Most phobias can be cured with appropriate treatment. There is no single treatment that works for every person with a phobia. Talking about this can help, too. When people find that what they fear doesn’t actually turn out to be true, it can be a great relief. Therapy is aimed at reducing fear and anxiety symptoms and helping people manage their reactions to the object of their phobia. Some people often have a panic attack when they see their fear. A therapist might also teach relaxation practices such as specific ways of breathing, muscle relaxation training, or soothing self-talk when they face their phobia, especially right in front of them. These can help people feel comfortable and bold enough to face fears on their list. When somebody gets used to a feared object or situation, the brain will start to adjust, making sure how it responds and the phobia is slowly overcome (Nordqvist, 2017). The hardest part of overcoming a phobia is getting started. Hence, once a person decides to go for it, with the right coaching and support, it can be surprising how quickly fear can fade away, so does phobia will be gone in no time.

Work Cited

1. Lyness, D. (Ed.). (2013, May). Fears and Phobias (for Teens). Retrieved from https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/phobias.html
2. Nordqvist, C. (2017, December 20). Phobias: Symptoms, types, causes, and treatment. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/249347.php