The essay is a critical examination of Husserls pure phenomenology. As defined by the founder of pure phenomenology it refs to study of experience as well as the manner with which things present themselves in as well as via experience. Strictly speaking the term also has been thought to refer to a descriptive analysis of the essence of pure consciousness.
It is worth noting that when Husserl emphasized that phenomenology is a pure discipline, he meant that the foundation of his thought rests on the fact that phenomenology is not science of fact but rather a science of essential being. It exclusively aims at bringing to light knowledge of essence.
To him pure is distance from reality. It is this sort of science that leads one to reality. Additionally, pure logic or discipline differentiate sense from nonsense as well as making us understand which sense presented by pure grammar are consistent as well as the ones that are not According to the philosopher pure discipline seek to investigate objects that have meaning usually described by names that are meaningful (Husserl 18).
Some examples of pure discipline include psychology.
According to Husserl, the subject matter of pure phenomenology as well as its instinctive nature is invisible to the opinion or views that have natural orientation. It is from this discipline that all philosophy stems from. Strictly speaking pure phenomenology unlike the empirical psychology rests on unreal things. Indeed it is this that help human understand things better when in the real world.
As previously stated, there are a number of things included in the domain of pure phenomenology. Among the things included include all kinds of sensuously meant and things deemed to be objectivated, the sphere of objectivities seen as being synthetic which are provided with consciousness via referential as well as connective conscious synthesis. Generally speaking, all modes in which things are given to consciousness (Husserl 76). Additionally every feeling desire willing together with immanent comportment constitutes the domain of pure phenomenology.
As suggested by Husserl, pure phenomenology is the most fundamental discipline for a number of reasons. For instance, it is has been considered to be a science of pure consciousness meaning that it borrows a lot from pure reflections. It is worth to note here that this concept or approach does not include all external kind of experiences. The fact that the concept pure phenomenology employing pure reflection thus not factoring in the forces from natural; settings for instance nature.
Subject matter of pure phenomenology is investigated through a set of mechanisms. One process to attain this is through phenomenological reduction which refers to efforts of aimed to fully define pure essence of phenomena deemed to be psychological. At this point in time empirical subjectivity is put at hold. This is to ensure that pure consciousness is defined in a Being manner.
It is worth noting that bracketing is what makes this possible. Through the process it is thru possible during the investigation that pure consciousness, pure phenomena as well pure ego that are left. It is bracketing that acts as a neutralizer. When compared with empirical study, pure phenomenology is interested in essential intuition while psychology if fully interest with facts and realities (Husserl 45). One major obstacle that Husserl realized is the fact that his school of thought is based explicitly on personal reflection.
However, the fact that the environment also plays a role in individual consciousness being factored out might be one big obstacle. Additionally, with advent in new technology, there is a possibility that it might be an obstacle on the philosophy.
Work Cited
Husserl, Edmund. The Idea of Phenomenology and Ideas Pertaining to pure Phenomenology. New York: Humanities Press Inc., 1931. Print.
Confucius, a high-ranking Chinese researcher argues that good governance ought to tag along certain fundamental values to ensure its triumph. He notes that leaders should posses certain traits for them to win the affection, devotion and support of their people. Good governance should focus on establishing a strapping relationship between leaders and their followers for the benefit of humanity.
To advance humanity, leaders should aim at gaining the commitment of their followers as well as securing their human rights. Confucius reasons that leaders will gain the commitment of their followers If they are led by virtue and uniformity&. (Analects, par.1) Confucius notes good behavior as a virtuous feature in a leader. Good government should model good behavior by not harboring immoral judgment.
Modeling good behavior should inculcate virtuous values in people as well as gratifying them, which is a significant obligation of a first-rate government. If people are gratified, leaders will lead in harmony, as no one will rebel against them. Confucius says &they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good. (Analects, par.4)
Confucius believes that people can execute their purpose in society and governance effectively if they learn to perform their family functions well. If leaders loved their followers like family, they would in turn get devotion and admiration.
Confucius identifies the past as a lead to triumphant government. He states that, If keeping the old warm one can provide understanding of the new, one is fit to be a teacher. (Analects, par.11) He frequently uses examples of triumphant and unsuccessful leaders to teach.
In his writing, Confucius hailed legendary heroes like Bo Yi, Shun and Shu Qi. Largely, Confucian viewpoint is pinched from that of prehistoric Chinese politicians, rulers and renowned leaders. The utmost persuasion on Confucius was the thinking of the Duke of Chou, whom he outlined as having a desirable quality.
The Duke counseled his nephew in appropriate modesty and virtuous manners. This inclined to Confuciuss thought of avoiding deviance as the way to servant leadership. Confucius was also highly motivated by philosophers. His highest motivator was a philosopher called Mencius. However, they were set apart by their diverse mannerisms and oratory prowess.
Confucius identified knowledge as a first-rate attribute for a good leader. He says that knowledge is &when you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it. (Analects, par.18) Confucius says that passing of knowledge to people is the work of government.
According to Confucius, an excellent leader in a good government should Hear much and put aside the points of which you stand in doubt, while you speak cautiously at the same time of others& (Analects, par.19) Securing the compliance of people is crucial in good governance.
Confucius says that to ensure people submit to law, a leader should &advance the upright and set aside the crooked& (Analects, par.20) He further notes that if people remain faithful to their leaders while regarding them with feelings of respect, good governance will prevail.
Good government is all about truthfulness. Leaders who drive out concealed evasiveness and upholds communal decree, keep their people safe and their thrones in order. In good government, competent people avoid obliteration and undeserved praise. Governing a country by regulation entails approving the correct and charging the erroneous.
According to Confucius, good government should take the needs of the people into consideration by doing the right things and upholding virtuous values. Confucius argues that if every one honors their family responsibilities effectively, eventually fulfilling their societal responsibilities should be easy.
Confucius argues that virtuous people are generally attractive. Leaders in government who are virtuous experience healthy relationships with their people. Virtue should not be used to acquire awards but for the betterment of humanity.
Works Cited
Analects, Book 1, Part 2. The Internet Classics Archive (1994). Web.04 Oct. 2012.
In this study, I pick Jurgen Habermas as my key thinker. Habermas became born in 1929at a place called Dussedolf (Braaten, 1991). His family was traditional. The Second World War occurred when Habermas was in his teenage years. His teenage experiences and the fact that he belonged to a traditional family largely impacted his life and thoughts (Roderick, 1986). It is for these reasons that much of his ideas reflect on Kants traditions.
In 1954, Habermas obtained a doctorate from Bonn University ahead of undertaking studies at the universities of Zurich and Gottingen. Later, he joined the Frankfurt Institute and the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University where he studied under top associates called Theodor and Max Horkheimer before becoming a prominent member of the Frankfurt school of thought (Bottomore, 1984; McCarthy, 1978).
Scholars who influenced Habermas, their School of Thought and Associates
Both Theodor and Max Horkheimer belonged to the Frankfurt school of thought. The Frankfurt School of thought offered courses that sought to build on the critical theory of society. This theory used philosophy by incorporating the descriptive aspects of social sciences with the normative features of philosophical manifestation. Hence, the Frankfurt school of thought is associated with Marxisms social theory of capitalist societies (Braaten, 1991; Geyer & Heinz, 1992; Held, 1980, Marshall, 1994; Portes, 1998). Other scholars who influenced the work of Habermas were Fromm, Walter, and Herbert Marcuse (Habermas, 1984).
Following the Second World War, most school members discarded orthodox Marxism but maintained their criticism of capitalism (Honderich; 1995). Habermas differed with these critics and thus, his work sought to reestablish sociological and philosophical work that these scholars discarded.
Summary of Key arguments of Habermas, their relevance to Communication Studies and ideas that are Critical in Communications Studies
Habermass work is a criticism of theorists, who discarded Marxisms social theory of capitalist societies, although, he does not openly claim to support Marxisms theory. In his work on communicative action, Habermas explains the way the use of language varies in diverse models of action including communicative, teleological, dramaturgical, and normatively regulated action (Habermas, 1984). Habermas uses these action models to demonstrate that communicative action varies from all other action models. He explains that all these other action models, apart from communication action, only have one dimension.
According to Habermas, the communicative model never aligns communication with action when it comes to speech. He asserts that although the language is a model of communication, communicative action allocates a form of interaction that gets synchronized by speech acts, which never corresponds to the wide notion of communication. Besides, Habermas maintains that language utilization is basic, strategic, or influential in the use of communicative action. Whenever someone makes strategic use of language, he can maneuver language in order to influence the listener, for his personal interest. This notion becomes further explained in the public sphere.
The concept of the public sphere as explained by Herbamas is a field in social life, whereby, a common public view can be created and availed to everybody. Herbamas argues that the engagement in the public sphere, ignores status, and links between advocates in this territory become created by a common will, to engage in issues that are of broad interest. After scrutinizing the past of the public sphere, Herbamas establishes that there was no between the public and the private spheres, because of the class groupings by the feudal government. According to Herbamas, the feudal government placed superior power at all heights, with political power maintained by those in the top most levels. He views the liberal model of the public sphere to be extraordinary in history (Habermas, 1989).
Various constitutions in different countries have provisions that govern the liberal model of the public sphere, which consists of individual persons who gather to create the public. Hence, these persons arbitrate the link between the bourgeois community and the nation so as to control and inform the political administration. Within the latter half of the 18th century, Herbamas recorded that journalism was on the increase, and it was not a mere provider of news but instead, an arm that could be used in politics making journalism start the work of editing. Herbamas argues that the public sphere became created subsequent to journalism becoming a public establishment that sought to support public debate. Newspapers changed their role in public opinion that sought to highlight business issues to siding with debates of social-political nature, following the institution of democratic bourgeois (Habermas, 1989). The flow of individual interest into mass media and newspapers created transformations in the public sphere, for instance, advertisements and ideological substance.
According to Herbamas, however, the public spheres liberal model is not compatible with the modern democratic government because the philosophy that pertains to the model of the public sphere can be attached to values that have transformed ever since the 18th century (Habermas, 1998). False information and journalism have extended, together with the margins of both the public and the private sphere. The modern public sphere becomes typified by the eroding of its vital responsibilities and powers.
Herbamas construes democratization, rationalization, and humanization of the people in reference to the recognition of the prospects for rationality, which is intricate in the communicative community that is exclusive to human beings. Herbamas agrees that communicative capacity has grown through the period of development although, in modern society, it gets concealed or destabilized by the manner in which key spheres of social life, become handed in by both strategic and instrumental rationality, in order that the rationale behind the system, supersedes that of the world life.
A key Passage of Herbamas
The example of social security is reform is informative in another respect as well for social security is part of the complex of social -welfare -state protections against personal life-risks that were once left to private autonomy. The contradiction is obvious: a proliferation of the social conditions of private existence that are maintained and secured by public authority, and, therefore, ought to be clarified within the communication process of a politically autonomous public of citizens, that is, should be made a topic for public opinion. Although objectively greater demands are placed on this authority, it operates less as a public opinion giving a rational foundation to the exercise of political and social authority, the more it is generated for the purpose of an abstract vote that amounts to no more than an act of acclamation within a public sphere temporarily manufactured for show or manipulation (Habermas, 1989 p.222).
An Explanation of the Quote
A true public sphere must maintain discussions with members of the society in order to recognize and cater to the needs of its population in areas like social welfare. However, such a sphere does not exist in modern politics. While modern democratic governments call for public opinion regularly in order to legalize state power, this action stops immediately when this power becomes legitimized. In other words, politicians of the day create the public during elections so that they can obtain endorsement into power. Mass media and newspapers serve as appropriate tools for transmitting individual interests into the public sphere. That is to say, mass media and newspapers help in spreading false information about candidates in the public sphere so that these candidates can win elections. Such candidates maintain discussions with members of the society with empty promises of catering to their needs.
Habermass theory also stresses, on sharing of information with the public, wide involvement of the public, and reaching an agreement through public dialogue and not an exercise of power (Argyris & Schon, 1974, Innes, 1995, Wilson, 1997). As such, the authenticity of democracy should not solely rely on constitutional processes. Rather, such processes should engage the public in discussions that lead to the adoption of best policies. Various constitutions in different countries have provisions that govern the liberal model of the public sphere, which consists of individual persons who gather to create the public. Politicians of the day create the public during elections so that they can obtain endorsement into power. Hence, political candidates arbitrate the link between the bourgeois community and the nation so as to control and inform the political administration.
Evidence used by Habermas in making his Arguments and what he Studied
Habermas builds his work from different scholars and evidence. Some scholars that Habermas uses to build his work are Marx and Weber. Besides, Habermas seems to restore both the sociological and philosophical work of several scholars which has caused the rejection. Some of these scholars include Talcott Parsons, Sigmund Freund, Mead, Wilhelm Dilthey, Georg Lukacs, and Karl Marx (Marshall, 1994; Portes, 1998).
Another Scholar by the name of Benjamin also influenced the work of Habermas. Most of these scholars belonged to the Frankfurt School of thought, which offers courses that seek to build on the critical theory of society. This theory seeks to use philosophy by incorporating the descriptive aspects of social sciences with the normative features of philosophical manifestation. The fundamental aim of this course is to offer insights and connect theory to practice. Besides, the course seeks to empower learners to transform their repressive situations and attain human liberation.
Work Influenced by Habermas and different Interpretations
Habermass work has influenced the work of several scholars. For instance, Cooke (1998) spends time identifying the significance of Herbamass communicative action to critical social theory. Besides, Rasmussen (1990) develops his work in support of language as a communicative instrument that can lead to liberation.
At the same time, Habermass work has received different interpretations from different scholars. A number of philosophers argue that Herbamas focuses on language due to his intention to make use of modern philosophy to back his perspective on democracy and involvement in order to position both democracy and involvement on a more solid ground than other theories by rationality scholars (Meehan, 1995; Thompson & Held, 1982). According to Rasmussen (1990), Habermas plans to salvage the mission of modernity by using a sophisticated explanation of the philosophy of language. Rasmussen (1990) further explains that Habermass task is to demonstrate language as a communicative instrument that can lead to liberation.
Cooke (1998) also identifies the significance of Herbamass communicative action to critical social theory. There are also other scholars who condemn Habermass theory due to his stress on language. For instance, Langsdorf (2000) asserts that Habermass theory is not valid to real-world communication, since communication engrosses diverse aspects and not language alone. Langsdorf (2000) also considers the fact that the theory construes language, as a mode of communication, but takes discourse as a mode of language utilization. She further takes the fact that Habermas stresses on language as a way of disregarding the theory. This comment is parallel to Portes (1998) that dependence on communicative action for synchronization benefits players who have a remarkable capacity in argument through communication in social arenas.
Examples of Essay Topics or Studies based on the ideas of Habermas
One essay topic that can be discussed based on Habermass ideas is the construction of the European public sphere. Media reports can be examined in order to obtain information about the European public sphere. This should involve a relative analysis of media coverage in different European nations. Questions regarding features and times of reporting should be explored, in order to establish consistencies and inconsistencies in the European public sphere.
Another topic that can be explored is the relationship between interactive telecommunication and Habermass projection on the public sphere. The relationship between cyberspace and Habermass descriptions of the public sphere can be explored. Besides, questions regarding the use of e-mail and websites, which characterize a rebirth of small media on the margin between the public and private, as well as, verification through public discussion may be discussed. This study should focus on internet and telecommunication users in different age groups.
Lastly, aspects that influence dialogue can be investigated. By so doing, questions regarding the extent to which a speaker can manipulate language to his own favor can be explored. This topic can be developed by investigating how presidential candidates use dialogue to influence voters during campaigns and election periods. Questions regarding the strategic use of language and language manipulation can be answered in this way.
References
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Bottomore, T. (1984). The Frankfurt School: Key sociologists series. New York, NY: Routledge.
Braaten, J. (1991). Habermass critical theory of society. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1991.
Cooke, M. (1998). Language and reason: A study of Habermass pragmatics. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Geyer, R., & Heinz, W. (1992). Alienation, society, and the individual: Continuity and change in theory and research. New Brunswick, N J: Transaction Publishers.
Habermas, J. (1998). Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Habermas, J. (1989). The structural transformation of the public sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Held, D. (1980). Introduction to critical theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Honderich, T. (1995). The companion to philosophy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Innes, J. (1995). Planning theorys emerging paradigm: Communicative action and interactive Practice. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 14 (3), 183-190.
Langsdorf, L. (2000). The real conditions for the possibility of communicative action. Rationality and Society, 10 (4), 481-502.
Marshall, G. (1994). The concise Oxford dictionary of sociology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
McCarthy, T. (1978). The critical theory of Jurgen Habermas. Chichester, England: Hutchinson.
Meehan, J. (1995). Feminists reading Habermas: Gendering the subject of discourse. New York, NY: Routledge.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24.
Rasmussen, D. (1990). Reading Habermas. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Roderick, R. (1986). Habermas and the foundations of critical theory: Theoretical traditions in the social sciences. New York, NY: St. Martins Press.
Thompson, J., & Held, D. (1982). Habermas: Critical debates. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wilson, P. (1997). Building Social capital: A learning agenda for the twenty-first century. Urban Studies, 34 (5), 745-760.
State Scanlons view of why one should act rightly, and contrast it with the utilitarian view, using an example.
Scanlon, in his book, offers an alternative utilitarian view, the philosophical utilitarianism, which states that the fundamental moral facts are only those that relate to a persons well-being. The philosophical utilitarianism view explains why morality is everybodys concern and elucidates the nature of the reasons behind any moral act. A person behaves rightly because of the well-being facts, which are integral to morality. For instance, person X would only care about the moral facts (related to acting A), which have an effect on his well-being. The desire to preserve his well-being motivates him to act rightly. Philosophical utilitarianism is different from the utilitarian view because it focuses on the reasons that morality gives. It is also concerned with the natural facts (acts that affect individual well-being); these are different from the normative ones promoted by utilitarianism.
Contrast Singers strong and weak principles. Present an objection to Singers thesis.
Singer, in his article, criticizes the common perceptions about famine aid and morality. He argues that in order to help the needy, affluent individuals should change their lifestyles and moral beliefs. He puts forth the following two principles: (1) suffering and death caused by any factor are morally wrong, and (2) if a person has the ability to avert a moral crisis, he or she should do so. The strong version of the second principle advises people to act for something of roughly equal moral importance (238). In contrast, the weak principle lays emphasis on something of moral significance. He gives hypothetical examples of saving a drowning child in which he advises anybody near the river to rescue him or her, as this has a high moral cost. In my view, we are not obligated to act as Singer suggests in his weak version of the second principle. A person cannot devote all his/her efforts, time, and money to charity, as doing so would contravene ones moral autonomy.
Why, for Singer, is there no moral difference between saving a drowning child close by and trying to aid a poor person far away? Taking into account some of his relevant arguments, explain whether you think he is right and why.
Based on Singers first principle, helping a poor person far away is no different from rescuing a drowning child nearby because distance has no bearing on their suffering. Therefore, it follows that one has a moral obligation to aid those who are suffering irrespective of whether the other people who can give help are not doing so. Similarly, there is no moral difference between the existence of uncharitable people and the lack of generous individuals in a society. In my view, Singer is right when he argues that money spent on luxuries should be given to charity, as this would enhance the survival of the poor. It is, therefore, obligatory and morally just to donate to charity. The singer is also right in his argument that people should dedicate their efforts and time to alleviate suffering and pain because, based on the utilitarian view, that would bring happiness to many people.
Using an example, explain the difference between absolute poverty and inequality, and explain three of the reasons Scanlon gives why inequality might matter, even when the equality of distribution does not.
Absolute poverty and inequality represent different formulations of well-being. Absolute poverty refers to a lack of resources, which makes people vulnerable to hunger, disease, and even death. It can be alleviated through equitable redistribution of wealth. Inequality, on the other hand, is the lack of equality between the poor and the wealthy. Inequality gives the rich undue power to control the economic and social aspects of the poors lives. For example, the difference in life expectancy between the U.S. (74.2 years) and Malawi (37.1 years) can be attributed to health inequality. Scanlon gives reasons why inequality might matter even when the equality of distribution does not. First, social status, as seen in caste systems, causes stigma and discriminates against certain groups based on gender, ethnicity, or race. Inequality can also be objectionable when it gives some people domination over others. Lastly, inequality can be exceptionable when it undermines fairness and equity in social institutions.
Present two of Krugmans reasons in favor of sweatshops, explaining why neither necessarily answers the charge of exploitation. Indicate whether you think sweatshops are ultimately justifiable and why.
Paul Krugman presents two arguments in favor of the new export industries (sweatshops) in third world countries. His first argument is that sweatshops provide higher wages and better working conditions for workers than the other alternatives do (Krugman 56). Thus, while the Western multinationals may benefit from the export industries, the third world laborers, who constitute a large proportion of the population, are the greatest beneficiaries. However, Krugman does not explain whether the working conditions match those provided in the Western industries. Krugmans second argument is that third world countries need sweatshops to stimulate industrial growth. Thus, in his view, enforcing labor standards can hamper economic growth and increase unemployment and poverty. It can be noted that, in this argument, Krugman does not talk about the exploitation and injustices propagated by corporations that do not adhere to international labor laws. In my view, sweatshops present a form of exploitation since fewer benefits trickle down to the workers, as much of the profits are repatriated. They can only be justified if the laborers receive equitable treatment as that given to their counterparts in Western industries.
State Lockes three conditions for appropriating property as ones own, and, using an example, explain whether you think they apply to intellectual property and why.
Locke observes that firms that produce goods for global markets must take responsibility for labor issues in their supplier factories. He offers three conditions for assigning production to third-party factories. The first one is private and voluntary regulation, whereby industries manage their entire supply chains in order to monitor manufacturing in developing countries. The second condition is capacity building. Capacity building programs can equip industries with resources, systems, and trained workforce to ensure quality production. The third condition is the supplier focus. Firms should direct their policies towards improving suppliers factories to avoid violations of labor standards. Lockes conditions aim at creating efficient supply chains. However, these conditions might not apply to intellectual property rights. For instance, Coca-Cola has patents for the formula it uses to make its soft drinks. However, it has no much control over the actions of its distributors and thus, cannot take full responsibility for their transgressions.
When and why, for Shiffrin, can it be wrong to have a child? Explain whether you agree and why.
Shiffrin explains that if a rescuer saves a hurting person, the victim cannot launch a complaint against him even though no consent was sought in the first place. In contrast, doing well during the rescue does not necessarily shield one from complaints. Similarly, procreation does not protect the infant from greater harm. According to Shiffrin, it is wrong to have a child if his existence will bring more harm to him. He argues that pain, suffering, and distress, which children are forced to face in their lives amount to harm. I agree with Shiffrins argument because procreation is not a straightforward process and thus, has inherent moral risks to children. Congenital disorders cause pain and suffering to children. In my view, these moral risks can sometimes override the reasons for procreation.
Explain why Parfits non-identity problem might mean that there is little or nothing wrong with climate change. Give a reason why this conclusion would be mistaken.
Parfits non-identity problem centers on our obligations to protect people who, by virtue of our actions, come to exist but have inevitably flawed existences. Parfits example of the young girls child aptly illustrates the non-identity problem as it relates to climate policy. Given two policy options, people would choose the one with short-term benefits even though, in the long-term, it may turn out to have undesirable effects. In this regard, Parfit argues that a policy to control procreation conditions, i.e., time of conception, would give rise to a different future generation from those who would exist if another plan were adopted. Thus, the non-identity problem can be taken to mean that actions that cause climate change will not injure or benefit future generations physical health. Nevertheless, this conclusion may be mistaken to mean that our actions have no bearing on future generations rights because it states that their existence is not dependent on ours.
Relying on Singer, present a reason why advanced countries should do more than developing countries to address the problem of climate change. Present an objection and explain whether you think the objection succeeds and why.
Peter Singer supports the principle of fairness when addressing climate change. According to Singer, globalization has made the world more interconnected than ever before, making climate change a common problem. He argues that evaluations of actions that combat climate change should be pegged on each countrys greenhouse emissions, a principle known as the polluter pays. Since much of the pollutants are emitted by industrialized nations, they must play a leading role in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Based on this principle, wealthy nations should pay an amount equivalent to their emissions. However, Sangers assertion that, under this principle, everyone has equal rights for emissions is objectionable. While it may be easier to measure emissions by estimating a countrys consumption of fossil fuels, no criteria exist that could determine the developing countries compensation. An international organization should be appointed to oversee these payments to ensure that the program works.
Why does Baylor-Johnson believe that we are not morally required to reduce our emissions but required to support schemes that, if established, will require lower emissions generally. How does Broome disagree?
Baylor-Johnson argues that individuals are not morally obligated to reduce their individual emissions. Instead, in his view, to avert the tragedy of the commons, efforts should be directed at improving collective schemes. Baylor-Johnson holds the view that collective schemes that address global issues can help alleviate free riding, which, according to him, is immoral. However, since no such schemes exist, unilateral reductions are optional. In this regard, everyone has a moral obligation to promote unilateral reductions at an individual level. Besides, unilateral reductions appeal to many people because of political and psychological reasons. On his part, Broome holds the view that we must maximize the expected value of climate change, which is largely uncertain.
State a version of the precautionary principle, contrast it with expected value theory, and explain when, for Broome, the latter does not apply.
The precautionary principle is applied to climate change uncertainty. One version of this principle reads as follows; in order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation (Broome 119). This principle cautions people to take the necessary measures to avert the uncertain adverse effects of climate change. In contrast, the expected value theory states that, in evaluating climate change and its effects, we must gauge the expectations. Therefore, the potential harm or benefit of climate change should be multiplied by the probability that it is happening. However, according to Broome, the effects of possible catastrophes caused by climate change may be so severe that multiplying global warming with a small probability would not reflect the magnitude of the harm caused.
Explain why Scheffler believes that, if people stopped reproducing, much that we do would cease to be meaningful. Is he right? Why or why not?
Scheffler begins his argument by stating that our attitudes in life would change dramatically if we had knowledge about doomsday. He writes that, in an infertile world, individuals will lose interest in common human endeavors because everyone will become emotionally detached from his/her interests. Moreover, infertility would limit peoples power and self-esteem. In my opinion, Scheffler is wrong because people act for personal interests. People attach meaning to something when it serves their interests. Giving birth to children is only a natural process; it has less to do with ones ego or self-esteem. Thus, in an infertile world, people will still pursue their interests and endeavors.
Everythings not what it seems ; for some reason, human beings have always been intrigued by the mystical properties of illusion. However, given a choice, most of us have been pre-programmed to accept facts as they are, based on our own experiences in life and common shared experiences.
Our prism of objective reality is clouded by misleading judgements so we often fail to put two and two together on what is really the complete, undiluted truth. In this essay, I will discuss the distinctions between virtual and everyday realities while describing my own observations about the cyberspace, a post-modern phenomenon which is successfully eliminating boundaries between reality and illusion.
Before the age of exploration began in Europe, most people believed in a flat Earth based on their observations of the Sun slowly descending upon the horizon. To understand why people can be so casually blinded to the truth, Plato proposed what is known as the cave-shadow paradox (Solomon, 2007, p.114).
According to it, people residing in a cave who have their backs turned to the light of a flickering fire, are limited by their understanding of reality to shadows formed ahead of their path. Their senses would continue deceiving them as long as they do not make efforts to come out of the cave to observe the real source of illumination the Sun. This is called the capacity of reasoning.
Aristotle, who once studied under Plato, somewhat differed from his mentor by describing the differences between actuality and figments of imagination. He proposed a graded reality metaphor which lays down the hypothesis that there are indistinct differences between what appears on the surface, and what is really there (Melchert, 2006, p.84).
Aristotle observed that our finite reasoning as human beings is not sufficient to decipher the complete mystery of the universe, so we need to somehow use our intuition and senses to get a better grasp of the truth as it must apply to our daily lives.
To further understand differences between virtual and everyday realities, one must conceptualise how these differences can be applied to different facets of life. Michael Heim (1994, p.24), a guru of virtual realism, proposed that the differences between virtual and everyday realities have to be extrasensory and cannot be perceived on their own.
Here, the reasoning he provides is simply this that there has to be a clear, metaphysical entity (God?) taking hold of our finite senses in order to shape our everyday reality, every second of the day (Heim, 1994, p.25).
To understand Heims theory, consider an example from one of your favourite films. If the genre appeals to the viewer, he will be greeted by a fictional universe filled with characters that directly relate to him, sending sublimal messages which somehow mirror his own experiences in life.
In reality, this is nothing but a virtual universe that has been entirely created on the set by a director and his crew, but he is simply too engrossed in the theme to acknowledge the truth. Virtual reality is everywhere around us, and governs our fundamental beliefs.
However, there are certain inherent weaknesses pertaining to the idea of a metaphysical, virtual universe. First, it ignores the scholarly evidence which has carried out a detailed mapping of the brain (EEG scans and such). The brain contains numerous electrical impulses which create everything we perceive as reality.
It is possible that our limited power of faculty and reasoning is simply not capable of deciphering the distinctions between virtual reality and the real world, hence facilitating the immersion of our thoughts into sublimal messaging.
Another critique of the virtual reality universe was made by Mackey (2000, p.134). As a realist, he proposed that anything we perceive as a rendering of virtual reality, is nothing but ideas generated by our unconscious minds from sensory data as well as complex inborn and acquired theories of interpretation (Mackey, 2000, p.134). The subconscious mind is not capable of deciphering these differences.
However, in keeping with some of the philosophical principles that lay down the indistinction between virtual and physical reality, I would like to advance my own theory that in certain post-modern instances, there can be a greater blurring of boundaries between the two. One such arena is cyberspace for which we have to define what post-modernism is.
Steinar Kavle (1992, p.20) supports the idea that extrasensory reality does exist because of a theory that rational thought has ignored the importance of factual information which cannot be interpreted by our conventional knowledge.
There is a lot of surreal beauty about intellectual thoughts which cannot be captured by the known senses alone. Kavle goes on to explain that the postmodern era frees the mind from orthodox opinions, and intrinsically promotes the advantage of freedom and independent thoughts (Kavle, 1992, p.21).
Cyberspace may be defined as the last frontier of human imagination the Internets have unleashed a new wave of knowledge sharing and interaction skills that has been unprecedented in human history. The proliferation of social networking websites like Facebook, Twitter and more are forcing individuals to question their own rediscovery of the postmodern self; their real identities being juxtaposed with how they perceive themselves online.
The immersion of individuals with their cyberspace medium is so complete that scholars have started describing cyberspace as an alternative social reality (Introna, 1997, p.1). The author describes that in such a milieu, our conventional identities become plastic because we now have greater freedom to decide what we want from our lives when we participate in the medium of cyberspace and how it is possible to express ourselves ideally and what can be made out of these new identities.
Cooper (1995) underscored the importance of community participation to strengthen an individuals affirmation of what he may perceive as his core defining values. The Internet, with its plethora of online interaction platforms, provides the best possible exposure to such individuals. They now have the freedom to network with multiple users in different corners of the Earth, exchange ideas and solidify their own reasoning and doubts. To further illustrate the impact of cyber-space on the shaping of realities, a few examples may be considered.
Online discussion forums such as Yahoo Answers, Community Live Journal, Straightdope and many more are seeing increasing participation from worldwide users who interact anonymously not only to share ideas, but to also debate, acknowledge each other and share things which may not hold true in real life.
Given that the online world allows you to be what you want to be, several forum posters lie about attributes which they feel define them even if it couldnt be further from the truth. This includes age, sex, location, relationship status, hobbies, likes and dislikes and many more. Since, there is no way to tell the truth across the web, one has no option but to take their word for it.
There are also niche discussion forums which appeal to different categories of people: tourists, tattoo artistes, gardening enthusiasts, sports fans and more.
Many users utilize the interactivity of discussion forums to earn what are known as reputation points the higher the reputation, the more established the user may be for that particular forum. At the end of the day, users continue fabricating a fictional universe for themselves which does not mirror the reality, thus, losing perspective on everyday matters, leading to a clear overlap of boundaries.
Apart from online discussion forums, MMORPG sites such as Second Life add another dimension of bewilderment to make users lose their grasp of reality. In this, users represent themselves through multiple role-playing avatars which enable them not only to play games, but also build a virtual world around they where they can be whatever they choose to be.
Common human failings such as a perception of attractiveness, an affinity for luxury goods and a sense of propriety come into play here. Users can own properties, buy weapons, fight with other users online and even date and romance each other (although, normally such users may not be attracted to each other in the real world).
In conclusion, it may be added that cyberspace represents the last frontier of human cognizance in a growing world of illusion. The continuous impressions generated by online role-playing sites can lead to an increased amount of confusion between the real and virtual worlds. The users grasp of reality in cyberspace is no more tenable than what it would have been had they been simply dreaming about it.
Reference List
Cooper, W., 1995. Virtual reality and the metaphysics of self, community and nature. International journal of applied philosophy, 9 (2).
Heim, M., 1994. The metaphysics of virtual reality. USA: Oxford University Press.
Introna, L., 1997. On cyberspace and being: identity, self and hyperreality. Philosophy in the contemporary world, 4 (1 & 2), pp.1-10
Kvale, S., 1992. Themes of postmodernity. New York: Sage Publications.
Mackey, J.P., 2000. The critique of theological reason. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Melchert, N., 2006. The great conversation: a historical introduction to philosophy. USA: Oxford University Press.
Solomon, R.C., 2007. Introducing philosophy: a text with integrated readings. 9th ed. USA: Oxford University Press.
The concept of death has been explored in various instances throughout human history and has even gained popularity in modern-day popular culture in various novels, movies, and TV shows. This is due to the fact that human curiosity of the unknown has always driven the exploration of various concepts through their imaginative interpretation. Yet when asked if they would like to die most people say that they would rather postpone the inevitable for another time and merely want to enjoy the time that they have left.
Death it seems is an idea to be explored yet few truly want to experience it firsthand. In fact, most people have developed a healthy fear of death due to their inherent desire to continue living the life they have. There are few amongst societies teeming billions that can say with confidence that they have no fear of death. For the rest of society, fear of the inevitable dictates their actions in the form of staving off the certainty of a visit from the Grim Reaper.
This can come in the form of developing better eating habits, taking up exercise, and an assortment of other activities that they believe will stave off the inevitable. This behavior can at times be considered self-destructive since in their desire to ward off their impending meeting with the grave they forget to actually live life. In individuals, though have faced death and even know when their death is coming (think of people suffering from cancer) they learn to appreciate what time they have left and devote their energies towards constructive behavior instead of constantly worrying. Based on this it can be stated that, by knowing when your death will come people are able to come to terms with their mortality and thus are able to better utilize their remaining time.
Realization of Mortality and Truly Living
When examining people who are aware of when theyre going to die and those who have absolutely no idea a different case perspective can be seen. For the average person, everyday things and occurrences blend in the background of their personal perspective. Friends are merely friends, the family is just family and everyday routines are taken for granted and considered a part of everyday life.
Yet for those aware of their own mortality and the fast approach of their oncoming death every day is a blessing with each person, each encounter and each event never being taken for granted. Awareness of death seems to bring about a greater awareness of the joys of life and actually results in people being able to live their lives better than ever before.
In fact, people who know when they are going to die have been known to be able to see pour all their energies towards socially constructive events and actions which actually benefits society as a whole. Based on this it can be seen that apparently when knowing when you know when youre going to die life no longer becomes trivial rather every day becomes a joyous existence in the pursuit of ever-greater accomplishments.
Knowledge of Death as a Personality Changer
As stated earlier, a different perspective on life overtakes people who apparently know their impending death yet it isnt just a change in perspective that occurs but rather a change in a persons very personality. Cases of people who know when they are going to die to show that they in effect become better versions of themselves. They tend to be more forgiving, they accept bad news in a far easier fashion, and in fact, they become more generous and are overall better individuals.
This is apparently due to the fact that when faced with the knowledge of when you are going to die a sudden change occurs in a person where the trivialities and problems that are used to make them angry and frustrated no longer affect them as much. Rather they chose to focus on the positive fundamental aspects of life.
In fact, it has been seen in numerous instances when people have been confronted with the knowledge of their future demise that racists stop becoming racists, jerks become almost saint-like, and even the meanest individual that you could possibly think of suddenly seems one of the kindest people around. Knowledge of death seems to breaks down ones negative social barriers and perceptions and brings forth a change that creates an overall better person than before.
Conclusion
In regard to the question of whether I would choose to have a blood test in order to determine my age of death, my answer to that would have to be a resounding yes. Apparently knowing when your death will come enables people to come to terms with their mortality and thus are able to better utilize their remaining time. Knowing when Im going to die would give me a far better perspective on life and truly living and as such could be considered a positive development.
The world is today filled with so much chaos. It has lately become a loudy, noisy, frantic, angry, violent, and fearful place to live in. This is evident from what is constantly being aired on the news through the television and published in newspapers.
The world around us is becoming more unrealistic, though no reference is being made here to the fantasy world human beings tend to create so as to run away from the reality of what they have made the world become. This fantasy world can also turn out to be a quite dreadful place if left out to be.
Branden (1999) claims that the primary influence on self-esteem in human beings propels them to new areas, which spur them to explore the proceedings of their minds when they are operating as their lives and well-being necessitates and also when they are not.
Only Branden has been able to portray so very vividly what true mindfulness means within a certain category of environments which include: the workplace, the arena of romantic love, child-rearing, and pursuit of personal development. The varying degree of the amount of information the world is constantly being bombarded with is unprecedented.
Each kind of information contains an unprecedented amount of reception by the mind that an issue is right or factual, frequently emphasized by an affection or devout logic of conviction to try and answer almost all possible to imagine, understand, or believe facets of life. The only thing able to prevent somebody or something from being harmed or damaged is human beings own clear thinking.
Conscious living in a rather unconscious world necessitates a closer and in depth look into ones life, followed by a thorough understanding and interpretation of things in a particular way so as to get full results from any situation before them. This can be simply put to mean that one has to be open to the likelihood of encountering errors in their thinking.
Discovering ones mistakes and being honest or open, whether refreshing or distasteful. Indeed, to be willing to correct oneself calls for a higher degree of eagerness.
Doing this is not always a smooth sailing all the way, much of the thoughts and beliefs one has, are usually fixed or definite by the time they get to adulthood. Having discovered and settled on the truth, many of us arent interested in exposing ourselves to contradictory evidence or opposing points of view.
Living consciously requires a reflection of how one may live and how they can live their life in a world like today. Human beings are more than often made to come face to face with somebody or situations, especially in a challenge, and usually with hostility, criticism, or defiance that always have painful existences, as opposed to an imaginary, idealized, or false nature.
All this requires a clear and firm request that is difficult to ignore or deny for huge amounts of effort. It is the only way to be able to function or work, or make something function or work in the world. Conscious living does not come on a silver platter, but it has its price.
Despite certain drawbacks to conscious living, it is the place, person, or thing through which something has come into being or from which it has been obtained, a source of control and emancipation to human beings. Conscious living lifts human beings and does not necessarily weigh them down (Dorsey & Seegers 1959).
The choice human beings are faced with in where to live consciously in an unconscious world is greatly hinged on ethics. Despite being given an avenue to make a choice between one thing or the other, these choices are not always utterly free. Choice is more than not confined, restricted, or restrained by history, context, biology, probable results and thoughts all surrounding human beings.
Booth (2000) quotes every decision has a past, and a consequence. In the political arena, the extent for decision seems predominantly restrained . Decision, though being exclusively at will it can neither be absolutely clear-thinking.
To say choice is due to biology, the insensible, destiny or whatever would be to eradicate ethics. Arguably, this is not peoples stand, or that of the providers. People do nevertheless recognize that the restraining of ethical decisions commences at birth (Booth 2000).
Branden (1999) quotes that the background and ecological contextualization and conventional prices have predestined politics past state margins have conventionally been implicit as an ground of inevitability, rather than ethics. Branden gives an example of a lamp whose brightness can be regulated, so is consciousness, which is varied.
People can be more or less cognizant, more or less responsive, so the choice is not between unconditional maximum self-awareness and factual oblivion, like in a coma. The decision is between living more consciously and less consciously, or what may be called living between living consciously and living mechanically (1999).
People who do not embrace conscious living, then again, tend to become bored of living.
They end up confused or ambivalent because of competing desires, possibilities, or impulses; exhausted physically or emotionally through too much hard work, stress, or reckless living.
Worried or afraid, especially about something that is going to happen or might happen; not pleased or satisfied with somebody or something in their jobs or occupations regarded as long-term or lifelong activities; and unhappy because something was not as good, attractive, or satisfactory as expected, or because something hoped for or expected did not happen within their relationships.
Unfortunately, people tend to seek for answers to the causes of theses situations from external factors. This is just an excuse of suitability, because it makes things easier, is close by, or does not involve much effort or trouble as it releases somebody from an obligation or requirement of any liability consequently hinders the truth from coming out and being found out, that which was not previously known.
Branden goes ahead to claim that human beings biggest reason of the fear of death is that they do not really have a comprehension of their lives and they have a secret knowledge of how incompletely they have lived (1999).
As a result, a situation in which there is friendly agreement or accord between what is professed and what is done by humans needs to be struck. Living is all about being able to live consciously and with a purpose and not just a situation where one just moves in a slow, smooth, gentle, and unforced way, usually without any direction or purpose of life.
One needs to identify the most important aspects and situations; be on familiar terms with ones own potential for successful future development; their own strong moral character or strength, and adherence to ethical principles and make a strenuous effort to do, obtain, achieve, or defend their own personal highest latent possibility or likelihood of occurring, or of doing or becoming something (Hendricks 1998; Dorsey & Seegers 1959).
Example of living consciously
Unity of consciousness is an example of conscious living. A persons awareness normally shows a salient unity. When somebody is experiencing a clamor or an ache, they are unconscious of the clamor and then, disjointedly, of the ache. They are conscious of the clamor and ache collectively, as elements of a one conscious experience. This is what is defined as the unity of consciousness.
Dorsey & Seegers (1959) put it more generally and say, it is consciousness not of A and, separately, of B and, separately, of C, but of A-and-B-and-C together, as the contents of a single conscious state. This poses a lot of questions; is it really in existence?
Does consciousness have the characteristics which it would require to be united? The different states of consciousness are unified together with some kind of unity being a deep and crucial element of consciousness. However, the conscious positions of a person are essentially unified; it is not possible for there to be a person whose conscious positions are not unified (Blecher 2002).
Looking at the world around us, we see the different individuals whose bodily structures, ethnical backgrounds, and lifestyles are different from ours, though we cooperate and live together this is a show of unity consciousness (Bayne 2010). Also looking at the surface, we will notice that we are all varied, but on a basis level, we are all fundamentally similar in our needs for affection and protection.
Human minds always reinforce senses of separateness, but by putting into practice the insight of unity by the experiences, which come from deliberation and conscious thinking, peoples innate recognition with unity consciousness effortlessly assumes.
Personal Experience
Many People have careers, which probably were not their choice or passion simply because they could not fight for their choice which seemed distant. Usually emotional and social challenges engulf many people and they feel they were not destined for the careers, they envisaged and thus opting for those that they were never passionate for.
But this is not the case for one, Charles a 2nd year student at the university taking a part time undergraduate course in broadcasting journalism. The 25year old is one of the 10 children surviving to a poor widowed mother. He already termed himself as a journalist even before he could barely speak English let alone know his mother tongue.
He admired local and international journalists alike all through his days as a toddler and through his years growing up. Despite this passion, his mother had no means whatsoever of getting income to educate him let alone fend for their upkeep and food. Charles and his siblings did menial jobs to put food on the table and educate themselves despite being in and out of school.
When life became unbearable, some of his siblings dropped out and that explain his age difference to most of his classmates and friends. When he finally sat for his secondary education exams his goal was to he wanted to do well in languages to enable him join a communications school.
Charles could not afford the fees that came with studying for an undergraduate course in communication but this did not turn him back. Luckily, he got a chance to work in the school as a casual worker and study as a part time student. All that he gets as wages goes towards his school fees.
Despite his predicament his attitude towards living consciously is what drives him he says that the lectures, students and subordinate staff support him in anyway to achieve his career in whatever way he can. He lives by a principle of never to give up and where there is a wish there is away always close our hands for it is not yet over until it is (Cleeremans 2003).
Learning experienced
Living consciously goes hand in hand with positive attitude. Individuals should engage themselves to change many of their current beliefs about daily behaviors and actions, on issues to do with their standards of conduct that are generally accepted as right or proper, about life in the information age, and about a supernatural being.
In this age and in the present day humans are constantly being vulnerable to danger or harm from various quarters due to so much information that brings out varying opinions that shape their perceptions on how they view life and how to live it (Hendricks 1998).
Living Consciously in an Ego driven society is a guide to creating conscious awareness of your own experience of life. Monteverdi (2010) uses her unique story of her awakening as guides through the resources that support awakening to ones own true nature (Manahan, Bohan & Manahan 2007; Ratusny 2009).).
Conscious living is a situation of being psychologically dynamic rather than inert. It is being able to look at things as they are; it is aptitude of taking happiness in its own utility. Conscious living involves being sentient thing, which bear on ones concerns, activities, principles, reasons, and objectives. It is the eagerness to come to face with facts, whether amusing or horrible. It is the urge to discern ones blunders and act on them.
Within the context of ones desires, conscious living is the pursuit to keep growing ones consciousness and perceptiveness, both of the world out there to oneself and of the innate within. It is admiration for realism and for the difference between the actual and the illusory. It is acknowledgment that the act of ignoring realism is the cause of all iniquities (Branden 1999).
For Monteverdi (2010), transformation doesnt have to take forever&for most people it will. It will take their entire lives. And most people will die& with beliefs, behaviors and ways of being which no longer work for them.
Although her personal experiences in growing up may have been unusual by most standards, she has risen up and out of her challenges to present us with a guideline that anyone who is interested in raising their consciousness can relate to. Reference from chronological and literary facts, reinforces the enduring significance of sincerity and self-knowledge (Branden 1995).
Every human being wants to live and embrace each day as an authentic, self-aware, and triumphant. People always tend to admire successful lives; however, the big question is how to go about this in the quest for achieving these successful lives (Branden 1999; Hendricks 1998). How do we go about it? Where do we begin? The most important judgment one can make for him/her self, in life is about their own personality.
And it all comes down to the distinction between low self-respect and high self-respect, which brings distinction between submissiveness and deed, and between failure and accomplishment. This encourages perceptiveness, self-consciousness, and sincerity, which are all essential features in living consciously in this unconscious world.
Hendricks (1998) urges people to appreciate the expedition, which leads to greater self-respect and expressive literacy, accomplishments which can only come from living a careful life. By helping people notice, figure out, and eventually appreciate the coverts they often hide from themselves.
By embracing this, people bring into accord to create clearer understanding, genuine change, and self-realization on: how to break free of negative self-concepts and self-defeating behavior; how to dissolve internal barriers to success in work and love; how to overcome anxiety, depression, guilt and anger; how to conquer the fear of intimacy and success; and finally on how to find and keep the courage to love yourself.
Reference
Bayne, T. (2010). Unity of Consciousness. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010
Blecher, J. (2002). Unity Consciousness: Enlightenment Experiences. Fish Hoek 7974: Kima Global Publishers, 2002
Booth, K., Dunne, T. & Cox, M. (2000). How Might We Live? Global ethics in a new century. Review of International Studies, 26, 001-028.
Branden, N. (1988). How to raise your self-esteem. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Branden, N. (1999). The art of living consciously: the power of awareness to transform everyday life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Branden, N. (1995). The six pillars of self-esteem. New York: Bantam.
Cleeremans, A. (2003). The unity of consciousness: binding, integration, and dissociation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003
Dorsey, J. & Seegers, W. (1959). Living Consciously: The Science of Self. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
Hendricks, G. (1998). A Year of Living Consciously: 365 Daily Inspirations for Creating a Life of Passion and Purpose, San Francisco, CA: Harper San Francisco.
Manahan, N., Bohan, B. & Manahan, B. (2007). Living Consciously, Dying Gracefully: A Journey with Cancer and Beyond. Minneapolis, MN: Beavers Pond Press.
Monteverdi, K. (2010). Living Consciously. Pewee Valley, KY: Createspace.
Ratusny, D. (2009). Live Your Lifes Purpose: A Guidebook for Creating and Living a Purposeful Life. Toronto: Insomniac Press, 2009
There were times when people were sure that everything had been created by God. However, in the eighteenth century, not all people shared such views. So, many philosophers tried to justify the divine creation of the world. Thus, Paley tried to prove in simple terms that everything was created by God. One of his analogies evoked many discussions. It is necessary to add that it is still disputable. Paley compared the Universe with watches.
He stated that watches represented a piece of sophisticated work where every element functioned in a specific way, so the Universe, which was also sophisticated had its designer. Paley concluded that this designer was God since there could be no other designer who could make such perfection. It is also worth mentioning that Paley regards watches as a part of something bigger: he suggests that he comes across the watches while walking along the beach. So, people are regarded as a part of some more sophisticated system created by a certain perfect force, God. So, Paley used watches as a simple, and understandable example justifying that everything had its creator.
This simplicity must have led to so many objections. Nevertheless, this analogy was criticized by many philosophers. One of Paleys critics was Hume. In his Dialogues, Hume objects to Paley. One of Humes characters, Philo, provides several arguments against Paleys theory of divine designer based on the analogy with watches. In the first place, Philo argues that it is inappropriate to compare some human made artifacts with the entire Universe.
For example, it is impossible to say that since houses are sophisticated enough and plants are sophisticated as well, they are the same. If to develop Philos argument it is possible to state that according to Paley, if a thing created by a man can be compared to an animal, it is possible to assume that the animal was created by humans. Of course, at that time, it was impossible to imagine that humans could design an animal. Nowadays, people are more accustomed to the thought that it is possible (due to cloning), but it is still obvious that people had nothing to do with the creation of the world of animals. So the major objection concerned the relevance of such comparison.
Another argument provided by Philo deals with the peculiarities of human perception. In other words, Philo claims that people know that houses are built by people and paintings are created by artists because they have already seen other houses and paintings, and have seen designers and artists. Moreover, many people witnessed how it is done: they saw houses being built and paintings being painted. That is why people can draw an analogy that all houses are built by people, or all paintings are painted by artists. However, no man has ever seen another universe, and, of course, no one could see a creator of some other universe or witness the process of universe creation.
So, it is impossible to assume that if some kind of a thing on the Earth was created by a human (watches, houses, paintings), the entire planet was also designed by a human (living on that planet). Once more, the simplicity of analogy is criticized since artifacts cannot be comparable to the Universe. The third argument of Philo deals with the belief that God is the infinite creator of the perfect world. Philo claims that God is believed to be all-mighty, so the world should be perfectly designed.
Nevertheless, there are many imperfect or even ugly things in the world. Of course, it seems doubtful that God, being so powerful and all-knowing, could make so many mistakes. Even people try to create something very good (if not perfect), and God is a symbol of perfection, which justifies that everything created by Him should be perfect. So, it can prove that the world was not designed by God. Thus, Hume argues that Paleys conclusion is unjustified.
Hume (through Philo) criticizes such simplification (when watches can be compared to the Universe) and does not agree that the Universe was created by God. Interestingly, Hume (Philo) does not deny the existence of God but claims that people cannot draw any conclusions about their world creation and God himself since they know little about it. Hume argues that people know quite a lot about such objects as watches, but they do not understand the basic principles of the universe and do not know almost anything about God.
This is why it is impossible to assume that God designed the world. Of course, it is clear why Hume could not accept Paleys analogy. Hume stated that the problem of creation was quite an important issue which was still unsolved. According to Hume, people should not conclude that everything needs a creator only because they create some (maybe, even sophisticated) things.
Eastern religious philosophy is regarded as the oldest and most advanced in the world. The major philosophies of Buddhism, Confucian and Daoism have influenced the oriental civilization for centuries. This philosophies purport to offer answers to the great questions of life and death.
By following them, people can understand life and death better and attain a higher standard of living while on earth. While the three philosophies exhibit some similarities, they also have major differences especially on the subjects of death and on how to lead a good life on earth.
This paper will therefore endeavor to draw a connection between Samsara in Buddhism with the Confucian and Daoism tradition by analyzing the three philosophies.
Overview of Buddhism
Buddhism is a prominent Eastern religion. The Buddha endeavored to give theoretical and practical solutions to the philosophical problem of being (Nagendra 38). Buddhism advances that the ultimate goal of all souls is to reach perfection.
Yen observes that humans have the opportunity to engage in Dharma and practice and attain enlightenment (108). When perfection is reached, the soul joins Brahman, a position where all the other souls are interconnected.
However, before this perfection is reached, the soul is in a continuous change through the cycle of reincarnation with each stage bringing more refinement (Mistry 32).
Concept of Samsara
From a Buddhist perspective, Samsara refers to transmigration, which is the constant movement from the state of birth and death. According to this concept, a person is at all times going through one life after another (Parkes 260). Karma plays a key role in Samsara.
Loy reveals that karma determines the rewards that one receives and determines ones destination in the course of reincarnation (360). In the course of the evolution, Buddhism deems suffering as inevitable.
This suffering, which is duhkha, arises because of the ignorance of man, which causes him not to be able to see things as they are. Hoyu asserts, We perceive things only as we see them (152).
Six Realms
Samsara is made up of six Realms into which a person can be reborn following reincarnation. The six realms of Samsara are divided into two; the three lower realms where there is more suffering, and the three upper realms where there is comparatively less suffering.
The God realm is the highest realm and beings in this realm experience joy and bliss. This abundance of pleasures causes them to engage in meaningless endeavors and the sentient beings reborn in the heavenly realm do not practice Dharma since they are absorbed in pleasure and bliss.
In the Demi-God realm, the beings enjoy pleasure and bliss but they suffer due to jealously and fighting (Wilcoz 64). The human realm is made up of pleasure and suffering. Rinpochay asserts that in this realm, birth is the root of all the other sufferings (103).
In the animal realm, the being lives in a constant state of fear and anxiety. Rinpochay affirms that beings in this realm experience the suffering of being used, slaughter, or eaten by one another (102). In the hungry ghost realm, the being is plagued by insatiable hunger and thirst.
Some of the hungry ghosts see food and drink as pus and blood, which makes it impossible for them to eat it (Elman 673). In the hell realm, the being suffers from pain and suffering on an unimaginable level. Existence in the realm is tortured since the being experiences endless suffering which makes it unbearable.
Samsara is essentially the continuous process of death and rebirth within these six realms. Engaging in negative conduct leads to one being transmigrated to one of the lower realms.
Buddhism indicates that while it is better to be at a higher state of samsaric existence, the goal should be to free yourself from the root of Samsara (Dumoulin 460). Since a being can only practice Dharma in the human realm, this level offers the best opportunity to break free from the Samsara cycle.
Samsra-chakra
Buddhism also has the concept of Samsara Chakra, which is made up of the life circle with life following death. Nagendra notes that Samsara Chakra is symbolized as a circle since it indicates the life process, which seemingly has no beginning and no end (36).
The Buddhist principle of depended origination states that all things exist because of the existence of other things; a condition known as conditioned genesis and the causal nexus. Interdependency consequently occur because beings that are caused to live as well cause others to stay alive making reliance the fundamental observable fact of survival.
There are twelve links that exist in a circular chain and they form the basis of the causes that influence other causes. The links are birth, existence, clinging, craving, feeling, contact, the six sense-bases, name and form, consciousness, volitional activities, and ignorance (Sutta 178).
Three Poisons
There are three poisons which are ignorance, attachment and aversion, and these are the things that keep beings trapped from Samsara. If one overcomes the three poisons, they reach the seventh step, which is nirvana. In Nirvana, there is no suffering and there is no karmic retribution (Dumoulin 460).
However, human beings exist in the six realms (samsara) and it is here that we are born, grown old, and die. Nirvana can be achieved when a person is convinced that samsara is an ocean of suffering and therefore avoiding attachment to any of its joys or qualities (Tulku 37).
Confucianism Perspective
The Chinese philosopher Confucius developed Confucianism as an idealism in which humanity is a prerequisite. Confucianism regards man as the most significant feature in the world given that he can create principles, offer rations, and further learning into posterity (Tang 52).
Confucius declares, Man can enhance the way and not the reverse (Tang 52). Confucianism therefore values living more than dying and people are instructed to focus more on their lives and the constructive things they can achieve while alive. With this undertone, Confucianism implores the individual to engage in acts of kindness to their fellow men.
Cultivation of virtue is integral to Confucian thought and there are three basic concepts of Ren, Yi, and Li. The concept of Ren, which involves practicing altruism, is exhorted and individuals are required to engage in acts of benevolence.
Yi entails upholding righteousness and moral conduct and Confucianism requires the individual to practice good moral conduct and act in accordance to the norms and standards of the society. Confucianism is also concerned with elevating the status of man through rites, etiquette, and customs; a concept referred to as li.
A person is supposed to practice elements of li and endeavor to obtain education and indulge in arts and music. Through the practice of li, the society will enjoy harmony and contentment.
Tang detects that a primary notion in the Confucian view of being and demise is that fate s responsible for both life and death while wealth and nobleness is influenced by the heavenly power (165). As such, the philosophy places more emphasis on life since people are able to influence their own living.
The philosophy therefore focuses on how a good life can be achieved. Confucianism places emphasis on social harmony and advice is offered on how a person can co-exist better with others. The philosophy focuses on how people relate in the society and Confucian text acts as a code of conduct instructing individuals on what would be regarded as good conduct.
Daoist Perspective
The basic believe of Daoism is living in eternity and the teachings show that man can live in eternity and get away with death. Tang observes that a key characteristic of Daoism is seeking deliverance and immortality and finally reaching the state of living in eternity (165). Through intense meditation, the Daoist can achieve immortality without dying and attain oneness with the Dao.
Daoists also consider life on earth to be interconnected with humans and nature sharing some attributes due to uniformitarianism. In Daoism, Wu-Wei (the concept of naturalness) is exhorted with the teaching suggesting that life should be lived in harmony with nature and as such, life should be lived effortlessly.
A person is supposed to develop a sense of peace get in harmony with their true nature (WIng-Tsit 140). Daoism encourages people to appreciate simplicity by flowing with nature and avoiding vices such as selfishness and jealousy.
Daoists endeavor to attain the three Treasures of compassion, moderation, and humility by allowing nature to take its course, a person is able to experience pleasure in life.
Daoism states there is a supreme spirit who sustains the universe and that this being is impersonal and does not involve himself in the affairs of the people. People can feel the presence of this deity and perceive him by intuition.
As man grows into higher consciousness by following the path of Dao, he will become enlightened. Daoism encourages people to find their own path and Daoism asserts that there are many pathways to the truth and these paths lead to the same goal and sometimes to different ultimate goals (Fowler6).
Similarities Among the Philosophies
Confucianism and Samsara agree on the fact that people can determine their own fates. In samsara, karma causes one to go to a higher or lower reign based on their actions while in the human realm. A person therefore determines where they will end up by the actions they engage in while at the human realm (Morrison 269).
Confucianism insists that man should consider it his duty to improve himself through the course of his life. Confucianism insists that if a man does his best and fulfills his responsibility, he will leave this world in peace.
Samsara and Dao are similar in that they both refer to a constant state of change. In samsara, the being is constantly undergoing change as it moves through the realms until it reaches nirvana.
Dao keeps changing and the path is never the same. Daoism reveals that just as water never flows the same way twice, life is also in a constant state of change.
The concept of endlessness is explored in both Daoism and Samsara. Daoism insists that there is no beginning or end for a person and a person is merely flowing through nature. In samsara, existence is an endless circle with beings moving from life to death and then back to life in a different realm. This cycle only ends when one attains perfection and joins other souls in Nirvana.
Samsara and Dao both agree that materialism and attachment to physical things is the cause of trouble among human beings. Samsara states that attachment to physical things is the cause of humanitys problems. The attachment causes pain and suffering since the objects that we are attached to are of a temporary nature and we are bound to lose them. When the loss occurs, we suffer from great pain and misery.
In addition to this, the attachment keeps man from achieving a higher sense of being. Because of attachment, the soul remains bond in the reincarnation circle and it is unable to achieve Nirvana. Daoism warns against attachment and the philosophy suggests that materialism is the cause of strive among human beings. Daoism suggests that harmony can only be achieved when people stop being materialistic and refrain from worldly attachments.
Differences Among the Philosophies
There is a significant difference in the motivation behind practicing good living on earth for the individual Buddhist and the person practicing Confucianism. In Buddhism, good actions are performed so that a person will be reborn in a higher realm.
The concept of Karma applies and one is motivated to engage in good actions so that they can be rewarded when they die. From a Confucius perspective, the motivation for engaging in good acts is to foster harmony in the society. Confucianism therefore advocates for benevolent acts so that a good life may be obtained in this life and not after death.
The concept of wheel of rebirth is peculiar to Buddhism. Confucianism does not believe in reincarnation and people are required to make this life the best.
The concept of rebirth is also absent in Daoism and individuals are asked to lead a life that is in harmony with nature. Buddhism teaches that people are reborn through reincarnation and actions on earth dictate the state of rebirth.
A major difference between Daoism and Samsara is that Daoism advocates realizing immortality in the flesh while in Samsara immortality can only be achieved following death.
Daoism teaches that a person can leave bitter reality and enter the world of immortality by following the path of Dao.
In Buddhism, one can only achieve immortality is he/she practices Dharma and manages to break free from Samsara.
Conclusion
This paper set out to discuss the Buddhist concept of Samsara and analyze how it applies to the Confucian and Daoist tradition. To this end, the paper has defined the concept of samsara in Buddhist thought and analyzed some of its components including karma and the six realms.
It then proceeded to talk about relevant concepts from Confucian and Daoism with particular focus on their views of life and death. The paper has shown that the three philosophies share some similarities and differences.
Specifically, Confucianism and Buddhism agree that people determine their own fate while Buddhism and Dao agree that life is in a constant state of change and suffering is caused by attachment to physical things. The philosophies differ in that Confucianism is focused on this life while Buddhism focuses on the afterlife.
Works Cited
Dumoulin, Heinrich. Buddhism and nineteenth-century German philosophy . Journal of the History of Ideas 42.3 (1981): 457470. Web.
Elman, Benjamin A. (1983). Nietzsche and Buddhism . Journal of the History of Ideas 44.4 (1981): 671686. Web.
Fowler, Jean. An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Daoism: Pathways To Immortality. Boston: Sussex Academic Press, 2005. Print.
Hoyu, Ishida. The Seventh Step in This World of Duhkha: To Be in the World but Not of the World . Interdisciplinary Humanities 24.2 (2007): 151-162. Web.
Loy, David. The difference between samsara and nirvana . Philosophy East and West 33.4 (1983): 355365. Web.
Mistry, Freny. Nietzsche and Buddhism: Prolegomenon to a comparative study. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1981. Print.
Morrison, Robert. Response to Graham Parkes review . Philosophy East and West 50.2 (2000): 267279. Web.
Nagendra, Singh. Science and Spirituality. Beijing: Global Vision Publishing Ho, 2005. Print.
Parkes, Graham. Nietzsche and early Buddhism . Philosophy East and West 50.2 (2000): 254267. Web.
Rinpochay, Konchok. The Jewel Ornament of Liberation: The Wish-Fulfilling Gem of the Noble Teachings. Mumbai: Snow Lion Publications, 1998. Print.
Sutta, Paccaya. The Discourse of Conditions: Specific conditionality and ignorance as the root of dependent arising . Social Dharma 39.12 (2012): 178-183.
Tang, Yijie. Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture. Pecking: CRVP, 1991. Print.
Tulku, Ringu. Confusion Arises As Wisdom: Gampopas Heart Advice on the Path of Mahamudra. Beijing: Shambhala Publications, 2012. Print.
Wilcox, Robin. Karma on Tap: The online Buddhist Revolution. NY: Infinity Publishing, 2004. Print.
WIng-Tsit, Chan. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Print.
Yen, Sheng. Shattering the Great Doubt: The Chan Practice of Huatou. Beijing: Shambhala Publications, 2009. Print.
Ken Wilber is one of the most known and respected American writers and thinkers of the 21th century. He usually writes about psychology, ecology, and philosophy. His works are both appreciated and criticized by lots of people. His ideas become crucially important and exciting for further human development and improvement.
One of the core works by Wilber is AQAL (All Quadrants All Levels), also known as a theory of four quadrants. According to this theory, there are four quadrants of existence: intentional, behavioral, cultural, and social. (Wilber, 1997)
Without any doubts, the diagram, Wilber presented in 1997, is impressive, and it explains a lot to people either scientists and philosopher or ordinary people.
However, during deep research and analysis, it is noticeable that Wilbers four quadrants theory has several inconsistencies within levels and even quadrants themselves; the writer has not taken into consideration the religious aspects and the ideas of racial inequality, which are so burning nowadays.
According to Kim Wilbers theory, there are four major levels, which our life consists of. Each level occupies its own corner: Upper Left intentional level; Upper Right behavioral level; Lower Left cultural level; Lower Right social level.
Each quadrant has something in common with another quadrant. For example, Right Hand quadrants are connected to the empirical level, and Left Hand are more about theoretical one.
Even if Wilber mentions that all people are different, and each detail of the diagram may cause certain controversies, it is rather strange that he does not mention the role of God in this life scheme . There are people who believe in God, and those, who deny Gods existence.
This is why such criterion as belief in God plays an important role and influence lots spheres of life. Wilber underlines that his model of four quadrants is a result of the extensive data search and analysis. If it is true, then why does he ignore such fact as belief in God?
This is one of the brightest remarks to a perfect model of humans existence. Such omission calls numerous discontents and criticism from different sides. The article by Andrew P. Smith may serve as a good example.
Another issue that has not been mentioned in the quadrants by Wilber is the idea of multiculturalism. Cultural diversities, racial inequality, and ethnicity turn out to be burning problems in modern society. Business, education, and even entertainment are based on these inequalities.
If it is so pronounced, why does Wilber not mention this very issue as well in his work? He says that this diagram and the theory is nonetheless enough to indicate the broad contours of the methodology of an integral theory of consciousness, and that it sufficiently indicates the inadequacy of any less comprehensive approaches (Wilber, 1997)
However, such theory of consciousness cannot but rely on ethnical and racial ideas. The point that a person belongs to a separate class and ethnicity is explained every child, who has an ability to comprehend the reality. It is necessary to know own roots and past, and without these ethnical issues, comprehension cannot be complete.
One more point that causes certain misunderstandings is the following. Wilber points out that each holon in his diagram is a constituent of the previous one, and each quadrant its own beginning. However, lots of historians and writers support the idea that our world and the life of every human being have one common beginning.
According to the scheme presented by Ken Wilber, there is no concrete beginning. Each level has its own start (intentional level prehension, behavioral level atoms, cultural level physical-pleromatic, social level galaxies). His idea that a whole that is simultaneously part of some other whole (Wilber, 1997) is not perfect.
For example, he put prehension as a fundament for other intentional issues, such as sensation. It means that sensation should contain prehension.
However, people may feel something (sensation) without certain comprehension of what it is (prehension), so, it goes against Wilbers idea. Such factor as personal abilities and physical condition has been taken into account as well.
Ken Wilber is considered to be one of the most interesting and influential writers in the field of psychology and spirituality. His theory of AQAL, the four quadrants, deserves special attention.
In spite of the fact that Wilber admits that this approach is the minimum degree of sophistication that we need into order to secure anything resembling a genuinely integral theory of consciousness (Wilber, 1997), lots of people criticize his ideas and find strong evidences.
His omission of religious factors, which play a crucial role in modern society, his neglect of ethnical issues, and possible controversy to personal ideas all this proves once again that it is impossible to present our life according to certain, concrete frames and make a person follow these standards.
Each quadrant-level of existence contains important information concerning consciousness that should be rather interesting for humans. It is not obligatory to follow the scheme described by Wilber, but it is possible to take these approaches into account and try analyze this life and its sense.
Reference List
Wilber, K. (1997, February). An Integral Theory of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies,4 (1), 71-92.