Louis Althusser developed his notion regarding the concepts of ideology, state apparatuses and interpellation. Althusser comes with a unique approach to all these issues. This essay will summarise the notions advanced by Althusser in respect to the definitions given to the terms mentioned.
In his definition of ideology, Althusser adopts two strategies. In the first place, he offers to define ideology as an imagined association of people to their real conditions. He provides examples of ideologies as political, ethical, legal, and political ideologies. On the other hand, he looks at ideology as consisting of material existence. In this respect, ideology can be described as representing imagined associations that individuals have in relation to their real existence. State apparatuses are defined as instruments used by the authorities. In this respect, Althusser categorises the state apparatuses into two: repressive state apparatuses and ideological state apparatuses (Althusser, 1994).
The repressive state apparatuses are said to be those state apparatuses that use violence. They include the states uniformed forces, and they employ violence in their functioning. The ideological state apparatuses, on the other hand, refers to the special institutions found in the society such as the family, religious institutions, the legal structures, and trade unions, among others. Interpellation can be described as the manner in which ideology executes power. These aspects are all related in the sense that ideology is used to execute power by means of the state apparatuses (Althusser, 1994).
Althusser developed his own way of looking at various aspects. Ideology is used to execute power in society. In this respect, the state apparatuses may execute power in society. The process through which the power is executed has been defined as interpellation by Althusser. Therefore, it can be argued that the three concepts advanced by Althusser are closely interrelated.
Bibliography
Althusser, L, 1994, Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.
Throughout the course of millennia, it used to account for a commonplace practice among Western and Oriental philosophers to believe that there are phenomenological subtleties to peoples endowment with consciousness. For example, many Western philosophers used to subscribe to the Descartian concept of mind and body dualism while insisting that it is indeed possible for ones mind to exist outside of his or her body. Oriental philosophers, in this respect, were not much different, as the idea that consciousness is independent of its bearers physiology defines the discursive implications of many of their writings.
The validity of this suggestion can be illustrated in regards to Zhuangzis stance on the subject matter, reflected by his allegory of a butterfly: Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly& He didnt know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didnt know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi. Between Zhuangzi and a butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things (World Religions WGS 2). In light of the recent discoveries in the field of neurobiology and physics, however, the assumption that there is a metaphysical substance (such as Zhuangzis transformation of things), which exists independently of peoples highly subjective perception of the surrounding reality, does not stand much of a ground. In my paper, I will elaborate on this idea at length.
Body of the paper
As it was mentioned in the Introduction, the belief that it is ones psyche (soul), which fuels the functioning of his or her body (which implies a persons body being secondary to its soul), used to be considered utterly appealing by many people, throughout the course of history. The reason for this is simple by assuming that the soul is primary and body is secondary, people can lessen the acuteness of their death-related anxieties. Nevertheless, as of today, it became thoroughly clear to neurologists that ones conscious/unconscious psyche (soul) cannot exist outside of his or her body, by definition. After all, it has now been well proven that the workings of ones psyche are defined by the essence of chemo-electric reactions inside of the concerned individuals brain. For as long as there are no obstacles on the way of chemo-electric reactions normal flow, the functioning of ones consciousness allows him or her to experience the three-dimensional sensation of self. However, even slight mechanical damage to the cortex area of ones brain can produce a dramatic impact on the persons sense of identity (soul) often without affecting the integrity of the concerned individuals ability to address cognitive tasks (Puig and Gulledge 455).
Moreover, the recent discoveries in the field of neurology suggest that ones unconscious is in charge of defining the persons rational choices six seconds prior to when these choices are being actually made. This is because, conceptually speaking, just as it happened to be the case with plants and animals, the representatives of Homo Sapiens species are nothing but vehicles for the genes (DNA) that ride them. As Dawkins noted, We are survival machines robot vehicles blindly programmed to preserve the selfish molecules known as genes (2). Regardless of whether we are awake or asleep, our actions reflect the workings of our unconscious-based consciousness, which in turn are genetically predetermined. In the neurological sense of this word, the functioning of peoples consciousness, concerned with their ability to cognize the surrounding reality, can be compared to the performance of a symphonic orchestra.
It is only when every performer adequately plays its instrument that the emergence of an overall symphonic melody is possible. In a similar manner, it is only when every neuron in the persons brain adequately reacts to chemically induced stimuli, which makes it possible for this person to experience the endowment with consciousness. Allegorically speaking, consciousness is the music played by neurons (Meserve 531). In its turn, this explains the illogicality and incoherentness of dreams in the state of sleep, only the brains neurons responsible for the functioning of the unconscious are activated. The validity of this statement has been proven by the electroencephalographic images of the sleeping persons brain, which point out to the fact that, while asleep, only the parts of the brains cortex allow the conductance of electrochemical reactions. Therefore, Zhuangzis suggestion that it is quite impossible to differentiate dreams from reality is wrong. The same can be said about his conceptualization of transformation of things, as such that exists in the essentially metaphysical realm. There can be no conscious realms outside of peoples brains, just as there can be no anti-lock braking system (ABS) outside of cars.
The apparent fallaciousness of Zhuangzis suggestion can also be exposed in relation to what todays physicists know about the innermost essence of information, as an integral part of consciousness, and about the thought, as an integral part of ones sense of self-identity. It is important to understand that information is nothing but a particularly structuralized physical matter, such as typographic ink on the books page, the magnetization-pattern on the recording tape or modulated radio wave, etc. Information only becomes recognized as such when there is a third party capable of receiving it (Adams 475). What it means is that: a) being material, information cannot exist outside of the material medium, upon which it is saved. b) the process of the brains neurons engaging with the information (chemicals), which is being commonly referred to in terms of a thought, is idealistic (non-material).
After all, unlike what it happened to be with the secretions of ones liver, for example, the secretions of his or her mind (thoughts) cannot be sampled in the test tube. In other words, despite being clearly non-material, consciousness is nevertheless triggered by unmistakably material processes, which in turn implies that there can be no consciousness as thing in itself (or as Zhuangzis transformation of things). Unlike what many idealistically minded/religious people believe, consciousness (or soul) is not a state but a process, made possible by the continual interaction between electrochemically induced stimuli, on the one hand, and the brains neurons, on the other. If, for whatever reason (such as brain death), this interaction stops, consciousness (soul) ceases to exist pure and simple. Once there is no material medium (brain) upon which the individuality-related information (soul) used to be recorded, there can be no more individuality. It is needless to mention, of course, that this exposes the erroneousness of the religious belief in the afterlife, as such that contradicts the most fundamental laws of nature, which apply to people as much as they apply to just about anything in this universe.
Apparently, those who assume that it is possible for ones psyche/soul to lead out-of-bodily existence while justifying their belief by the references to the Law of Conservation of Energy remain arrogant of the fact that this law only applies to physical matter. After all, as we are well aware, after having died and consequently turned into corpses, people do not instantly disappear. The energy that they had in their bodies, while alive, is being gradually dissipated into the surrounding environment in the form of an entropy-inducing heat such as the movements of grave-worms, for example. Ones consciousness (soul) can be well compared to the hole inside of the bread-roll once this bread-roll is eaten, the earlier mentioned hole simply disappears. It is understood, of course, that the realization of individualitys mortality is emotionally disturbing, but it is better to be thoroughly aware of how things really are than to remain in a state of blissful ignorance.
Conclusion
I believe that the earlier provided line of argumentation, as to why I think Zhuangzis suggestion is erroneous, fully correlates with the papers initial thesis. What has been said, however, was not meant to ridicule Zhuangzis point of view. After all, he did, in fact, succeed in emphasizing the phenomenological aspects of how consciousness goes to construct the sense of self-identity. However, due to the fact that this philosopher came up with the earlier quoted statement at the time when empirical sciences were still remaining in the embryonic state, he could not have possibly been aware that our intuitive insights into what constitutes the integrity of our individuality, are largely misleading. Thus, it will only be logical, on my part, to conclude this paper by reinstating once again that the transformation of things, as the metaphysical source of peoples sense of self-identity, is nothing but Zhuangzis highly subjective mental construct, which has very little to do with what todays scientists know about the actual nature of consciousness.
Works Cited
Adams, Frederick. The Informational Turn in Philosophy. Minds & Machines 13.4 (2003): 471-501. Print.
Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976. Print.
Meserve, Laura. From Neurons to Self-Consciousness: How the Brain Generates the Mind. Choice 49.3 (2011): 531-532. Print.
Puig, Victoria and Allan Gulledge. Serotonin and Prefrontal Cortex Function: Neurons, Networks, and Circuits. Molecular Neurobiology 44. 3 (2011): 449-464. Print.
World Religions WGS. Philosophy 105. Final Examination.
Human interaction has been engaged in conflicts historically. For every opinion or issues that affect humans, there is more than one opinion about it. Some of the conflicts have led to devastating and adverse effects such as war and loss of lives. The contradicting interests and points of view will continue to be part of human life. However, what remains mostly not evaluated are the benefits that disagreements have had. One field that largely benefits from these disagreements is the field of science.
Ways in which disagreements aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences
Disagreement is a salient concept in natural science. Without dispute, it will be hard to have progress. In any endeavor or study regarding natural sciences, there is a criterion or a scientific method. The criterion includes a method of observation, the creation of a hypothesis, the undertaking of experiments, and the formulation of law follows.
The formulated law is what gathers into a theory. In natural sciences, a law should be controllable, measurable, and repeatable. Karl Poppers idea of falsification can be used to show the salience of disagreements in the pursuit of knowledge as far as natural sciences are concerned. The forgery is a concept that states that, after the formulation of a theory, scientists should endeavor to prove that theory to be wrong.
The theory then becomes accurate and robust as uncertainties are debunked and refuted through a scientific process. In this case, scientists, like all human beings, have their limited points of view and bias that make them unaware of their errors. However, after disagreements and evaluation by other authors, there is sharing and thus furthering of scientific knowledge (Martin, 36).
Scientific inquiry is an essential concept in the natural and human sciences. However, it cannot take place in the absence of disagreement. Scientific inquiry can be traced in all the major paradigm shifts that have been witnessed in the field of science. The purpose of scientific inquiry is to explain phenomena.
This is achieved by getting to know explanations that can be tested and made into a pattern that will predict the results of future research. Charles Sanders Peirce is one of the scholars who contributed to this debate in the 19th century. Charles redefined what the pursuit of truth and knowledge entails.
The redefinition of those concepts helped bring a comprehensive definition of the idea of scientific disagreement, which had previously been defined in verbal rhetoric. Pierce went on and presented his hypothesis on the four methods that are involved in the settling of disagreements or the building of consensus. The four methods include the methods of tenacity, authority, congruity, and the scientific method (Kelly 631).
To look at the scientific method, we should note that a paradigm shift can only occur if refutations and conjectures have been used to falsify a hitherto acknowledged and accepted the statement, theory of hypothesis. Inference in this context refers to an observational data that disagrees with the concept, or idea that is undergoing tests.
On the other hand, refutations are attempts aimed at solving the dilemma associated with the gray areas in any inventions. Refutations show that it is much easier to prove a theory or an idea to be incorrect than it is to show that it is correct. For a theory to be acknowledged as a law, one should prove beyond a reasonable doubt that no single refutation or conjecture disproves such a law.
This means that it is not easy to do these tests given the scenarios that can be tested are countless. This is not the case in falsification, which only requires one counterexample and the law can then be said to have been falsified effectively. A distinct characteristic of human and social sciences is that their progress does not occur gradually. In this case, there is a series of the revolutionary invention or a paradigm shift that debunk beliefs and notions that have hitherto been regarded to be true.
An excellent example of natural health can be found in the case of marijuana. There has been a series of radical changes in terms of scientific knowledge of this drug. In the 1900s, the drug was used and even allowed under US law as a recreational drug.
Later, in the 1920s the US government started testing marijuana on humans to establish if the drug could be categorized as a habit-forming drug.
It was also meant to determine whether the drug could induce sanity among human beings. This was a paradigm shift. Later in 1937, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics collaborated with Congress in categorizing marijuana as a recreational and hazardous narcotic that had the potential to cause several mental illnesses.
In the 1990s, many psychologists led by Thomas F. Denton introduced another paradigm shift as far as the knowledge on the medicinal value of the marijuana is concerned. They began noticing that cannabis could be tremendously instrumental in the treatment of many mental disorders. The revelation of this concept has provoked debate and disagreement among researchers in the field of medical cannabis.
Those who seek to dispute this revelation have argued that the tenacity of the methods used and their authority is not guaranteed. In this regard, marijuana remains an illegal drug and is considered harmful as far as the federal government is concerned. This line of argument stems from the fact that the critics cannot dispute the positive effects that marijuana has been found to have on patients (Yan 378).
The timing of falsification is an essential factor. Another critical factor is the amount of evidence that is needed to falsify a theory or a hypothesis effectively. One example that can be used to explain this concept is the controversy that continues to dodge genetically modified foods.
There has been disagreement about the effects that genetically modified food has on human health. Genetic modification of food is the process of altering the DNA of an organic plant. This leads to a new breed that possesses traits that the organic plant did not have.
The GM foods are then made adaptable and easy to produce, which means that corporations prefer producing GM foods to increase their profit margins through the reduction of the cost of production. There has been no evidence of a credible publication to show that GM foods have adverse effects on human health. However, this does not mean that there has been no hypothesizes to this effect.
Several scientists continue to hypothesize on the adverse health effects of GM foods. However, the counter-argument has been that there is not enough evidence to show any harmful effects on human health as a result of the consumption of GM foods. In this case, whenever the scientific methods are applied, the results have shown that GM foods are potentially hazardous. However, this does not qualify as a paradigm shift given that the evidence has not shown GM foods to be dangerous (Berland & Victor 1877).
The contribution of knowledge through disagreements is not only applicable in natural science but also the human or social sciences. One example is the paradigm shift concerning the question of whether or not sociological factors are applicable as far as the study of human history is concerned.
One of the most celebrated historians of the 20th century called Howard Zinn published a book titled A Peoples History of the United States in the year 1980. In publishing this book, Zinn had sought to introduce a paradigm shift in the history discipline through an objective acknowledgment of members of lower socioeconomic class. The same idea can be seen from the time gender became an essential factor in the sociological examination of historical events.
Historians were forced to evaluate the sociological history from a feminist point of view after the feminist movement kicked off in the 1920s. This paradigm shift led to the emergence or discovery of an immense amount of historical information that had previously not been investigated or studied (Berland & Victor 1859).
Another good example is the history of racial discrimination, which begun after the civil rights movement kicked off. African and Hispanic Americans began were increasingly campaigning for their rights to be respected. This led to the admission of a significant and increased number of Hispanics and black Americans to significant institutions of higher learning such as universities and colleges. History changed as the field of study had broadened from a sociological perspective, which effectively qualifies this as a paradigm shift.
In general, disagreements have boosted the pursuit of knowledge as far as science is concerned. However, despite this fact, there are instances when controversy has blocked and derailed the pursuit of knowledge in science. One example of such an incident is disagreement over the ethicality and morality of stem cell research. This is a controversy that has remained unresolved in the US and Europe for close to twenty years.
This led the US government to withdraw its funding of research. The disagreements did not have a positive effect, but rather a negative one. In this case, the study could have been hugely beneficial in the pursuit of knowledge had it been successful. Other examples include animal testing. There has been a blockage of any further research on the effects of consumer products after some researchers questioned the ethicality of the research (Kelly, 622).
Conclusion
From the discussion, it is clear that the disagreements have had a positive impact on the pursuit of knowledge. It has elicited debate, which has introduced a broader point of view among both natural and human scientists. Unlike in other spheres of life where disagreements are made to seem retrogressive and ignorant, science considers them progressive and informative. In this case, they make both sides of the arguments motivated to explore their area of research scientifically, as well as realize their own biases.
Works Cited
Berland, Leema K., and Victor R. Lee. In Pursuit Of Consensus: Disagreement And Legitimization During Small-Group Argumentation. International Journal Of Science Education 34.12 (2012): 1857-1882. Print.
Kelly, Thomas. Disagreement, Dogmatism, And Belief Polarization. Journal Of Philosophy 105.10 (2008): 611-633. Print.
Martin, Michael. Readings in the Philosophy of Social Science. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.: MIT Press, 1994. Print.
Yan, James A. Moral Relativism And The Argument From Disagreement. Journal Of Social Philosophy 34.3 (2003): 377-386. Print.
Dworkins remark can be considered in terms of three theories. Notably, the three theories focus on different aspects and this leads to different conclusions. According to hedonists, the major aim of a humans life is being happy and the best way to become happy is to have lots of pleasures. Noteworthy, hedonists do not think pursuing sensual pleasure is the major goal.
On the contrary, hedonists believe that intellectual and artistic pleasures are at the top of the pleasure list while sensual pleasures are at the bottom (Shafer-Landau 24). Importantly, life, for hedonists, should be full of pleasures and there can be no misery. Thus, it is possible to assume that a hedonist would not agree with Ronald Dworkin as the latter notes that a person who enjoys his/her life cannot be happy.
Dworkin claims that even if a person enjoys a life that is deprived of major goals and commitments, he/she cannot be happy as this life is incomplete and rather meaningless. However, if a person has some intellectual pleasures with no definite goals and accomplishments, a hedonist will still say that the person has a happy and complete life. Being happy, for hedonists, is trying to get more pleasures and avoiding misery.
According to hedonists, there is no need in having certain life plans and accomplishments to enjoy life. A hedonist would argue that the individual in question can be totally happy as his/her life is full of joy. Though, it is necessary to note that Dworkin addresses one of the major issues which are regarded as the hedonist theory flaws. Hedonists simply ignore everything but pleasures and joy in life.
A desire satisfaction theorist would have a bit different standpoint. There are two possible viewpoints on Dworkins remark. First of all, it is necessary to note that desire theorists believe a person can be happy only when his/her desires are satisfied. Thus, even though an individual gets some pleasures, he/she cannot be happy until his/her desires are satisfied. Hence, if the major desires of the individual mentioned by Dworkin are concerned with getting pleasures and living without accomplishments and close friends, this person can still be happy, according to desire satisfaction theorists.
Therefore, if a person desires not to strive for goals or commitment, he/she is happy if his/her life contains joys. Of course, this viewpoint is contrasting with Dworkins remark. In other words, desire satisfaction theorists stress that if a person does not want to adopt other peoples ways and lifestyles, it is but natural that they can be happy in their ways (Shafer-Landau 45).
On the other hand, desire satisfaction theorists can also agree with Dworkin if an important premise is met. For instance, if the person mentioned desires to have close relationships and some achievements, he/she cannot possibly be happy since, irrespective of having some joys, the person cannot be happy unless his/her desires are satisfied. From this perspective, Dworkins viewpoint complies with the desire satisfaction theory. Of course, in this case, Dworkins remark is simply incomplete. To make it fit in the desire satisfaction theory, it is necessary to add that this person cannot be happy if he/she desired to have close relationships and accomplishments.
At the same time, a person who believes in an objective theory of human welfare will agree with Dworkin (Shafer-Landau 44). According to the objective theory, there are certain objective goals which people share (or should share). These people claim that people should set some goals and strive for achieving them in their lifetime. Having close relationships and achieving some goals make people happy and satisfied with their lives. Noteworthy, even though some people may fail to desire close relationships and accomplishments, they will understand the value of these achievements in the long run.
Therefore, even though a person enjoys his/her life, he/she cannot be happy unless the life is full of achievements and accomplishments. This complies with the objective theory. Remarkably, it is possible to note that Dworkin is an advocate of the objective theory of human welfare as he claims the person with no objective achievements (no close relationships, no accomplishments) can never be happy. Importantly, Shafer-Landau notes that supporters of the present theory do not answer the question concerning peoples subjective needs and do not take into account peoples individuality (47).
Likewise, Dworkin does not mention whether the individual in question wants to have close relationships or have some accomplishments which are generally seen as important. The individual can desire to alienate him/herself from the rest of the world and remain happy without pursuing other peoples dreams. Nevertheless, it is also possible that the person in question can soon understand that he/she is not happy and has never been happy as life is incomplete without the objective values mentioned above.
Flaws of the Desire Satisfaction Theory
Shafer-Landau starts talking about the desire satisfaction theory as the one that best fits the real world (50). The author claims that people are all different and individuals have different desires, which is normal. Hence, it is quite acceptable that there are no objective values in the world as all people have different needs. This makes sense as some lifestyles can be good for some people and simply inappropriate or even harmful for others. For instance, a shy person can desire to live in certain seclusion, while easy-going people can find such kind of life intolerable. Thus, desire satisfaction theory is the one that explains to people what happiness is.
Nonetheless, Shafer-Landau draws a different conclusion. The author considers such desires as suicidal or destructive ones. The author concludes that people are forced to the conclusion that the good life depends on objective values (Shafer-Landau 58). Admittedly, if a person desires to commit suicide, this can make him happy as, according to the desire satisfaction theory, the fulfillment of desires makes people happy.
However, such happiness is simply impossible as the individual ceases to exist. Admittedly, life is an objective value. Even though some people do not cherish their lives, life does not become less valuable. In other words, it is worth living and all people do (or, at least, should) share this view. For instance, a lot of people who attempt to kill themselves start cherishing their lives.
Furthermore, people may desire to misbehave, but they often regret those deeds and people become miserable even though they have satisfied their desires. The author stresses that people may have destructive desires but the fulfillment of these desires will make those people miserable (Shafer-Landau 57). Therefore, it is natural to assume that objective values cannot be ignored as they also make people happy even when they do not understand or cherish (or notice) their happiness. More so, objective values help people develop and societies prosper.
Works Cited
Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Fundamentals of Ethics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print.
Science is among numerous phenomena in the world that have tremendously affected the life of human beings. Through innovations and discoveries, lives are transformed and bettered for the purpose of meeting advanced challenges. From end to end, new scientific advances and more knowledge is acquired for the purpose of handling existing challenges. These developments are essential in addressing problems or situations demanding attention.
In addressing such issues, many scholars and researchers have differed on whether achieved scientific innovations should be considered as scientific progress. What does it mean for the world or society to progress scientifically? Does scientific progress always imply moving closer to the truth? These are some of the questions which this essay addresses. It synthesizes the existing relationship between scientific progress and its closeness to the missing truth.
Scientific progress
What is the scientific truth? Many philosophers concur that scientific truth occurs when there is enough evidence for the accumulation of knowledge as compared to earlier moments when there was insufficient knowledge to address an existing problem (Bird 64). It is, however, important to note that this form of knowledge accumulation is never original but has respected history. With existing discrepancies over the issue, many scholars have gone ahead to dispute this philosophical approach.
Such controversies were witnessed during the 1960s (Bird 64). Consequently, rehabilitation of the cumulative conception has remained unsuccessful based on the realistic reaction towards relativism and positivism. In most cases, realists explain the notion of progress by focusing on the approximate truth as opposed to extending the boundaries of knowledge and seeking more information (Bird 64). With reference to this assumption, many debates emerge addressing the relationship between truth and scientific progress. Is it possible to progress if one is far from the truth, or does scientific progress entailing knowledge accumulation in addressing exiting challenges?
Scientific progress can be broadly classified into three major categories which are characterized by unique approaches towards the interplay between scientific progress and that which is known to be true. The first approach is the epistemic view which considers knowledge to be crucial for humanity in the understanding of the progress. In other words, clear comprehension of scientific progress can not be realized in the absence of the necessary knowledge (Rorty 43).
On the other hand, the semantic approach recognizes the truth as the main ingredient that is required in defining any form of progress in the field of science. Lastly, functional-internals have the view that scientific progress exists when a scientific advancement excels in addressing a given problem by providing solutions being looked for. This approach further incorporates the need for scientific practitioners to understand the function in such a way that they could give a valid opinion in assessing the fulfilment of the function.
While philosophers continue to express opposing views regarding scientific progress and the truth, many people wonder if there are other sources of truth besides venturing into science or employing scientific principles in solving certain problems in life. It has been discovered that many people consider science to be the only source of truth without which humanity would not be in a position to manifold solutions to manifold problems in the modern world.
Nevertheless, others, including a section of scholars and philosophers, argue that scientific approach towards seeking the truth may not provide perfect truth but presents a convincing solution that is closer to what could be considered as perfect truth.
Notably, truth is connected with goals as researchers engage in activities geared towards attaining certain objectives (Rorty 19). This notion has widely been accepted and applied by numerous people as it distorts the normal understanding of the entire process and how the achieved goal evidently explains elements of the missing truth. One has to understand that science has undergone several transformations clouded with uncertainty which never deterred determined scientists from finding answers to questions.
Although finding the truth is always the target of most researchers, it has arguably been noted that improving present tools and knowledge is key in analyzing the fundamentals of scientific progress. As such, any scientific process is prone to revision, criticism and continuous examination (Dilworth 8). However, these processes do not imply lack of authenticity but an affirmation that it is a process which focuses on improving existing knowledge for the purpose of addressing complex problems or to provide better results.
Another important aspect of scientific progress is the fact that there are numerous factors which promote this progress. A good example is an economic growth which allows governments and other funding agencies to increase funding and ensure that scientists realize their research objectives (Carruthers, Stich and Michael 4). Another aspect of scientific progress is the level of professionalism. In this context, many scientists have raised their status by engaging in processes which aim at solving real-life problems in society.
Additionally, scientists have acquired expertise and the necessary skills to carry out research and make recommendations. Moreover, technological advancements which have permitted the adoption of more advanced procedures in not only finding the truth but also increasing cumulative knowledge (Bechtel 64).
Conclusion
From the above analysis, it is evident that science is a process which seeks more knowledge to address existing and future problems. As a result, its progress encompasses criticisms and revision, an indication that no single scientific process is true or perfect. Nevertheless, the process permits the accumulation of knowledge in seeking the truth.
Works Cited
Bechtel, William. Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Cognitive Science. London: Routledge, 1988. Print.
Bird, Alexander. What Is Scientific Progress? Nous 41.1 (2007): 6489. Print.
Carruthers, Peter, Stich Stephen, and Siegal Michael. The cognitive basis of science. London: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.
Dilworth, Craig. Scientific progress: a study concerning the nature of the relation between successive scientific theories. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.
Rorty, Richard. Truth and progress. London: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Print.
Morality as implied in philosophy entails a distinctive system of behavior that concerns the standards of either wrong or right actions. As a philosophical word, morality embraces three concepts namely the moral standards appertaining to behaviors, moral identity which distinguishes an individual who is able to commit a wrong or a right action, and moral responsibility which refers to human conscience.
In fact, in the current world, morality emerges as a complicated multicultural issue. It has various synonyms including virtue, goodness, principles and ethics. This implies that morals significantly affect our society, conscience, behaviors and human ultimate destiny.
Thus, the universal definition of morals is that it is a study associated with human being actions as an upshot of beliefs on what is deemed to be bad or good, wrong or right in as far such actions materialize as either effective or useful (Trusted 68). Morals in philosophy actually deal with what is believed to be right as well as what the society, culture or groups generally do. Morals therefore signify what the society really does as relates to the accepted code of conducts and standards.
Moral concepts and principles
Scores of individuals are quite accustomed to the common sense mortality which is derived from norms including treat others the same way you expect others to treat you, do your best, always yearn to be fair and keep all your promises. In addition to such coherent behavioral guides, morality similarly distinguishes values which are universally held as being good. For instance, morality values entail justice, love, community, happiness, charity, freedom, courage, honesty, integrity and knowledge.
These ideals are familiar to most individuals if they are not inclined to a particular religion. However, the moral principles founded on common sense might be deemed inadequate when complex situations are taken into consideration. Often, philosophers draw on these principles when developing theoretical concepts to assist in guiding actions and have hypothesized ethical philosophies and standards founded on them (Trusted 68).
From the historical perspective, the most prominent moral concepts include natural rights concept, utilitarianism as well as the divine command theory. The natural rights concept basically holds that each individual has a natural right to property, life and liberty.
All of these might merely be limited via the necessitation not to contravene other individuals rights. Occasionally, it has further been imagined that these natural rights considerably anchor on some religious underpinning. On the other hand, utilitarianism embraces the fact that morality ought to be guided through the utmost excellence for the maximum number.
This concept implies that happiness or utility for each and every individual must be maximized. The divine command concept finally cleaves to the notion that morality ought to be founded on God commands. In essence, this morality is based on the religious books and thus forms the key morality outline as tendered by the global religious bodies. The fundamental principles of morals as Resnik illustrated include utility, honesty, fidelity, non-malificence, privacy, autonomy, justice and beneficence (211).
Moral philosophers views
When moral philosophy is discussed with any logical coherent detail, it has a propensity to create various problems, in particular, how to prove the legitimacy of some moral action. Some of the moral questions that are being faced on a daily basis seemingly do not have a clear way through which it can be answered.
Such kind of moral proposition can be acceptable only when they plead to extensive diversity of varied philosophical theories, are rational and are as a result of sheer will. Majority of the moral philosophers always seek to answer the questions that involve the right and wrong issues in a more perfect stipulation (Resnik 272).
The result is that many philosophers have come up with different schools of thought. To some such as the moral relativists argue that morality entirely rely on what people believe it is supposed to be. In addition morality has no inherent traits that go beyond or above human volition.
Those who have the opposing view argue that there exists some objectives and moral legitimacy regardless of what people may believe or think. This is the belief of realists. None of these views will give a complete story though in most cases both hold a common position across cultures. Nevertheless, there are varying opinions that are always at odds with what society believe in.
Simone Blackburn came up with an explanation that combines both the objective and subjective nature of moral judgments. The position that Blackburn holds can more or less be termed as the moral projectivism. According to this view, human beings as conscious beings, project there emotional response according to the observations made depending with the behavior of others (Blackburn 129).
For instance in a situation where one is being tortured, people tend to feel negative about the action and develop similar emotions about it. The emotional response leads people to judge the action as either wrong or right.
If judgments are that the actions are wrong then it should be avoided in the future. According to Blackburn, this is the beginning of moral reasoning. While at some point the action could be seen as being subjective especially in terms of emotional experience the person witnessing an act is having, on the contrary the action is also objective or real since the action is actually occurring.
It is unfortunate that at the first instances the emotional feeling is connected to the actions taking place at that time hence it would appear immoral to oppose the action even if the action is right.
Moral projectivism asserts that there exist two important methods that would lead people to arrive at the common view point of a meticulous moral question. The first method is through the evolutionary strategy of observing the optimal survival of species inside the better concept of natural selection.
In other words what is wrong or right is taken in terms of what is preeminent for the endurance of the species. This notion can empirically be tested to arrive at the conclusion that altruism is better that selfishness. Put differently, the conclusion can be that altruism is good while selfishness is bad. Objectively altruism is seen as producing more survival traits for the species and improves the general condition of the people within the society therefore considered to be good.
The second way or of coming to the conclusion that an action is moral is through the emotive response that the action imparts on people in a society. Essentially actions such as torture have such kind of emotional response to the larger group of people in society hence considered as wrong since it illicit such kind of feeling to the majority (Joyce 130).
While the individual emotional reaction may be seen as subjective, the real action is objective as it takes place in the real situation and produces reactions that can be observed in the people. Because many people have similar reactions to certain actions it becomes easy to discuss such feelings cross cultures as well as social boundaries. As a result people come up with a general conclusion that the action is morally right or wrong More so to the actions that illicit powerful emotional reactions to the majority of people.
Blackburn argues that to achieve a consensus on all the actions there must be a joint pursuit that will end up in a common solution (Blackburn 129). As many people subject their moral judgments on certain actions they may not reveal the real picture rather they are more subjective. The actual actions are real and reveal the objectivity of the action. In that sense this philosophical position can be categorized as quasi-realism.
One of the disadvantages or projectivism is its strength of appealing to the majority over the emotional feelings towards certain moral actions as well as the ability to survive in terms of the evolutionary context of biology. There are no objective obligations to the individual, in terms of emotional responses, to act in agreement with certain moral standards. While there is certain moral empathy with those suffering, projectivism does not seem to go beyond a common compassion about other people.
The philosophical position does seem to un-hold when it comes to clarify what other people seem to unconsciously feel. Further it does not support the argument in terms of defining certain specific moral actions particularly when conflicts exist between two equal moral actions.
Questions such as whether it is morally right or wrong to torture someone because he has saved thousand lives seems to be unanswerable by just observing the how people would react to torture or death of thousands of people (Joyce 129). While in some cases the question may be able to have an answer under the evolutionary belief in survival of species and natural selection, it does not add to any philosophical thought since it draws a lot of similarities with the maximization of utility that is advocated by utilitarianism.
Personal perspective
Despite the above mentioned concepts, various theories that use different methods or rules in specifying ethical human obligations and behaviors also exist. However, not an iota of concepts has properly achieved global approval. Lest a prime supposition fails to materialize, it could be ascribed to the fact that it might be complicated in practice to bank on a single speculation in every state of affairs. Given the universal definition of morals, problems are just encountered in defining the principles that constitutes what is good or bad.
The elementary principles of morals including utility, honesty, fidelity, non-malificence, privacy, autonomy, justice and beneficence typically constitute what morals entail. Whereas the implication of expressions namely assistance, dishonesty, coherent, justice and injury might be contested, it is obvious from the moral standard listing that it is in fact plausible to recommend a logically inclusive list of principles which could outline some a practical direction to a general moral structure.
Basically, such a listing integrates diverse philosophies which are considered ordinary to each and every traditional custom. For, instance, it might partly correspond to some religiously enthused principles yet may not heavily rely on them.
This means that the moral principles are may not be dubbed as supreme regulations but just guidelines that could be drawn on in tandem with apiece. Therefore, the conflicts emerging between moral principles which give rise to ethical dilemma could be done away with via moral reasoning. This would definitely give a reflective balanced judgment or equilibrium state.
In conclusion moral projectivism offers various essential analytical tools in reconciling the two positions of realism and anti realism. The over dependence on the emotional reactions and its advocacy for better things be awarded to humanity, are the two reasons why the philosophical thought seems to be lacking extraordinary approach to important issues in moral philosophy. The moral philosophy provides a guideline or an explanation of certain human actions in society.
Works Cited
Blackburn, Simon. Being Good: A Short Introduction to Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Joyce, Richard. The Evolution of Morality. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2006.
Resnik, David, B. The Ethics of Science: An Introduction. New York, NY: Routledge, 1998.
Trusted, Jenifer. Moral Principles and Social Values. New York, NY: Routledge, 2002.
In the philosophy arena, every philosopher is entitled to the presentation of their own theories and views. It is common to come across a number of conflicting logics on the same topic. In the same way, it is normal to find a couple of philosophers who concur on one thing or another. Good examples of the latter are Heidegger and Michel Foucault. This paper will look at the weighty influence of Heidegger on Michel Foucaults concept of episteme and their consent based on peoples style, behavior, and talk. The similarity between what Heidegger calls the age of style and Michel Foucaults episteme theory will also be discussed.
Influence of Heidegger on Foucault
Heideggers Age of the World Picture essay heaps substantial influence on Michel Foucault and his theories of the discourse, the discursive shifts, and most significantly, the episteme. The latters idea of episteme is made even more vivid by Heideggers account of the age of style. Whether or not the two talk about one and the same thing is not clear, but it is clear that Heideggers acknowledgment of a force that drives scientists and everybody to act in the way they do lends credence to Foucaults episteme theory. This credibility is valuable in that it portrays Foucaults concept as approved by more than one philosopher (Allen, 1978).
Similarity Between Heideggers and Foucaults Concepts
One notable similarity between Heideggers and Foucaults theories is the fact that both talk of a factor that makes things seem right and wrong in the eyes of different people. While Heidegger talks of fashion trends and the modernization of science, Foucault holds that a special apparatus in the mental circumference of an individual is responsible for the different views. All in all, they both attribute the activities in the world to some special feature or mentality that is at work in each and every inhabitant of the earth.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Heidegger imposes a considerable amount of influence on Foucault and his theory. At the same time, the two agree that there is a power that is the cause of the human minds ability to conform to other things which are considered legitimate and abhor others which are regarded wrong or old-fashioned.
Reference List
Allen, J. (1978). Fundamental Paradigms for the Study of Intersubjectivity. Research in Phenomenology, 8 (1). 263.
Describe a time when you took a great risk. What was the outcome?
A popular adage says no risk, no rewards. The commonness of this adage made me ignore it until my university days when I experienced the actuality of this saying. The university required all students to submit their coursework before the stipulated deadline and students who did not submit their assignments before the deadline scored a zero. The university authority reduced the pressure of this policy by allowing students an extension of up to five days provided the students submitted an extension request at least five hours before the deadline. Many students took advantage of this flexibility, but I never requested an extension. I usually planned and set goals for each coursework we were given in class and this strategy enabled me to finish all my assignments before the deadline.
I was caught between sending a request for a deadline extension and risking an F by trying to stick to my principle. The coursework was due in two days and I was behind schedule. The interesting part is that I remained adamant and insisted that I would complete and submit the coursework before the deadline. I took the risk of continuing work on the coursework as though I was on schedule. I admitted it was impossible to complete the coursework before the deadline, but I persisted and worked through the night to complete the assignment. I submitted the assignment three hours before the submission deadline. I took a risk by not requesting a deadline extension when it was five hours to the deadline, and I got rewarded by scoring a B in the coursework, without breaking my principle.
My experience showed me the importance of taking risks and helped me face situations with an orientation that risk was important. I have since understood that once I know my target and set my goals, no risk is too much to take. The principle of understanding the importance of taking risks has improved my performance in all areas of life and has helped me to manage personal and academic projects more effectively. I have resolved to pay more attention to the rewards of my endeavors, instead of glorifying the risks associated with the project. The pains associated with risks may be enormous, but the joy of the rewards is overwhelming. People must be willing to face lifes challenges with an understanding of the risks while focusing on the rewards that lie ahead. The right application of these principles will improve peoples performances.
One of the reasons why it is crucially important for just about any well-educated individual to possess a comprehensive worldview is that it enables such an individual to understand the significance of the surrounding realitys emanations, which in turn increases his or her chances to attain social prominence.
In my paper, I will aim to explore the validity of this suggestion at length, while elaborating upon the specifics of my personal worldview and upon how my worldview helps me to adopt a proper stance towards addressing life-challenges.
The foremost aspect of my worldview is the fact that it is dialectical. That is, I believe that the actual significance of the realitys manifestations should be assessed within the conceptual framework of how causes define the nature of corresponding effects.
This is the reason why I do not think that it is being appropriate to discuss particular phenomena as thing in itself, outside of what happened to be this phenomenas dialectically predetermined causes. In its turn, this partially explains why I consider myself a materialist, who does not believe in the realness of essentially metaphysical notions.
This also explains why I think that is specifically the Darwinian theory of evolution, which provides scientifically substantiated answers to the question of what triggered the emergence of biological life on Earth and what had set the newly emerged life-forms on the path of becoming ever more complex.
It goes without saying, of course, that the fact that I adhere to the provisions of the Darwinian theory of evolution naturally makes me an atheist, as I am being in a position to define the discursive significance of the peoples very sense of religiosity.
In essence, I think that the strength of a particular individuals religiosity positively correlates with the extent of his or her evolutionary underdevelopment. Such peoples underdevelopment emanates itself in their tendency to adopt a holistic stance, when it comes to tackling life-challenges, which in turn prompts them to subjectualize nature just as primeval savages and high mammals tend to do.
For example, it has been well observed that bears that sustain injuries against sticking out tree-branches, while crawling over the log, often end up hitting these branches with both of their paws as if they wanted to punish them. The reason for this is simple in bears mind, the evil branch appears nothing short of an entity of its own.
This illustrates the actual origins of spirituality. And, as we are being well aware of spirituality serves as the conceptual foundation for just about any worlds major religion. What it means is that, the more people are being tempted to profess a particular religion, the closer they are to animals and vice versa. The validity of this suggestion can even be confirmed visually, in regards to what appears to be the anthropological constitution of many Islamic fundamentalists, for example.
Nevertheless, even though that I think that the very laws of nature determine the process of people continually becoming less animalistic, as the part of their evolutionary development, I still think that biologically speaking, the representatives of Homo Sapiens species are nothing but primates.
In its turn, this explains the nature of social dynamics in just about any human society. After all, just as it is being the case with the existential anxieties of male-monkeys within a particular tribe, mens foremost existential anxieties are being concerned with making babies (spreading the seed) and with imposing dominance upon others. The understanding of this simple fact, on my part, comes in particularly handy when I assess the extent of many currently popular socio-political ideologies.
For example, through the lenses of my worldview, the ideology of feminism appears utterly fallacious, simply because in the societies of primates males always dominate this what actually ensures these societies structural integrity. Therefore, if feminists succeed with promoting their agenda, this will inevitably result in the destruction of Western civilization, as we know it.
The earlier outlined conceptual premises of my worldview, are being thoroughly consistent with what I believe account for this worldviews foremost socio-political, ethical and epistemological implications. The implications can be formulated as follows:
a) The linearity of progress. I believe in the full objectivity of the concept of socio-political and scientific progress. The very fact that, as time goes on, the realities of todays living are becoming ever more discursively complex and technologically intensive suggests that, contrary to the speculations of promoters of multiculturalism and cultural relativism (who imply that the concept of progress is being essentially euro-centric and consequentially wicked), this concept does in fact help to explain the very essence of historical laws, to which people never cease being subjected. In its turn, this suggests that human societies can either be in the state of continuous advancement (Western societies) or in the state of continuous degradation (Third World societies).
b) The discursive fallaciousness of the concept of peoples equality. Given the fact that, as it was mentioned earlier, the representatives of Homo Sapiens species never cease remaining the subjects of evolutionary laws, it eliminates even a theoretical possibility for people to be equal, regardless of what happened to be the specifics of their genetically predetermined ability to operate with abstract categories (IQ). The validity of this statement can be easily illustrated in regards to what accounts for the difference between the quality of living standards in Western countries, on the one hand, and the quality of living standards in the Third World countries, on the other.
c) The non-religious essence of the peoples sense of ethics/morality. Even though that even today, many people continue to believe that the ones ability to act morally is being reflective of the strength of his or her religious beliefs, the recent discoveries in the fields of biology, genetics and sociology expose the sheer wrongness of such a belief.
This is because these discoveries established a positive correlation between the measure of peoples ability to act ethically, on the one hand, and the extent of their intellectual advancement. Yet, as it was pointed out earlier, the notion of intellectual advancement and the concept of religion are utterly incompatible.
e) The eventual rise of a new post-human era. The fact that, as of today, the ongoing progress in the fields of biology, genetics, medicine and IT has attained a clearly defined exponential momentum, creates objective precondition for the humanity to qualify for yet another evolutionary jump.
It is being estimated that in twenty years from now, it will became possible for people to learn foreign languages instantly (by the mean of having microchips installed in their brains), to grow new limbs (genetic engineering) and to even attain immortality (by the mean of having their consciousness saved in the computers hard drive). This, of course, will instantly deem the currently predominant social, economic and ethical conventions hopelessly outdated. Yet, such an eventual development is inevitable.
The very fact that, as it was shown earlier, I was able to define the practical implications of my philosophical worldview, suggests this worldviews overall discursive relevance. However, the same fact is also being suggestive as to what may account for my worldviews foremost challenge namely, my worldviews inconsistency with the dogmas of political correctness.
Yet, as we all know, there has not been even a single instance in history of some artificially upheld ideological dogmas having effectively reversed the course of socio-political and technological progress.
Another important aspect of my worldview is that I believe that it is only discursively/practically relevant knowledge, which students should be striving to acquire. This suggestion directly relates to Luanns question, as seen in the cartoon. Apparently, just as it is being the case with many todays students, she had a hard time trying to figure out what was the actual purpose of her studies.
In its turn, this can be explained by the fact that, during the course of acquiring new knowledge, Luann could not relate to this knowledge emotionally probably, because she considered this knowledge practically irrelevant. This is the reason why she will not remember what she had learnt by the time she reaches 45.
What it means that, contrary to many peoples belief, the process of acquiring new knowledge is not being synonymous with the process of memorizing. In order to be considered knowledgeable, one must be quick-minded, industrious and wise enough to be able to apply his or her abstract knowledge in practice.
Unfortunately, as practice indicates, due to considerations of political correctness, the development of these qualities in students is being rarely considered an integral part of the learning process.
I believe that the earlier provided insights into my worldview do correlate with the initial suggestion that the ones possession of a comprehensive worldview is the foremost precondition for him or her to be able to attain social prominence. This is because such a worldview makes it easier for the concerned individual to discover the discursive/practical relevance of the acquired theoretical knowledge.
The world has changed due to changes brought about by the emerging technologies in our postmodern society. We have moved from use-value centered past to a more sign-value centered present. According to Chandler (78), the society has used the emerging technologies positively to make the world a better place for all of us. However, it is important to note that the elite class has used the new found power in postmodernism for selfish personal gains. They use it to sell false ideas in order to manipulate the public with the aim of selling their products. They use it to create a world of illusions in order to achieve personal gains. Firms rely on logo to promote their products in the market. Williamson (54) says that it is strange that every firm will always strive to use items or animals that are highly valued in the society to represent its logo. Car manufacturers are using animals, such as jaguar, to represent the strength and speed of their products. None of them would want to use a tortoise as their logo, even those that manufacture slow moving automobiles that resemble tortoise such as the old model of Volkswagen. In this paper, the researcher will critically assess the argument that we have moved from a use-value centered past to a sign-value centered present.
Part One: Signs, Semiotics, and Analysing Promotional Texts
According to Grenz (98), the business fraternity is doing its best to reap maximum benefits that come with the new found power of postmodernism. In the world of business today, promotional advertisement is of critical importance, and firms are keen to ensure that they present themselves to their customers in the best way possible. Signs, semiotics and promotional texts have become critically important in the business world. These sections will look at how the use of promotional texts, signs, symbols, icons are used to achieve invested interests among the consumers.
Analysing Promotional Texts Semiotics
Communication is very critical in the business world. Promotional texts offer a unique opportunity to the producers to communicate with their consumers. According to Heartney (112), the texts offer the producer an opportunity to tell the customers what makes a particular product superior compared to other rival products. At this stage, it will be necessary to critically analyse a sample promotional text of one of the leading electronic firms in the world.
Figure 1: Apple Inc Brand Logo. Source (Jamieson 47).
According to Jamieson (49), Apple Inc has managed to stand out among the electronic manufacturers as a firm that cherishes quality. In the global market, many customers believe that when looking for a quality electronic product, then Apple brand should be given priority over the rest. However, it does not mean that other rival firms do not offer similar quality to its customers. The firm has managed to create this impression in the minds of its customers. This can be seen in the promotional text above. It simply says that the customers should think differently when making their purchase. This promotional text brings out important attributes that such texts should entail. The first important factor is that the text should be as short and simple to read as possible. ODonnell (58) says that customers are tired of the constant promotional information they are subjected to every time in almost all the spheres of their lives.
When a promotional text is long or too complex to comprehend, then they will easily ignore it and continue their activities. Every company wants the message reach the audience. For this reason, the first factor is to make the text simple and short, such as the one shown above. Beville (118) says that the text should consist of two or three words. Apple Inc has just used two words in this text, think and different. These two words have clear meaning. It means that the audience will not be forced into a complex process of decoding the message. Another important attribute of a promotional text as shown in the sample provided above is that it should have a lot of sense and, probably, it should leave the audience thinking in the line the companys desires. When one is planning to buy a phone and comes across this message from Apple Inc, that he should think different, then the customer will actually think different. The desire to buy any phone will be changed to a desire to buy a specific phone that meets his or her needs. According to Nicholson (27), the short statement or clause should contain all the messages and explanation a firm may want to give to the client. The aim is to ensure that the customer develops a positive attitude desire to know more about the product or brand. The text should link the product and its symbol so that the desired value of the symbol is brought out. Apple is one of the most nutritious fruits in the world. The promotional text should clearly bring a relationship between the high value of apple fruit and the products offered by Apple Inc.
Signs, Signifiers and Signified
Using of signs is very common among the postmodern companies when communicating to their target audience. The science of signs, also known as semiotics, emphasizes on three things that one must understand when using signs. Before critically analysing these three signs, one should understand the fact that a sign is a combination of the signifier and the signified.
Signifier
The signifier is the image or a picture that symbolizes the real product. The figure below can be used to explain the signifier.
Figure 2: Roland Wines Advertisement. Source (Gutleben 43).
The above is an advertisement of Roland Wines. Our historic books, including the Bible, record that the best wines are made from grape fruits. Many companies around the world that manufacture wine try to ensure that they use grape fruits. However, they use other additives because of the high quality of grape fruits. The juice from this fruit may make a very small percentage of the drink. However, knowing that the society cherishes wine made from grapes, they will ignore the major components of their wines and only focus on grapes. It is clearly demonstrated in the above picture. The beautifully ripen grape fruits next to the bottle of Roland Barthes is ment to convince the customer. In fact, the picture is speaking for itself. It does not need to be supported by a promotional text. It shows that when the grapes are harvested, they are processed in their purest form and packed in the bottles such as the one on the picture. Once this happens, a customer is served with the wine glass. Nothing is added to the wine. It remains as pure as it was when it was harvested. This is the message that this sign is passing to the target audience. It talks about the purity and high quality of this wine.
The signified
The signified is the exact thing that is referred to in a given signifier. In the above given example, the signified is the high quality of the product. What the producers are telling consumers is that the quality of Roland Barthes is good as the grape fruit itself. The cultural value that is associated with the fruit is what the producer is transferring to the product. This means that if these consumers trust the value offered by the grape fruit, then they should trust the wine made out of it. Never mind the fact, that sometimes wine may be made from completely different ingredients than grape fruits. That is why Docherty (84) says that the elite businesspeople are using postmodernism to deceive the society and gain personal interests instead of giving the society what they promise to offer.
Signification
Signification is the process of linking the signifier and the product of the company to bring out the meaning. For instance, Apple Inc uses apple fruit in order to promote its brand. Under normal circumstances, it will be expected that a company that specialises on food products would use this brand. It is so because an apple is a nutritious fruit. A company may want to advertise its product to be as nutritious as an apple. However, Apple Inc is a manufacturer of electronic products. Linking this nutritious fruit to an inedible electronic product is not easy. However, Apple Inc has been able to bring out this meaning. It is telling its customers that this product offers numerous functions making it the best in the market, just like an apple is considered to be the best because of its nutritious content. The functionality of the Apple Incs products is compared with the nutritional value of apple fruit.
According to Chandler (31), when bringing out the meaning, care should be taken to ensure that the meaning is as sensible as possible. When the meaning portrayed does not match the attributes of a product, then the audience will easily detect that the advert is fake. This negative attitude will be transferred to the product. The aim of a promotional campaign is to convince the customers that what they are being offered through the advert is what the real product offers. Sometimes the offer may be a fallacy, but it should be presented in a way that will convince the customers. The moment the customers detect any sign of deceit, the mistrust will be transferred to the brand and all its products. Ahmed (75) says that if this happens, then instead of creating a base of loyal customers, such promotional campaigns may create a deeply rooted mistrust between the clients and the brand. If such a firm operates in a highly competitive industry, such as the electronic market, then the competitors may seize the opportunity to launch an attack against the brand. This can be suicidal if such attacks win the trust of the market.
The Symbolic, Iconic and Indexical
According to Murphy (73), analysis of symbolic, iconic and indexical meaning is important when analysing the use of signs for a given brand or a product. This can be explained using the figure below.
Figure 3: Indexical, Iconic, and Symbolic Images of Apple. Source (Murphy 53).
The indexical image refers to the most natural thing that a given product or brand is associating itself with in the market. For Instance, Apple Inc associates itself with apple fruit. The first figure shows an apple fruit that Apple Inc relates to when offering its products to its customers. The second figure is the iconic figure that, as McGowan (90) says, brings close resemblance between the image used by a brand or a product and the real object that the brand mimics. The third is now the symbol. According to Barthes (117), an apple fruit has been in existence for a very long time. It is grown all over the world and no one can claim exclusive ownership to it. However, when developing a brand, a firm must take patent rights to ensure that no one else can use it in their own products. Apple brand is one of the most popular and very valuable brands in the world. It has been voted the most valuable brand in the world several times. It is trusted by many, not only in the United States but also in the rest of the world (Barthes 88).
Taking patent rights means that no one can misuse the brand in any part of the world. The logo must, therefore, be an image that can be patented. The indexical and iconic figures cannot be patented. They are the actual images of an apple fruit. Anyone selling an apple can use these images to attract customers. To them, this is not a brand image, but just a figure that shows the world what they sell. This makes it necessary to come up with a symbolic image, which is the third image on the figure above.
Modality
The modality in this context involves understanding how representations are used in the simulation of reality. It is a fact that there is a difference between the symbolic image and the image of the real item. Such an image can be used in commercials only after developing a symbolic image of a real object. The modality used in transforming an indexical image to a symbolic image is purely based on technology.
Denotative and Connotative
According to Stierstorfer (54), there are two ways of understanding sign relationships. The first one is the denotative meaning. The denotative meaning is the literal or natural meaning that does not require any critical thinking. Jaguar Cars is one of the best examples that can be used in this case. The figure below shows the logo used by Jaguar Cars.
In this figure, the literal meaning that is derived from this image is a fierce, strong, and very swift jaguar that is ready for a fight. In fact, this image shows that the animal is attacking something. It is beautiful, it earns admiration and a sense of curiosity among the targeted audience. The second meaning is the connotative meaning. This is the socio-cultural, emotional or ideological meaning of the image. Jaguar brand offers cars as their main products. They do not sell jaguars (animals). These are wild animals found in our forests and no entity can lay exclusive claim on them. It is, therefore, important to understand why the image of jaguar is used in this brand. It is done because of a number of reasons. The first reason is the socio-cultural connotations. Every member of the society knows that jaguar is an animal that is strong and very combative. It also has high speed capacity. This brand has earned a special position within the society. The company is only taking advantage of this admiration in order to win the trust of the consumers in the market. Sometimes the image is meant to evoke emotions. A look at how jaguar hunts for its prey or defends its territory evokes a lot of emotions. This firm seeks to capitalise on such emotions. Finally, the image may be used to present an ideology of the car manufacturer. For instance, this company may want to push for an ideology that Jaguar cars are bullish on the road because of their speed, strength, and even size as compared to other brands. Using the image of a jaguar at its best presents this ideology in the best way possible.
Part Two: Semiotic Analysis from the Structural-Critical to the Poststructural-Postmodern
Capitalism currently dominates in the world. This ideology was sold to the world as the best one because everybody would decide to have the life to lead. The lazy individuals who do not want to work hard will not be forced to work. They will have their freedom to do what they want and act the way they want. However, they must be ready to deal with the poverty that comes with it. On the other hand, individuals, who are willing to dirty their hands through hard work, get to benefit from the fruits of their commitments. They are under no obligation to share their earnings with those who are poor. This is an ideal world, a free world just as it was intended to be even in our religious books. As capitalism takes over the world, it brings with it a number of social evils. According to Heim (45), in the purest form of capitalism, one should earn his/her wealth in an honest manner. No dubious means should be used to amass wealth at the expense of others.
However, this ideology has no water-tight mechanisms that can be used to stop the individuals from earning wealth through illegal means. That is why it promotes illegal practices. It has facilitated the move from the use-value centered past to a more sign-value centered present. People use signs because they want to create illusions in the minds of their audience. Given that, they cannot use direct methods to cheat and steal from their audience, they create one of the most dangerous tools used by the capitalists: a willing buyer and a willing seller. As willing sellers, these large companies have done extensive research and know what customers value in their life. Given that, some of these valuable things desired by the customers cannot be offered by these companies, they create illusions in the mind of the customers. They make them feel that they have the capacity to offer what the clients need. This facilitates the creation of a willing buyer. They would then sell their products, but claim that they offer a completely deferent thing. For example, there is no commercial market that can meet the worlds demand for the wild jaguar. In fact, even if one were to be given this wild animal, it may not be easy to manage it. So instead of selling their cars as it is, this company creates an illusion among the customers that they are selling jaguar as a strong and wild animal.
Modernist-Structuralist Approaches
According to Sherman and Craig (143), the modernist was interested in doing things differently with the help of the emerging technology. There was a systematic shift from nature to technology-based things. People no longer preferred walking because of the invention of bicycles and cars. People wanted to stay in urban centers associated with white collar jobs because they believed the rural setting had an oppressive life of tilling the land. Throughout the Stone Age, one had been forced to live as per the prevailing natural conditions. One had to live in nature because of lack of the options. When the options came, then it was time to make a radical shift in an attempt to defy nature.
Modernist-Structuralist-Marxist Approaches
The Marxists approaches still supported modernism, only criticising capitalism. Vince (56) says that modernism opened the doors to capitalism. People started realising the benefits that wealth can give a person. It started to become clear why one needed to have more wealth than the other members of the society. Modernist-structuealist-Marxist approaches argue that it was at this time that members of the society should have been taught the principles of the equality. However, the contrary happened. People started to appreciate the need to be above the rest in terms of wealth. Among the superrich, there was always a race to become the richest. To the poor, there was always an attempt to be the richest poor person.
In every social class, there always existed the competition to be the best in terms of accumulated wealth. Even the lazy individuals always made attempts to become rich. That is why stealing and robbery gained shape in the society. Only those who had despaired and given up in life bowed out of the race to amass wealth. These are social evils brought about by capitalism that we are still dealing with even today. It was at this time that the use-value was the centre of life. If it was about apple, it would be a fruit to be enjoyed. If it was a jaguar, it would remain a wild animal that is to be admired, but from afar. The use of signs when selling the products was unheard of at this time. Bread remained bread even when it came to persuading the customers to buy it.
Breaking the Links, Active Decoding and Poststructuralism
Post-modernism brought a radical shift, but one thing remained unchanged. In fact, Goldman (57) says that it got worse. Capitalism did not change. The only thing that changed was that the capitalists learnt how to increase their wealth faster than before. The business society realised that the increasing competition needed an absolutely new approach of attracting the customers, especially when offering a similar product. Creativity became the only way of remaining in the business. This meant a massive shift from modernism to postmodernism. According to Vince (38), postmodernism brought new desires among the populations. They were better educated than the people in the previous era. Industrialisation had taken shape in major urban centres, and pollution was a real threat to the worlds humanity. The elites realised that it is better to be close to nature than to be close to the technology-facilitated world. This meant that people were making a u-turn to move back to nature that they had run away from in the previous era. However, one thing stood out clearly during post-modernism. It was apparent that the need to amass more wealth exceeded the desire to get back to the nature. After all, technology promised the rich an access to the nature even in the middle of the large urban centres. The rich also realised that they could only continue being rich if the rest of the population remained in the urban centres. For this reason, they did everything possible to ensure that the poor remained in the urban centres to help them in making more wealth.
The need for creativity in deceiving the larger population also emerged, the rich realised that using deceptive messages when selling their products would give them huge benefits. From their own research, they realised that the urban dwellers, which make their major target market, were in love with nature. This made it necessary for the rich to bring nature to them without allowing them to leave the cities. According to Stierstorfer (54), this was when the art of creating illusions in the minds of the public emerged. It was at this moment that we shifted from the use-value cetered past to a sign-value centred present. Instead of picking a beautiful apple from the garden and enjoying its sweetness, the majority are given a phone or a laptop and told it is an apple. Instead of watching from a distant how a fierce jaguar defends its territory from the intruders or how it hunts, we are given a car and told it is a jaguar. In fact, these companies no longer use similes. They no longer say that the car is as strong as a jaguar. They now use metaphors. They insist that the car is a jaguar. Out of the desire to own and control a jaguar, many people find themselves buying these products. What they are actually buying are signs of what they really desire, not the actual object. And the beneficiaries of such a distorted society are the large companies that have learnt the art of distortion.
Postmodernist Readings, Sign Saturation and Breaking up the Sign
The postmodernist have become very creative when it comes to the use of signs. The art of marketing relies on creativity. It no longer matters what the customers will get out of such communications. It is always what the owners of a firm stand to get from a given advertisement process. Signs are all over, and they have now reached the level of saturation. The society relies on signs to do almost everything as long as it involves convincing the public. The politicians have become very effective in the art of sign language. They promise the world during their campaigns, and deliver nothing when they get to the office. In their campaign adverts, it is common to see beautiful images of nature when it is protected from destruction. These are images that are computer generated. They know that they cannot deliver such promises unless there is a goodwill from the rest of the public, especially the elites. However, knowing the power of imagery, they use this trick to have their way. Once they have achieved what they wanted from people, such beautiful images used in the campaigns forever remain illusions.
Postmodern Identities and Relations
In the postmodern society, the issue of identity and relations took a new shift. It changed from the traditional self identities to use of many identities as the virtual world transformed the way people relate. According to Murphy (28), technology has created a world of possibilities. People can assume different identities that suit them. Although this new inventions can be put to positive use, some people have been misusing the new possibilities. The use of social media has facilitated these possibilities. It is unfortunate that this new possibility is put into use in a selfish manner. People are taking advantage of the ability to disguise their real identities to take advantage of other people. Some cybercriminals are using these technologies to assume new identities that can allow them to develop relationships with others in the aim of stealing from them.
Part Three: The Larger Shifts Brought by Postmodernism and Promotional Culture
According to Nicholson (90), postmodernism and promotional culture have brought a larger shift in the way people view things in the society. This has been facilitated by the advanced technologies that are eliminating the world of impossibilities. Imagination in postmodernism is power. Whatever one imagines, technology makes it possible. This has been specifically the case in the new promotional culture that we are witnessing in the current society. The sections below look at these factors and how they have redefined the society from a use value to a sign value.
The Rise of the Symbolic/Cultural Over the Material
The rise of the symbolism over material things is one of the fundamental features of postmodernism. We live in a world full of fallacies. Chandler (82) gives a brief history of the use of symbolism that has become entrenched in the business fraternity in the current society. It all started with the oral literature. In each society, there has been a need to preserve history in some form in order to remind the current and future generations of what the ancestors went through to develop the society. Given that, in the past, there were no books or materials to be used to store such a valuable information, the use of tales became the norm. Some of these stories were true accounts of what actually took place. However, in most of the cases such accounts would include some fiction to make the historical accounts more convincing to the young generation.
The past warriors were given immense power. They were portrayed as supernormal beings that did not fear death. Then pure fiction was introduced. In such tales, inanimate beings were given animate features. This was even before the postmodernism. An animal like a lion was given the features of a human being, able to speak and rule a kingdom. Hare was given the power to speak words full of wisdom. Fox was portrayed as a canning animal that would cheat other animals for personal gains. During the modernism, use of symbolism had been deeply entrenched into the society in the form of literature. For instance, out of their observation, the people of these generation started associating tortoise with the elderly population, slow but very wise. Williamson (76) says that there are no clear characteristics of a tortoise that may make it be seen as a wise animal other than the ability to hide in its shell when it is under attack. This is a reaction that is exhibited by all the animals as they seek to protect themselves. However, the shape and speed of a tortoise made it be associated with the elderly. It is, therefore, inaccurate to state that symbolism arose during the postmodernism era. It was there before and people did like the relationship given between human beings and animals.
Postmodernism only went a step further to use symbolism in the business arena. In the past, symbolism and issues about signs were not common in the business fraternity despite its popularity in literatures. Competition was not stiff and people did not need convincing to buy a given brand of a product. Issues about branding were non-existence. However, things changed as we entered postmodernism. Large companies emerged with specific brands in the market. Competition started getting stiff as the number of players increased. It became necessary to be creative in order to win the customers loyalty.
According to Jamieson (35), promotional campaigns started in a simple straightforward manner. It involved the producers explaining the use of a product and its benefits over other existing brands. However, this changed as the competition became stiffer. Many producers realised that they had to go beyond explaining what a given product offers. After all, some of the products from different producers offer the same value. The use of branding and emotional marketing became necessary. It was at this moment that symbolism became entrenched in promotional campaigns. Companies realised that people had sentimental values towards some animals or objects. Docherty (78) notes that animals, such as lions, were among the first symbols to be used in advertising. Its shear strength and fearlessness even before larger animals like elephants earned admiration in the society. The cultural value that the society attached to the lion was seen as an effective tool that a firm can use to reach out to the audience and appeal to the emotions of the customers. The figure below shows Peugeot brand.
Figure 5: Peugeot Brand. Source (Docherty 45).
By using this brand image, the automaker is telling its audience that the car they produce offers more than transportation from one place to the other. The image tells the audience that the car is strong and just like a lion protects its territory; the car protects its occupants from any harm along the road. This is not something new based on what has been discussed above. The only new thing is the way it is related to the products.
Use Value and Exchange Value Subordinated to Symbolic Value
According to Murphy (89), every product that is taken to the market has an exchange value. When one goes to the market to purchase a product, he is looking for a use value. He will be looking for a product that can meet his needs. He goes to the market with the exchange value to be offered to the producer. This is how the market used to work. However, things have changed because instead of getting a use value, customers are now getting the symbolic value. A customer buying a car is promised to get features of a lion in that car. One thing that should remain clear is that this product has no relationship at all with a lion. Even its shape is not something close to the image of the lion. However, it is sold in the market as a lion. McGowan (28) says that our past experiences in the world of literatures introduced us to the world of illusions and symbolism. It made us believe that lions can behave as men, and men can behave like lions. When a car manufacturer tells us that a car can behave like a lion, then we find it easy to accept such fallacies.
End of Meta-Narratives of Modernism
The modernism theories have been subjected to radical changes in the postmodernism era. Some of the theories that were established in this past era have been found to be ineffective in dealing with some of the real world problems. In fact, Nicholson (43) says that some of the major problems that we face in the society today, such as pollution, emanated from the concepts developed during modernism era. The society has come to appreciate that some of these theories and concepts have weaknesses that need to be addressed. That is why there is a general acceptance of the radical changes from modernism to postmodernism despite some of the criticism levelled against postmodernism.
Simulations and the Hyperreal
According to Murphy (124), simulation as used in postmodernism involves creation of a virtual reality to make it look just like the reality. The advanced technology has facilitated a society where people suffer from hyperreality without their knowledge. Hyperreality is a situation where consciousness is unable to distinguish simulated reality from reality. As Barthes (93) argues, human beings of today are more intelligent than they were a millennium ago. They have created objects that can carry them from one part of the world to the other in air. They have developed systems that enable them to communicate in real time when they are world apart. They have developed more sophisticated weapons than those the world had witnessed before. They have invented machines that can help them detect diseases within the body among many other beautiful inventions. Technology seems to be doing everything that men used to do in the past. This beautiful world, where men command machines to do almost everything to them, seems to be the real cause of this problem.
The more intelligent we get, the more we seem to be retarded in mind in terms of being able to differentiate reality from simulated reality. The virtual world has become so real that convincing the members of the society otherwise is almost impossible. Heim (95) says that the Hollywood movies have helped so much in this distortion. They use technology to give a virtual man immense power in a virtual world. They present to us a superman who is able to withstand gunshots, explosions, and all other odds to come out a winner in a given storyline. What makes the whole thing even more complex is that they use real people and sometimes real environment that people know about. It may be the Oval Office in the White House, the court chambers in New York or such other places that are frequented by people.
They use technology to create a virtual environment where supernatural things take place using background settings of things that are real. Constant exposure to such materials has created the problem of hyperreality in our society today. People cannot just discern where the reality has ended and simulated reality begins. To them, these events are real, and probably possible with practice. The virtual reality has mingled with the physical reality to an extent that it is almost impossible to separate the two. Given that, we live in a physical world, it then becomes easier to consider both virtual reality and physical reality to be one and same. It is at such moments that rational reasoning and ethics lose its meaning as one tries to seek life seen in the virtual world. Capitalism gets the best of the members of the society as they try to have the immense power of the virtual person seen in the virtual world.
Critics of Postmodernism
Critics of postmodernism have come out to clearly state why they feel that the society has been negatively affected by some of the concepts of postmodernism. It is important to note that these critics have not condemned the entire concept of postmodernism and what it has created in our postmodern world. However, they have singled out specific issues they feel are affecting the society. One such issue that has been discussed extensively in this paper is that it takes away the ability of people to make right judgment. It makes it impossible for them to discern reality from simulated reality.
Conclusion
This paper focused on critical assessing of the argument that we have moved from a use-value centered past to a sign-value centered present. It is clear that postmodernism has brought many changes in our society that has redefined our way of life. Electronic manufactures firms are using valued fruits such as apple among others. The paper reveals that sign value has become much more important in the postmodern society.
Works Cited
Ahmed, Sara. Differences That Matter: Feminist Theory and Postmodernism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print.
Barthes, Cristina. Postmodernism in the Cinema. New York ; Oxford: Berghahn, 1998. Print.
Beville, Maria. Gothic-postmodernism: Voicing the Terrors of Postmodernity. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009. Print.