Each person determines his or her lifes meaning: Camuss ideas
The main ideas contained in the assignment where Albert Camus expounds of the issue of lifes absurdity and suicide can be outlined as follows:
The absurd derives out of dichotomy between an individuals inner predisposition to seek logic in a surrounding reality, on one hand, and such realitys essential pointlessness, one another. Therefore, ones decision to end its life should be discussed within the context of how he or she strives to defy existences absurdist essence: The subject of this essay is precisely this relationship between absurd and suicide, the exact degree to which suicide is a solution to the absurd (555).
The absurdist nature of existence creates a situation when the issue of suicide should be thought of as philosophys foremost subject matter.
Even though the issue of suicide has traditionally been assessed through socio-political lenses, it makes much more sense to assess it through the lenses of psychology: Suicide has never been dealt with except as a social phenomenon. On the contrary, we are concerned here, at the outset, with the relationship between individual thought and suicide (554).
The notion of the absurd cannot be thought of as thing in itself it is only when a particular individual interacts with a surrounding reality that he or she gets to realize the absurdist quintessence of a process: In this particular case and on the plane of intelligence, I can therefore say that the Absurd is not in man (if such a metaphor could have meaning) nor in the world, but in their presence together (559).
Those that consciously chose in favor of suicide position themselves as rebelliously minded individuals (as their suicide defies absurd), which in its turn elevates them above the universes pointlessness: Suicide, like the leap, is acceptance at its extreme& Suicide settles the absurd (561).
The closer analysis of Camuss ideas outlined earlier points out to the fact that they are based on conceptually fallacious assumption as to an absurdist essence of surrounding realities. It never occurred to Camus that, even though there is no classical divine sense in the universes functioning, the principles of this functioning can be referred to as anything but absurdist. As even todays moderately intelligent people are being aware of the history of the universe is the history of an ongoing process of universes matter assuming ever-more complex forms, as the ultimate mean of defying the forces of entropy.
Whereas in million years after the Big Bang, there were only two elements in the universe: hydrogen and helium, nowadays, there are hundreds of eighty-two elements in Mendeleevs periodic table. The organic life itself is an integral element of this process as time goes by becomes ever more complex. The recent breakthroughs in the fields of biology and informational technology had established objective preconditions for organic life to advance as far as assuming the form of pure intelligence very shortly.
Therefore, it is quite inappropriate to draw a line between the essence of peoples psychological anxieties and the objectively existing universe, as Camus does as representatives of an evolving Homo Sapiens species, we are not mere spectators of life, we are its agents. Thus, Camuss subtle glorification of suicide as some kind of a heroic deed should not be perceived as the indication of this particular philosophers sophistication but rather as an indication of his mental inadequateness pure and simple.
For some highly irrational reason, the author had assumed the absurdity of life as representing an undeniable truth-value, while expecting readers to uncritically subscribe to such his point of view. Nevertheless, for mentally and physically healthy individuals, endowed with a rationalistic mindset, such Camuss assumption appears utterly unsubstantiated. This is exactly the reason why, despite the authors denial of the validity of an application of the sociological approach to dealing with the issue of suicide, it is namely when we properly assess the socio-political preconditions, associated with a high rate of suicide within a particular society, that the true nature of peoples tendency to toy with the thoughts of suicide will become perfectly apparent.
Why is it the case that Gothic/Emo sub-cultures, concerned with savoring different aspects of death, suicide, and decay, had attained such strong popularity among specifically White adolescents? Is it because by affiliating themselves with these sub-cultures White teenagers strive to defy lifes absurdity? The answer to this question is most definitely not.
According to the principle of Occams razor, to reveal the actual essence of a particular phenomenon, there is no need to resort to the utilization of complex explanations, for as long as simple ones are available. When we apply Occams principle to explain the nature of White sophisticate teenagers fascination with death, it will become clear that such their fascination simply reflects their lack of existential vitality, which in its turn, reflects an ongoing process of the White races disappearance. Whereas at the beginning of the 20th century Whites accounted for 30% of the worlds population, they now account for only 5%.
Therefore, the very fact that in the second half of the 20th century the existentialist philosophy had attained immense popularity among Westerners simply reflects these peoples ever-increasing rates of biological degeneracy. Hence Camuss idea about suicide as the pathway towards addressing lifes absurdity should be referred to as what it is a mental by-product of his clearly defined existential decadence (one would only need to familiarize itself with Camuss biography and with his physical appearance, to realize the full validity of an earlier suggestion).
Enough, while writing The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus remained utterly ignorant as to the basic notions of physics, biology, and psychiatry; otherwise, he would never come up with several essentially anti-scientific claims, such as the following: A man who has become conscious of the absurd is forever bound to it. A man devoid of hope and conscious of being so has ceased to belong to the future. That is natural (559).
We will dare to disagree the natural is enjoying life to its fullest because by doing it, we act by the laws of nature. Those who defy these laws suffer consequences. When life becomes devoid of pleasures, or when it becomes the very synonym of pain, then the most natural and human way to deal with a situation would be putting an end to this life pure and simple. However, given the solely instrumental nature of suicide as the ultimate mean of addressing physical/psychological pain, there can be no philosophy of suicide just as there can be no philosophy of driving nails or philosophy of brushing teeth for example. It never occurred to Camus that emanations of lifes absurdity are not something that can be assessed introspectively, but rather extrovertive.
When a child is born with physical deformities, inconsistent with life, as it is being often the case in families of sophisticate Whites, who conceive children when they are 40-45 years old, the absurdity of such a childs life becomes instantly apparent. Yet, when a particular individual appears physically/mentally healthy and financially secure, his or her life cannot be defined as absurd by definition.
The only reason why in Absurdity and Suicide, Camus implies something opposite, is that his very philosophy is a philosophy of someone who had lost the will to live hence, his suicide-related progressiveness. And, as psychologists are being well aware of, mentally inadequate and biologically degenerative individuals, such as Camus, are being quite incapable of rationalizing the applicability of their philosophical insights.
Just as Sigmund Freud, who after having observed the behavior of mental patients for a while, had assumed that the nucleus of normal peoples anxieties cannot be defined by anything else but by their hypertrophied sense of sexuality, Camus had assumed that his incompatibility with life, as essentially a degenerate, is being somehow reflected in the lives of others. Such a suggestion, of course, cannot be referred to as anything but utterly preposterous.
It is only narcissistically minded sophisticates, known for their decadent lifestyles, who may find themselves attracted to toying with thoughts of suicide while lacking the courage to end their misery once and for all. Therefore, we hardly have any other option but to refer to the ideas contained in Absurdity and Suicide, as intellectually poisonous. It was not an accident that, while blowing buildings with people inside and while hijacking planes, neo-Marxian terrorists from the sixties and seventies derived inspiration out of works of Albert Camus. The practical utilization of Camuss existentialist philosophy was bound to result in producing nothing but death and destruction it simply could not be otherwise.
A philosophical idea known as Natural Law Theory asserts the presence of a moral code rooted in nature and uncreated by humans. According to this theory, this code can be understood through intuition and reason and applies to everyone, regardless of their cultural, religious, or personal views. Yvonne Raley offers Natural Law Theory in Ethics and Religion to understand moral conundrums from a theological standpoint.
The controversial subject of euthanasia is one of the ethical conundrums that Raley tackles in her essay. It is contentious because it involves taking a persons life to stop their pain and misery. Euthanasia is viewed from the standpoint of Natural Law as going against the natural order because it entails purposefully ending life with intrinsic value. According to this theory, human life has intrinsic value and should be protected whenever feasible. Therefore, Natural Law deems euthanasia morally impermissible.
Abortion is another ethical predicament analyzed in Raleys paper. It is a contentious topic as it involves deliberately terminating a pregnancy to prevent childbirth. From the Natural Law outlook, abortion is perceived as contravening the natural order, as it involves deliberately destroying a potential human life. The theory argues that human life begins at conception and should be preserved whenever possible. Thus, Natural Law deems abortion morally impermissible.
Despite its appeal, Natural Law Theory has its detractors. One of the primary criticisms is that it is too rigid and inflexible. Detractors argue that the theory neglects the intricacies of human experience and allows no room for moral reasoning or personal interpretation. Another critique is that the theory is too closely linked to religious beliefs and, therefore, not applicable to those who do not share those beliefs.
To sum up, the Natural Law Theory provides a unique perspective for understanding moral problems and conundrums, especially when viewed through the prism of faith. According to the theory, an ethical framework is constant and lives separately from human creation; it is understandable through perception and reason. The theory continues to be a required field of philosophical research despite having its detractors because it offers a useful framework for understanding the complexities of human morality.
Legal failure is one of the major causes of economic crises in developing countries. This is because of the wrong attitudes in the society which are mainly caused by the failure of the legal system. This chapter discusses why the legal system fails on the basis of taxes, real estates, law, social contracts and political leadership.
Most third World countries have tried to improve their economic status. Most of them have not yet achieved remarkable development. This is because many avoid paying taxes and their legal systems fail them. The politics also, to a great extent, affect these results as they are close to the government. Unless a country has a legal system that considers and understands the psychological and social processes of a society, it cannot be able to build itself.
Main Body
The law makers should know the beliefs, intentions and desires of its people before formulating policies. This law is able to exploit the potential from the assets in the country. A suitable law is able to improve the economic status of a country.
Therefore, there should be an integration of all sectors of human being as they make these laws. The government should also improve on its judicial system so as to gain trust from the citizens. It is only if they trust the government that they can be able to enlarge their businesses to international levels without fear of losing. The US is known to have made it since it was able to lift its bell jar so that all the people were incorporated into a system that was suiting to them. This is what the Western government is trying to do so as to pull up the so left behind countries.
The implementation process has some steps that should follow. Firstly, the government has to identify the assets that are lying idle in its country and put into place strategies that will enable their exploitation. They should also consider the distribution of these assets especially in the geographical areas that are needy. Secondly, they should be able to know the actual value of the asset. This would guide them in planning. Thirdly, there should also be a common goal between the government and the interest of the society. The planners should also determine the cost of production.
Political and legal strategies are also important if development has to be achieved. The political system should capitalize on the poor with an aim of improving their livelihoods. This should include both government and other institutions that may be interested to invest together with the proposed project. The legal and extralegal sectors should also come together to be able to formulate rules that will enable ownership without difficulties and with justice. This would enhance efficient management of the industries. There should also be better options of living cheaper other than squatting.
Communication should also form a major part in the process of development. Transparency is important as it enhances trust by the citizens. The planners should not ignore the commercial strategies at their disposal. They should facilitate a good financial system including banking, insurance products, collection systems, good housing and infrastructure. There should also be clean water, sewerage and telecommunications, security and national identification systems. Good housing with basic facilities encourages the workers to increase their output and hence productivity. Each country has a way to put up the rules and regulations of the countries.
Operational strategy should also be a key aspect in implementation. This should focus on the workers so as to increase their output and efficiency. There should be investments in education and training of the working personnel and proper management. There should also be a reliable data on all the operations that are carried out within the company.
There is also a great need to have a property system that is accurate and efficient. A common standard in ownership enhances easy management. It brings convenience and satisfaction to the public when used consistently. Those of the developed nations such as Canada, United States, Japan and Europe have succeeded with good property systems. Economic freedom is therefore brought by putting economic rights into place.
Interest of the poor in law making is of great importance. For instance, Peru had laws that were not promoting the welfare of the poor. The leadership thought that the poor were the problem and not the law. They therefore scrapped off the laws of the poor. This brought suffering to the poor and slowed down the economic growth. The citizens then invested in the private sector. The problem that arose was that when these people acquired their wealth they had to use it in the way they wished to. This is a great lesson to reformers to always consider the consequences of their decisions.
Property system should be rooted in the social contract. This is because wealth is known to be created socially. In most of developing countries, people fall out with the law because of its failure to address their needs. This means that the laws should be supported by majority of the population. The support should be distributed in all areas including the villages. Corporate ownership is known to be more rewarding than local ownership. That is why international businesses that involve many people are able to make higher profits than the local ones.
Conclusion
However, capitalization is failing in the non Western countries. This is because it is only considered to belong to some people. As a fact, for all the citizens to enjoy the benefits of a country, a strong political system is needed. The political leaders are in a good position to affect majority of the people and bringing an influence in their country. Their effect can be build by initiating reforms and information of government policies. Leadership should consider three things. Firstly consider the poor, secondly, co-opt the elites and enhance a good and efficient legal system.
Both Stoicism and Epicureanism were founded in Athens around 300 BC, suggesting that humans should stay away from excessive pleasure and desires. The central claim made by Epicurus in his work is that happiness is the only pleasure in life, which is mainly connected with the avoidance of both mental and physical pain. Higher pleasures are considered preferable, such as the aspiration for knowledge and virtue. Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, argued that virtue is enough for achieving happiness while living in accordance with their own nature allows people to reach the desired outcomes of good living. Stoics have the moral responsibility to conform to natural laws and develop internal attitudes such as courage, prudence, justice, and temperance.
Discussion
Exploring the characteristics that the two philosophes deem necessary for reaching happiness, it is possible to suggest that Epicureanism and Stoicism agree with the Aristotelian perspective. It entails that the sort of an individual one becomes and the lifestyle one adopts will have a direct influence on the actions and behaviors one shows. However, the approaches a person takes to achieve happiness are pretty different. Specifically, the goal of Epicureanism is achieving pleasure by removing physical pain and anxiety. It considers three desire categories, which include natural but not necessary, natural and necessary, and unnatural.
Notably, the followers of this philosophy aim to refuse all unnatural desires, including the personal ambition of an individual to become famous or gain political power. These desires are seen as potentially causing anxiety to people, which is why it is necessary to eliminate them and free ones body from additional mental strain. It is only the desires that allow for freeing the body from the pain that matter within the approach (Pojman 189). Important desires that can help a person free from pain and suffering include shelter and adequate nutrition and hydration for gaining nourishment. By aspiring to live a frugal lifestyle and being aware of ones desires, an Epicurean is capable of fully appreciating the occasional luxuries. Finally, the way to secure happiness in life is the result of withdrawing oneself from public life and staying close to a few but like-minded individuals who share similar values.
In contrast to the epicurean perspective on living a good life and achieving happiness, Stoics place greater importance on pursuing and avoiding things, which, as a result, will serve people well in the future. Stoics emphasize the necessity of living in accordance with nature, while virtue itself is derived from reason. Any other so-called goods should be viewed with indifference even if the virtuous individual endure tragedies throughout their life, including physical pain, they still reach eudaimonia (state of a good spirit, happiness) because their virtuous character was never corrupted (Copleston 323).
Conclusion
Therefore, once a person becomes virtuous, there are no external factors that can adversely impact their life. Overall, stoics view virtue as the ultimate limit of happiness, with the focus placed on the fulfillment of internal desires. This approach is different from Epicureanism, which makes the obtainment of external goods more desirable. The opposition between the two philosophies is illustrated in the fact that Epicureans do not acknowledge virtuous living as a secret to happiness but rather focus on maximizing pleasures that can help fill ones life with joy within the realms of frugality.
Works Cited
Copleston, Frederick. A History of Philosophy. Volume I: Greece and Rome. Image Books, 1994.
Pojman, Louis P. Classics of Philosophy: Volume I: Ancient and Medieval. Oxford University Press, 1997.
The philosophical inquiry into the nature of human existence has been a longstanding topic, with philosophers throughout history striving to unravel the fundamental dynamics that shape the human condition. Three notable concepts proposed to elucidate the essence of human existence are Hegels notion of Geist, Schopenhauers concept of Will, and Nietzsches idea of the Will to Power. Each concept offers a distinct perspective on the dynamics that govern human existence. In this essay, we will explore, compare, and contrast these concepts, examining their value as explanations for the underlying dynamics of human existence.
Hegels Geist: Unveiling the Historical Development of Human Existence
Hegels philosophical concept of Geist, also referred to as Spirit or Mind, holds a central place in his philosophy. Asserting that Geist is the driving force behind the course of human history and represents the culmination of the dialectical process of historical development (Hegel 37). According to Hegel, Geist is not confined to individual consciousness but is a comprehensive entity that manifests in the collective consciousness of societies. Geist are dynamic and ever-evolving, constantly striving for self-realization by resolving contradictions and conflicts.
An essential aspect of Hegels notion of Geist is its emphasis on historical development. Hegel argued that history is not a random sequence of events but rather a process through which Geist realizes itself (Hegel 42). Geist progress through distinct stages, each characterized by specific social, cultural, and intellectual conditions. These stages are marked by contradictions and conflicts that propel the dialectical process, leading to the synthesis of opposing forces and the advancement of Geist toward its ultimate realization.
Hegels Geist concept was appreciated for its ability to explain the underlying dynamics of human existence, particularly the role of contradictions and conflicts in shaping human history. It provides a framework for comprehending the evolution of societies, cultures, and ideas and underscores the dynamic nature of human existence as an ongoing process of self-realization.
Schopenhauers Will: Unraveling the Nature of Human Desires and Suffering
In contrast, Schopenhauer presents a divergent perspective on the fundamental dynamics of human existence with his concept of Will. According to Schopenhauer, the Will is the fundamental force that propels all human action and motivation (Schopenhauer 24). He portrays the Will as an unconscious, blind, and irrational force that dictates human behavior. It is a greedy and relentless force, constantly driving individuals to seek fulfillment and satisfaction, and serves as the source of all desires and suffering in the world.
Schopenhauers concept of Will underscores the significance of human desires and the perpetual pursuit of satisfaction as the driving force behind human existence. Schopenhauer posits that pursuing desires and pleasures ultimately leads to suffering, as desires are unquenchable and can never be fully satisfied (Schopenhauer 32). He views the Will as an endless cycle of suffering that can only be transcended through renunciation and detachment from desires. Schopenhauers concept of Will is esteemed for elucidating the pervasive nature of desires and their impact on human behavior. It sheds light on the struggles and suffering that arise from the ceaseless pursuit of desires and raises profound questions about the nature of human motivation and the pursuit of happiness.
Nietzsches Will to Power: Unconventional Views on Human Existence
Nietzsches concept of Will to Power diverges from Hegel and Schopenhauer, presenting a unique perspective on the dynamics of human existence. Nietzsche rejects the notion of a unified and transcendent human nature and posits that the Will to Power is the fundamental force that governs human behavior (Nietzsche 42). According to Nietzsche, the Will to Power is the primal and inherent drive that seeks to assert itself, overcome obstacles, and achieve domination.
Nietzsche views the Will to Power as the driving force behind all human actions, encompassing pursuits such as knowledge, morality, and social structures. He argues that individuals and societies constantly struggle for power, seeking to assert their will and dominate others. Nietzsche contends that traditional morality and societal norms are manifestations of the Will to Power, as they establish power structures and maintain dominance over certain groups (Nietzsche 52). His concept of Will to Power challenges conventional notions of human nature and morality, emphasizing the inherent drive for power and domination in human existence. It calls for revaluating values, urging individuals to embrace their will and strive for self-assertion and self-overcoming.
Comparing Philosophical Concepts: Hegels Geist, Schopenhauers Will, Nietzsches Will to Power
When comparing and contrasting these three philosophical concepts, notable distinctions arise. Firstly, Hegels notion of Geist centers on the historical development and evolution of societies, while Schopenhauers concept of Will revolves around the ceaseless pursuit of desires and the consequent suffering. Nietzsches idea of Will to Power highlights an innate drive for power and dominance, transcending conventional moral concepts and embracing individual will. Secondly, Hegels Geist suggests a teleological progression towards ultimate self-realization, whereas Schopenhauers Will implies a pessimistic view of human existence where desires and suffering are inherently intertwined. On the other hand, Nietzsches Will to Power celebrates individuality and self-assertion.
Despite these distinctions, common themes also emerge among these concepts. All three emphasize the dynamic and evolving nature of human existence. Hegels Geist progresses through historical stages, Schopenhauers Will is an unrelenting force that propels human desires, and Nietzsches Will to Power is an inherent drive for domination and assertion. Furthermore, all three challenge conventional notions of human nature and morality, proposing alternative explanations for human behavior beyond traditional frameworks.
Unveiling Human Existence: Hegels Geist, Schopenhauers Will, Nietzsches Will to Power
Each conceptual framework has its strengths and limitations when explaining the underlying dynamics of human existence. Hegels concept of Geist presents a comprehensive framework that allows for an understanding of historical development, societal evolution, and the evolution of ideas and cultures. It emphasizes the significance of contradictions and conflicts in propelling human progress and portrays human existence as an ongoing process of self-realization. However, it may be criticized for its teleological view of history, which implies a predetermined end goal and may not fully account for the complexities and contingencies of human history.
On the other hand, Schopenhauers concept of Will offers a unique perspective on human motivation, highlighting the pervasive nature of desires and the resulting suffering. It challenges conventional notions of human happiness and raises crucial questions about the nature of desires and their impact on human behavior. Nevertheless, it may be criticized for its pessimistic view of human existence, which could be seen as overly deterministic and limiting in its outlook. Nietzsches concept of Will to Power presents a radical and provocative interpretation of human behavior, emphasizing individuality, self-assertion, and the rejection of traditional moral notions (Solomon 33). It encourages a revaluation of values and challenges societal norms and conventions. However, it may also be criticized for its potential to promote selfishness, exploitation, and the abuse of power in pursuing individual will.
Conclusion
In summary, Hegels idea of Geist, Schopenhauers concept of Will, and Nietzsches notion of Will to Power represent three distinct viewpoints on the fundamental dynamics of human existence. Hegel focuses on the historical development and self-realization, Schopenhauer highlights desires and suffering, while Nietzsche challenges conventional moral notions and champions individual will and self-assertion. While each concept provides valuable insights into the complexities of human existence, they also have limitations and potential criticisms. The value of these explanations may vary depending on ones philosophical perspective. Nevertheless, comparing these concepts sheds light on the intricate nature of human existence and offers insights into human behavior, motivations, and societal dynamics.
Works Cited
Hegel, Georg, Wilhelm, Friedrich. Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by A. V. Miller. Oxford University Press, 1977.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by R.J. Hollingdale, Penguin Books, 2003.
Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Translated by E.F.J. Payne, Dover Publications, 1969.
Solomon, Robert C. Nietzsche: A Collection of Critical Essays. Edited by Robert C. Solomon. University of Michigan Press, 1980.
Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning that enables us to draw conclusions based on evidence. It involves making generalizations about a particular event or situation based on limited information. The philosophical problem of induction arises when one considers the possibility that the conclusions that we draw may not be accurate or true. In this essay, I will reflect on this possibility and explain how being mindful of the fact that most of the conclusions we draw on a daily basis are inductive rather than deductive can help to improve our critical thinking.
Discussion
The philosophical problem of induction is rooted in the fact that no matter how much evidence we have to back up a conclusion, there is still a possibility that it could be incorrect. This is because inductive reasoning is based on the assumption that the future will follow the same pattern as the past, which is not always accurate. Therefore, even if we have an abundance of evidence to support a conclusion, there is still a risk that it might be wrong.
Being aware of the fact that most of our conclusions are based on inductive reasoning can help us to improve our critical thinking. It is essential to consider situations with an open mind and to challenge our preconceived notions since it encourages us to think more deeply. For example, if we are presented with a situation where we have to make a decision, it is important to consider all the possible outcomes and to be open to the possibility that our initial assumptions may be wrong. This will help us to make more informed decisions and to avoid jumping to conclusions without considering all the evidence.
Conclusion
To summarize, the philosophical concern of induction reminds us that the deductions we make may not always be accurate. Bearing in mind that much of our deductions are based on inductive logic can help us sharpen our analytical skills by asking us to consider circumstances with a unbiased mindset and to scrutinize our suppositions. This will assist us to come to more sensible conclusions and to stay away from hastily coming to a decision without contemplating all the facts.
The nature of science is a complete matter that many individuals have attempted to explain. One such person was Karl Popper, a philosopher of science who proposed a way to demarcate science and pseudoscience (Mitra, 2020). When studying at the University of Vienna, Popper examined Freudian and Marxian theories alongside Einsteins theory of relativity and determined that the latter had an intrinsic risk that could cause potential falsification (Mitra, 2020, p. 2). Consequently, Popper suggested that falsifiability could be used as the benchmark to distinguish science from non-science (Mitra, 2020). Poppers principle of demarcation represents his understanding of the specifics of science and is a topic for a broad discourse.
To comprehend the significance of Poppers principle, one must analyze the philosophers logic. Popper stated that problems generate scientific theories, which aim for satisfactory explanations that come in a dialectic manner (Onebunne & Umeogu, 2022). Consequently, he declared that people make testable conjectures that can be refuted to formulate new ones, meaning that hypotheses are scientific when they are falsifiable (Koskinen & Rolin, 2022; Onebunne & Umeogu, 2022). As a result, Poppers principle has started many controversial discussions. For instance, Fernandez-Beanato (2020) proposes that falsifiability as a criterion is likely to be too weak or overly strong and is not a necessary condition. Accordingly, although Popper has provided an explanation for his declaration, his proclamation is being argued nowadays.
To conclude, Karl Poppers demarcation principle is based on the purpose of scientific theories. The philosopher suggested that falsifiability can be considered a sufficient benchmark to differentiate science from non-science. Although Popper has presented a thorough explication of his principle based on his investigation of other theories, thus offering a better understanding of science, his declaration has raised many discussions, some of which are contradictory.
Onebunne, C. K., & Umeogu, B. (2022). Understanding Poppers conception of science through critical analysis of his key concepts. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 20(2), 85-100.
There is a deep connection between the quotation by the Legalist philosopher, Han Feizi, and the actions of the First Emperor of Qin. The sweeping changes and innovations carried out by the First Emperor were a reflection of this quotation. The Emperor sought to control the way his subjects acted and employed harsh punishments to ensure that people abode by the laws. Han Feizis advice to the rulers demonstrated his understanding that problems for the state came about because of human nature, which always acts out of self-interest even at the expense of good political order.
The Emperor also engaged in measures for standardization across the empire and created a uniform nation. Since such actions resulted in opposition from many groups, the Emperor made use of harsh punishment with complete disregard for morals. This is in line with Han Feizis idea that the ruler should only concern himself with laws and not morals.
Sima Quians Views
Sima Quians editorial comments reveal his personal opinion concerning Han Feizis thoughts and ideas. Han Feizi proposed that drastic measures needed to be taken to deal with the ills that the ruler faced. Sima praised this idea by Feizi and observed that such an approach was crucial if the ruler was to succeed in preventing the empire from falling. Application of Han Feizis thoughts was able to bring about the unification of China by abolishing the old feudal system.
The Legalist practices advanced by Han Feizi led to a strong centralized government and succeeded in unifying the whole of China under one Emperor. This was an outcome that Sima Qian deemed desirable and he therefore commended Feizis ideas. However, even though Sima agreed with Han Feizis point of view, he found his harshness too extreme and therefore objected to the violence and ruthless ruling that Han Feizi championed.
Sima Qian disagreed with Han Feizis opinion on how the subjects were to be dealt with. Han Feizi believed that the strict enforcement of legal codes and a system of rewards and punishments would ensure good social order in the state. He emphasized the importance of strong political control over the subjects and imposition of harsh penalties. Sima Qian saw this point of view as faulty since it would lead to revolt once the people had been pushed too hard. He questioned the sustainability of the Legalist system and asserted that popular revolts are bound to follow if this approach is used on the people.
The historian Sima Qian agreed with the practical nature of Feizis ideas. Han Feizi emphasized practical problems of political control over ethical concerns in leadership. His perception was that the rulers should not attempt to return to a glorified past but instead should strive to create the best future based on their present realities. This view was supported by Sima Qian who saw holding on to past victories and hoping that they would occur again as a wasteful custom.
My Opinion
In my opinion, the stringent policies advocated for by the Legalist philosopher Han Feizi were appropriate in the historical time he lived. China was a divided nation and each region only looked out for its own interest. It is inconceivable that such a divided nation would have come together under the leadership of a benevolent ruler. Without employing stern measures, each regional ruler would have embarked on the path that best served his purposes.
Applying Han Feizis ideas enabled the emperor to bring the people under control and create a uniform nation, which exhibited great development. The prosperity that China was able to enjoy during this time was the result of the Legalistic system.
However, the ruler should have stopped using the harsh legalistic approach once the important goal of unifying the nation had been reached. Such a move would have endeared him to the people and avoided the revolt against the emperor. However, Han Feizis ideas did not give room for any benevolent action and the ruler was supposed to impose harsh authoritarian rules at all times.
Measuring public opinion is a complicated task. It is critical to define how public opinion should be interpreted in order to understand what the object of measurement represents. Thus, Converse (1987, p.513) suggests an explicit description of the term saying that it is a kind of complex organic whole which mirrored the organization of society into functional groups. From this perspective, the subject of measurement is more complicated than a simple reflection of the shared views and beliefs. Therefore, the survey aimed at measuring public opinion can assist in getting a better idea not only of the targeted issue but the structure of the modern society as well.
As long as the measured issue is connected with politics, one is particularly concerned about the survey design. Researchers note that political polls are prone to inaccuracies due to the ambiguous character of the subject (Soroka & Wlezien 2010). Therefore, the key aim of the paper is to provide a valid questionnaire, the design of which will be able to assure valid results that reflect the reality in an accurate manner. The focus will be put on the selection of variables as the latter determine the surveys outcomes.
The principal idea resides in the presumption that the support of the use of force is determined by the political views of the respondents (Everts & Isernia 2001). The relevant assumption is scientifically based and supported by numerous researchers and sociologists (Jentleson 1992). As a result, all the variables will essentially have political connotations.
Explanation of the Political Views the Support of the Use of Force Relationships
Political views determine a large scope of social opinions. The tendency to shape ones views in accordance with political preferences has always been popular in developed countries (Baum 2014). Therefore, people evaluate different events and phenomena relying on their political convictions that are often stronger than religious beliefs. In the meantime, there are other important variables that should be necessarily considered, they are represented in the diagram below.
Casual Diagram
Diagram 1 The Support of the Use of Force .
Understanding the Variables
Nationality
People of different nationalities can have various views on the support of the use of force. National identity might determine the extent of the support due to the fact that residents of different countries interpret this question through the lens of the politics that their government pursues. Statistics show that a large percentage of people are inclined to agree with the government in terms of its principal decisions (DeRouen 1995).
Religious Beliefs
Different religions have different implications for aggressiveness. Whereas some religious beliefs disapprove of militarist ideas, others consider force to be an appropriate tool for problem-solving. As a result, it is supposed that religion might have an impact on the character of the respondents general disposition the more aggressive it is, the more likely the respondent is to support the use of force.
Age
The following variable is presumed to be critical because it provides some insights into the respondents political knowledge. It is assumed that school students have less political experience than adults.
Sex
The relevant variable is included due to the natural psychological differences in genders. Hence, it is commonly assumed that men are more likely to approve of military interventions and force implementations than women (Baum 2014).
Mass Media
Mass media shapes the views of society considerably. The general public appeal streamlined from the news supports the use of force, particularly in the framework of the events in the Middle East. Therefore, it is assumed that the respondents that tend to rely on the media experts opinion are more apt to support the use of force.
Attitude to Foreign Aid
The use of force is commonly regarded in relation to foreign aid. Politicians explain the necessity to employ military force by the intention to help a particular government solve its inner problems. Such public appeals have strong implications for the spread of democratic values worldwide (Eichenberg 2005). Moreover, the attitude toward foreign aid implies the respondents interpretation of welfare. Practice shows that there is a widespread assumption that military expenses have a negative impact on the nations welfare. For instance, DeRouen (1995, p.672) notes that there is a consistent link between the economy, politics, and the use of force . Thus, many people are inclined to consider that the money spent on the use of force should be reallocated to other sectors for the benefit of the residents. Therefore, public support of the use of force depends largely on the attitude to foreign aid.
The support of the Use of Force in Syria
The support of the use of force in Syria is a direct indication of the support of the use of force in general. In the meantime, some people might approve of the political strategy in Syria only in theory. Therefore, in the framework of the proposed survey, the attitude to this side of politics will mainly focus on the financial side of the force employment. Analysts note that the public evaluation of the expenses in the force sector is the most objective characteristic of the real attitude to the political strategy in this field (Leander 2005).
Political Knowledge
Political knowledge is important in terms of the support of the use of force. Profound knowledge in this field lets one evaluate the problem more complexly. Meanwhile, measuring political knowledge is rather problematic. Thus, it can be performed with the help of the questions about particular laws and politicians. Specialists point out the fact that the majority of people find it less problematic to express their opinion on specific issues rather than on general phenomena and notions (Norrander 2001). Practice shows that the public support of the use of force is reflected by the residents attitude to the implementation of particular laws and regulations (Neack 2002).
Political Views
Finally, it is critical to determine the respondents political views. It is assumed that liberals that belong to the left-wing are less likely to support force (Art & Waltz 2004). Meanwhile, the Republicans, which commonly belong to the right-wing, are historically more supportive in the question of force employment (Kohn 1994).
Variables Explanation
Measuring Internal Factors
The variables of sex, nationality, religious beliefs and age are measured with the help of Q1-Q4 correspondingly. Q1-Q4 represents open questions that do not require any specific knowledge or clarifications.
Measuring Mass Medias Impact
This variable is measured by Q13. The question does not require any specific knowledge. It is the last question in the survey; thereby, it is assumed that the respondents motivation is likely to be relatively low at that point. As a result, the respondents are offered a closed question instead of an evaluating scale.
Measuring Attitude to Foreign Aid
The public attitude toward foreign aid is measured with the help of Q5 and Q6. In Q5, a closed question is employed in order to receive a precise idea about the respondents opinions. The question does not only ask whether respondents support aiding foreign countries but also has strong implications for its financial side. Thus, the respondents are initially informed about the expenses required for military services.
It is assumed that the relevant posing of questions will help to receive a more realistic view of the public attitude. Researchers note that a large percentage of people express the support of the use of force until they get acquainted with the financial side of the question (Lian & Oneal 1993). Therefore, the question is posed in such a way that it initially prompts the respondents to consider all the aspects relating to foreign aid.
Despite the common critics of closed questions and the assumption that they do not provide the reflection of public opinion, it is assumed that in this particular case, this type of question is the most appropriate (Schuman & Scott 1987). The question is posed in such a way that it does not imply any specific knowledge of the subject or require any thorough evaluation. It is also critical to point out that it is the first question in the survey, thereby, it is important that the respondents answer it quickly and easily. Otherwise, the necessity to spend a lot of time on considerations might discourage the interviewed and have a negative influence on their general motivation (Krosnick 1991).
One of the principal risks of data corruption is connected with the position of the question in the survey. Hence, practice shows that respondents tend to be less attentive at the very beginning trying to cope with the first questions in the shortest time possible (Bradburn & Sudman 1979). Therefore, some data might be inaccurate due to the willingness to pass on to other points in the survey.
Q6 focuses on welfare interpretation. The general attitude to welfare is measured by Q6 in the survey. The respondents are offered to express their opinion on the basic nature of welfare with the help of a ten score scale. According to the relevant scale, score 1 reflects the conviction that people can only benefit at others cost; whereas score 10 stands for the belief that there is enough welfare in the world to be equally spread.
In the framework of the examined subject, the support of the use of force, it is assumed that people that evaluate their position at 1-5 will be less inclined to support foreign aid, and thus, the use of force, than those that choose the 5-10 scores. The assumption is based on the researchs results that reflect the interconnection between the social interpretation of welfare and their willingness to share it (Whitaker 2008).
The measuring scale is employed in order to let the respondents express their views in a maximally accurate manner. The scale allows people to avoid judgmental definitions, which is highly important for questions with moral implications. According to Streb et al. (2008, p.80) people tend to give socially desirable answers when dealing with controversial issues. Thus, it is important to avoid asking this question directly.
It is, likewise, critical to note that the question is asked at the beginning of the survey. Various studies of evaluating public opinion show that specific questions requiring particular knowledge tend to have a negative impact on the respondents motivation in further answers (Rowe & Frewer 2000). The fact that answering this question does not imply any specific knowledge but bases exclusively on the personal convictions provide a guarantee that the respondents motivation will not decrease significantly at the surveys beginning.
The key risk of data corruption resides in the fact that the question has ethical implications. Thus, it is assumed that some people would either give inaccurate assessments or would provide a completely reversed evaluation in order to avoid being blamed for immoral and unethical views of social welfare.
Measuring the attitude towards the support of the Use of Force in Syria
The general attitude to the support of the use of force in Syria is measured by Q9, Q11, and Q12. Q9 is posed in such a manner that it initially offers three options for the respondents. The latter are welcomed to evaluate national politics from the perspective of the amount of money it can potentially spend on foreign aid. It is assumed that those people who consider the expenses to be excessive do not support the use of force, whereas those, who suppose them to be too little or enough, show a larger extent of support.
The type of question offered, in this case, is determined to maintain the respondents motivation to continue the survey. Thus, the structure that includes the possible answers is aimed at facilitating the answering process and minimizing the risks of inaccurate or illegible responses (Groves 2006). Another reason why the question is not utterly opened is that the provision of potential answers is likely to simplify their interpretation.
Q11 and Q12 are placed at the end of the survey when the expected motivation will be rather low. Thus, it is offered to employ closed questions in this case. In the meantime, it is critical to point out the high risk of inaccuracy. Data corruption might occur due to the fact that answering the relevant questions requires specific knowledge about the expenses on foreign aid and the situation in Syria. As a result, it is expected that a certain percentage of the interviewed will either provide the answer at random or miss the question at all.
Measuring Political Knowledge
The relevant variables are measured by two questions in the survey: Q7 and Q10. Question 7 offers the respondents to evaluate the policy pursued by a particular politician, David Cameron. The expected answers to this question are I approve , I disapprove . Question 10, in its turn, suggests expressing ones opinion on the implementation of the Monetary Control Bill. In this case, the respondents are asked not only to show their approval or disapproval but to precise its extent. It is assumed that those respondents that support the use of force are likely to express their approval of David Camerons policy and the Monitory Control Bill (Dodds & Elden 2008).
Both questions are supposed to provide valuable insights into the studied issue as they are connected with particular political individuals and events. Practice shows that respondents find it easier to evaluate a particular phenomenon in case they are offered the relevant association (Converse 1964).
Q7 is not completely opened as it contains potential answers. The relevant choice is determined mainly by the position of the question in the survey. As long as it is offered in the middle, one assumes that the respondents might find it discouraging to provide answers for an utterly opened question at this point. The structure of the Q10 is more complex. It implies choosing between two options approval and disapproval and clarifying the extent. As long as this is one of the final questions in the survey, it is expected that the respondents feel more engaged in the process at this point; thereby, they will give the question a profound consideration.
The principal risk resides in the fact that both questions require possessing a highly specific knowledge. Therefore, the respondents will not be able to provide relevant answers unless they have at least some ideas about David Camerons work or the key functions of the Monitory Control Bill. It is, consequently, expected that a certain part of the answers provided will not reflect the real opinion of the respondents.
Measuring Political Views
The political views of the respondents are measured through Q8. The relevant question offers a similar scale as in Q6. According to this scale, respondents can characterize their views as either left or right and indicate the extent of their belonging to one of the groups. Statistics show that political views play a significant role in social surveys as they determine largely respondents attitudes to a particular issue (Atkeson 1999). As a result, it is assumed that those respondents who describe their views as left-wing are more likely to express their support of the use of force than those interviewed that share conservative right-wing views.
The structure of the question is determined by the intention to provide the respondents with multiple answering options. The relevant question implies revealing discreet political beliefs; therefore, some respondents might reject to answer, in case, it has a standard closed structure. Practice shows that employing a scale is the best solution for those questions that deal with contradictory or excessively sensitive issues (Page 1994). Moreover, answering this question does not imply having any specific knowledge; instead, it deals with the personal evaluation. As a result, the respondents can provide an accurate assessment of their views.
The key risk in the relevant case is determined by the character of the information required. Thus, the interviewed are suggested sharing information of a relatively discreet character. Practice shows that many people express unwillingness when they need to reveal their true political beliefs (Feldman 1988). As a result, the potential outcome might be that a large number of respondents prefer either to leave out the question or to define their pertaining to one of the wings at the score 5. The average score is highly undesirable in any survey as it provides no information on the respondents views. It is highly problematic to indicate whether the respondent chose this score because it best matched his attitude or pointed it at random in order to avoid missing out on the question.
Conclusion
In order to carry out a reliable public opinion measurement, one has to consider a series of critical factors such as the character of questions, the key variables, the general survey structure and the questions posing.
The proposed survey is aimed at measuring public opinion on the support of the use of force. The main idea resides in the assumption that the support of the use of force is determined by political factors. As a result, there are five key variables implemented in the structure of the survey: public attitude to welfare, social opinion on the foreign aid, the public view of the national policy and specific strategies from the prospects of foreign aid, and the political convictions of the respondents.
The questions in the survey are designed with due consideration to their position in the poll, as well as the character of information required in potential answers. Thus, some of the questions offer the respondents a multi-score scale, whereas others represent closed and opened types of questions. While working out the surveys designed one tried to adopt the best practices of scientific research and avoid the most common mistakes. Therefore, most of the questions are posed in such a way that they help to keep the respondents motivated till the end of the survey. In the meantime, data corruption is likely to be present in some cases where a question requires specific knowledge or deals with particularly sensitive issues that the respondents might not want to discuss.
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Daoism and Confucianism are the two most important and influential philosophies in Asia. However, the two teachings have significant differences as can be demonstrated from the two quotations from the respective teachings. The carefree nature of Daoism is contrasted to the solemn and grave nature of Confucianism. In the Daoist quote, the man does not have any obligation and he moves about life without concerning himself with his destiny.
The man takes pleasure in what life offers him without becoming too attached to it. On the other hand, the Confucius quote talks about discipline and obedience. The young man in the quote is exhorted to be a good son and an obedient man since this is the root of a persons true character.
The practical and clear-cut nature of Confucian writings is contrasted with the mysticism and paradoxical nature of Daoist text. The Confucius quote gives practical advice in a language that is easy to follow and one can easily interpret what is being said. The thoughts expressed are also easy to apply in a persons life and the deeper meaning of the text is easy to deduce. Contrary to this, the Daoist text is written in a mystical manner and there can be various interpretations of the true meaning of the writings.
Just as Tao has different meanings, the text can be interpreted in many different ways by a person. The love of paradox by Daoism is clearly illustrated in the quote though the sentences in the writings which appear to be paradoxical in nature. While it is easy to understand the morals being communicated through the Confucian text, the Daoist quote is open to interpretations just as the Tao is difficult for anyone to grasp.
The Confucian emphasis on respecting authority figures is contrasted with the Daoist focus on humans as individuals. The Confucian quote advises against transgressing against ones superior and the man of good character is expected to avoid such action. This will preserve social harmony since order will be maintained if the authority figures are respected. The emphasis on social harmony is evident from the way the quote praises the good son who is obedient and shows no inclination to start a rebellion.
The Confucian focus on how people relate in the society and the Daoism focus on the cycles of nature are elaborated by these quotes. The Confucian text talks about how the young man behaves well and shows respect to his superior. The text serves as a code of conduct, informing people on how to act in order to become good members of the society. Following this Confucian teaching will help the individual to attain virtue and ethics that are desirable for harmonious coexistence.
The Daoism text focuses on how a person comes to earth not knowing love or hate and goes back after death to the same state. The concept of endlessness is alluded to in the text with the quote showing that there is no beginning or end for the person. The text focuses on the individual; tracing his journey from birth to death. The emphasis that Daoism places on gaining balance in life is therefore highlighted though this quote.
The different perspectives of how a good life should be lived are also presented in the two texts. Confucianism suggests that the good life is one that is lived by following rules and morals and ethical values in the society. It emphasizes on the importance of discipline and commitment in forming a good character. On the other hand, the Daoist text suggests that life should be lived in an effortless manner. The person presented in the quote takes pleasure when he can find it and forgets about it and moves on when required to. Daoism does not require the person to ascribe to any set of morals or values in order to enjoy life. Instead, emphasis is on how the individual can develop a sense of peace and become more in tune with their true nature.
The two quotes emphasize the differences between the two philosophies and how they complement each other. The texts show how Daoism is more spiritual in nature; being concerned with helping people to find meaning in life while Confucianism is practical; dealing with social matters and fostering unity and harmony in the society.