Category: Philosophy of Education

The term ‘curriculum’ is typically used to define the content being taught in a learning environment (‘The Glossary of Education Reform’, 2020). Though this is the general definition, there is no one way to establish a curriculum for schools, as it has been evolving over the years to suit different classrooms and students (Brady & Kennedy, 2014). To further investigate the educational philosophy that revolves around developing a curriculum, one will specifically look at Narre Warren South P-12 College and how they maintain their values and resolve student’s needs within their schooling system.

Narre Warren South P-12 College (NWSC) is a government school that recently started catering for both primary and secondary students in the same location since 2009. Because the students will be spending their 12 years of schooling in a familiar space, there is a strong focus on community (‘Profile – Narre Warren South P-12 College’, 2020).

NWSC’s Curriculum and Philosophy

The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (Education Services Australia, 2008) gives two goals of an Australian Curriculum’s policy; promoting equity and that all Australians are encouraged to learn to become confident and creative individuals. The Shape of the Australian Curriculum Version 4.0 (ACARA, 2012) further outlines the background beliefs that the curriculum is founded upon. These include:

• Equal learning opportunities for each student;
• Each students’ entitlement to knowledge and skills for success and life-long learning;
• High, yet appropriate expectations depending on an individual student’s learning abilities;
• Planning ahead for the needs and interests of different students.

In response, NWSC actively promotes the values of P.R.I.D.E in learning which stands for: perseverance, respect, integrity, dedicated teamwork, and excellence. These values act as reminders and motivators for students to “recognising and celebrating diversity, high aspirations and positive relations” to pursue their ambition after schooling years. They base importance in life-long learning as there they emphasise nurturing youths into members and leaders of society so that the goal of their schooling experience is not only their academic success but the ability to be responsible, inspiring adults (‘Profile – Narre Warren South P-12 College’, 2020). The reason behind these values and aim for the school leans towards NWSC’s focus on life-long learning and their belief in all students’ capabilities in achieving their highest, with their diversity in ethnic background, learning abilities, and social groups in mind.

Analysis and Critique of the School Curriculum and Philosophy

First, philosophy in the context of education could be defined by the method of thinking, questioning, and responding to how education affects life and the quality of life. Thus in this section, we will be discussing the attitudes towards learning and teaching within the school’s curriculum (Talawar & Kumar, 2010).

Talaway & Kumar (2010) suggest that values are key to adopting a certain lifestyle. It is important to understand different natures of values as all schools have a different value that they promote, and which they integrate into their curriculum. One of the theories as mentioned in ‘Philosophical & Sociological Foundations of Education’ is the experimental theory is the ‘experimental theory’. It acknowledges the achievements of the present, but mostly emphasise the promised success of the future. This aligns with the values of NWSC, as they greatly stress the future success and life-long learning outside of the school of their students. The ‘experimental theory’ is also seen as the pragmatic theory as it recognises that there are no permanent values, and highlights the differences in time between the present (while the student is in school) and the future (when the student leaves school to join society as an adult). This is also to be in consideration during deciphering the orientation of a school’s educational philosophy.

Because the school curriculum and the philosophy of NWSC stem from the background of which their students and their family are based off, we will be looking at how the curriculum specifically cater to their certain demographic. In this analysis, we will specifically be addressing:

• The ‘low’ category in terms of their socio-economic status;
• The cultural diversity of the school; including 50 ethnic groups from 64 language backgrounds where 50% qualify for the English as an Additional Language (EAL) program (‘Profile – Narre Warren South P-12 College’, 2020).

Low Socio-Economic Status (SES)

The four main philosophical approaches from ‘Philosophical Perspectives in Education’ (Leo, M.C & G, 1999) include: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. The philosophy we will be focusing on is social reconstructivism. The root of social reconstructivism is social justice and ultimately answering social questions to provide a better education system to the students who may be suffering from inequity. Specific issues that can be addressed are problems faced in real life such as: violence, hunger, international terrorism, and inflation. In ‘What Teachers Need to Know about Teaching Methods’, Westwood (2008) recommends community-based learning as an effective strategy to combat inequality in classrooms.

During my placement, I have observed a close teacher-student relationship such as students coming to a teacher they trust to discuss their home situation. Most of the time, the teachers were aware of any hardship or financial difficulties that the student is experiencing and has been transparent with them with their fellow teachers to make sure that the student is getting the required treatment according to their ability or disability. This can also be observed during career counseling, where the students are encouraged to take VCE if their academic performances and interests match – though also, NWSC has a very strong, supportive VET program.

According to research, students growing up in a low SES area are less likely to complete year 12 compared to the more affluent neighbourhood (Curtis, Drummond, Halsey, & Lawson, 2012). This is significant to the NWSC’s low SES demographic, but at the same time, they have managed to challenge the expected through their philosophy in looking at the career path of students rather than their immediate future.

I believe the trust system between the teacher and the student is a response to Smyth (2013)’s quote, “The core issue is really around students’ sense of justice and their sense of feeling included”. The tight-knit community has not only helped the student staying motivated for their studies, but also in finding an identity in their school.

Diversity in Culture and Language

Out of the philosophical approaches (perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism) NWSC’s response to their culturally diverse student again has social reconstructionist approaches. Because the cultural diversity affects the dynamics of students within a classroom (for instance, name-calling and bullying stemming from their differences in race), social reconstructionism is incorporated into EAL classes as well to promote equality. On the other hand, there are elements of essentialism in the curriculum in terms of basing importance in literacy and numeracy. Leo, M.C & G (1999) suggest essentialism is an answer to practical schooling, preparing students to become valuable members of society. Since the purpose of EAL is to teach the non-English speaking students to become proficient in writing, speaking, and overall expressing themselves in English, one can see that there is some essentialist basis on the curriculum. However, not to be confused with the fact that the EAL curriculum is for academic excellence – but rather so that the students can use their English skills as tools to enrich their lives as members of society after school.

There was a distinct difference between younger secondary year’s EAL class and an older secondary year’s EAL class. The classes I have observed were year 8 and year 12 (VCE) EAL respectively. The year 12 students were less fluent in English as most of them were international students who have come to Australia for about a year or two for quality education. On the other hand, the year 8 students were able to speak confidently because they were as young as in primary school when they first started learning English. Research has found that younger brains are more effective in learning a different language from their primary one, compared to an older brain (Pliatsikas, Moschopoulou & Saddy, 2015). This has contributed to the different structure of the classes.

Though VCE is much more assessment-based and rigid in curriculum structure compared to a year 8’s EAL curriculum (‘Learning areas’, 2020; ‘English and English as an Additional Language Study Guide’, 2017) and understandably, there would be differences in teaching approaches. However, year 8 classes allowed for more discussion exploring their background compared to the ‘essentialist’ year 12 class that was mostly focused on learning key vocabulary and practising worksheets.

Overall, from observing NWSC’s curriculum and its interaction with students, one can see that the focus has moved away from a traditional school’s ideal of academic excellence, to an emphasis on building communities and empowering marginalised group of youths. Though I wasn’t able to learn much about the few students who suffer from learning disabilities from a physical, mental, or developmental level, or students of Indigenous descent, NWSC is maintaining a progressive point of view to cater to their large population of ‘minority’ students.

Implications on Teaching and Learning and Other Curriculum Stakeholders

Since low SES group students and ethnically diverse students, who especially undertake the EAL course, were mentioned in the earlier section, the same demographic and the challenges they bring will be further discussed.

Often in the case of low SES students, they may have reduced vocabulary or literacy and numeracy levels because of their lacking academic and disciplinary language. The reason could be the less literate family environment and the parents who have had less opportunity to engage with a learning environment (Baker et al., 2008; Baydar, Brooks-Gunn, & Furstenberg, 1993; Guevara et al., 2008; Morrison, Rimm-Kau, & Pianta, 2003 – as referenced by Rojas Rojas, Meneses & Sánchez Miguel, 2019). This could be resolved by teachers’ support and effective scaffolding. ‘Teachers’ Scaffolding Science Reading Comprehension in Low-Income Schools: How to Improve Achievement in Science’ has found that when students struggling with low academic abilities were provided with separate material and guidance from the mainstream classrooms, they found improvement in not only their cognitive, critical thinking abilities but also in their confidence levels.

In the case of EAL students, there’s a common assumption that if the students performed well in the subject English during schooling years, they will continue to do so in their post-schooling years. Unfortunately, this is not the case as Evans, Anderson & Eggington (2015) found that “many students’ writing skills plateau once they complete their first-year English courses”. This will be a challenge especially schools like NWSC that value life-long learning.

One of the methods introduced in ESL readers and writers in higher education: understanding challenges, providing support is to emphasise the importance of self-regulated learning. When the students understand that learning isn’t only during school years but can also be a method of self-improvement, they will continue to challenge themselves with taking risks. The key to self-regulated learning is time management. Case studies have found that giving a lesson on time management has led the students to consider and separate their hobbies and leisurely activities from their studies. This is significant to those who are high-achievers as they tend to not take on any difficult tasks to maintain their good grades. This attitude is not good for language-learners, since risk-taking, making mistakes, and being able to give themselves constructive criticism on weaknesses and limitations are crucial to maintaining good language skills. Thus it has been proven that implementing a lesson on time management allow both EAL and non-EAL students who leave school, continue to pursue challenges.

Education should be about bringing equality to the classroom so that the students who leave school, can continue to reduce inequality and spread awareness and positivity in embracing individual differences in the society (Fredman, Campbell & Taylor, 2018). And so, I believe that the philosophy of social reconstructivism incorporated into NWSC’s curriculum will further focus on closing the gaps between nations, racial, or religious groups and offering understanding and friendship. My personal belief is that the world will grow closer than ever as our future advances make other cultures more accessible. With globalisation, there will be a growth of students in their diversity and there will be a bigger demand for capable teachers who are educated in the differences in those students (Kodama, 2015). Increasing cultural sensitivity for awareness is already becoming a part of a teacher education program, and I believe that teachers should further work to provide students with equal freedom to learn.

Conclusion

Despite the debate on a fundamental definition of curriculum and what is needed to develop one, from my research, all educators agree that high-quality learning for students is not a luxury but a necessity in the modern world. I have learned that the philosophy of teaching and building a curriculum based on human rights will promote a healthy living of a student, with the promise of a life-long learning opportunities (Fredman, Campbell & Taylor, 2018). This reflection of my previous placement has provided me with a teacher’s lens to find equity for students while I also learn, and strive to overcome the possible challenges in the future.

References

1. Brady, L., & Kennedy, K. (2019). Curriculum construction (6th ed.). Frenchs Forest: Pearson Australia.
2. Capel, S., Leask, M., & Turner, T. (2013). Learning to teach in the secondary school : a companion to school experience (6th ed.). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge.
3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity. (2020). Retrieved 23 April 2020, from https://www.education.vic.gov.au/hrweb/documents/cultural-diversity-policy.pdf
4. English and English as an Additional Language Study Guide. (2017). Retrieved 24 April 2020, from https://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/vce/english/2016EnglishEALSD.pdf
5. English as an Additional Language (EAL) – Rationale and Aims – Victorian Curriculum. (2020). Retrieved 22 April 2020, from https://victoriancurriculum.vcaa.vic.edu.au/english/english-as-an-additional-language-eal/introduction/rationale-and-aims
6. Evans, N., Anderson, N., & Eggington, W. (2015). ESL readers and writers in higher education : understanding challenges, providing support. New York: Routledge.
7. Fredman, S., Campbell, M., & Taylor, H. (2018). Human rights and equality in education: Introduction. In Human rights and equality in education: Comparative perspectives on the right to education for minorities and disadvantaged groups. Bristol University Press.
8. Kodama, N. (2015). Teacher Education and Culturally Diverse Classrooms. In Revitalizing Minority Voices. Rotterdam: SensePublishers.
9. Learning areas. (2020). Retrieved 23 April 2020, from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/f-10-curriculum/learning-areas/
10. Learning Vision – Narre Warren South P-12 College. (2020). Retrieved 23 April 2020, from https://www.nwsc.vic.edu.au/learning/learning-vision.html
11. Leo, N., M.C, & G, J. (1999). Philosophical Perspectives in Education. School of Education.
12. Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians. (2008). Retrieved 24 April 2020, from http://www.curriculum.edu.au/verve/_resources/National_Declaration_on_the_Educational_Goals_for_Young_Australians.pdf
13. Pliatsikas, C., Moschopoulou, E., & Saddy, J. (2015). The effects of bilingualism on the white matter structure of the brain. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences, 112(5), 1334-1337. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1414183112
14. Profile – Narre Warren South P-12 College. (2020). Retrieved 24 April 2020, from https://www.nwsc.vic.edu.au/about/profile.html
15. Rojas Rojas, S., Meneses, A., & Sánchez Miguel, E. (2019). Teachers’ Scaffolding Science Reading Comprehension in Low-Income Schools: How to Improve Achievement in Science. International Journal Of Science Education, 41(13), 1827-1847. doi: 10.1080/09500693.2019.1641855
16. Smyth, J. (2013). Losing our way? Challenging the direction of teacher education in Australia by reframing it around the Socially Just School. Asia-Pacific Journal Of Teacher Education, 41(1), 111-122. doi: 10.1080/1359866x.2012.753990
17. Student diversity. (2020). Retrieved 24 April 2020, from https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/student-diversity/
18. Talawar, M., & Kumar, T. (2010). Philosophical & Sociological Foundations of Education. Himalaya Publishing House.
19. The Glossary of Education Reform. (2020). Retrieved 24 April 2020, from https://www.edglossary.org/
20. The Shape of the Australian Curriculum Version 4.0. (2012). Retrieved 23 April 2020, from https://docs.acara.edu.au/resources/The_Shape_of_the_Australian_Curriculum_v4_file.pdf
21. Victoria’s School System. (2020). Retrieved 22 April 2020, from https://www.study.vic.gov.au/en/study-in-victoria/victoria%27s-school-system/Pages/curriculum-and-assessment.aspx
22. Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about Teaching methods. Camberwell, VIC: ACER Press.

Today, many people think that the way of study in the universities is quite different now from the idea that uses in, for example, epicurean or stoics schools. I believe that the background of today’s education was laid definitely at the time of Ancient Greece.

Epicurus divides philosophy into three interconnected parts — canonic (theory of knowledge), physic (theory of nature), and ethic, while ethics is of paramount importance for the Epicurus. That is why we can say that epicureanism serves quite specific needs: looking for a way to rid humanity of suffering. The only benefit for man is a pleasure, which Epicurus understood as the absence of pain. To gain such pleasure, it is necessary to get rid of all anxieties, government activities, and dangers. For the Epicureans, the outside world was a source of heightened danger and fear, and fame, wealth, power did not deserve to devote their lives to them. They considered science and art secondary to the good of the individual. It is also worth noting that the school taught people to understand that they should not be afraid of death. For the Epicureans, the material world consists of atoms moving chaotically. The human soul is also composed of atoms. Since the world is based on immortal atoms, death does not exist. The main point of such education was to convey that more important than feelings there is nothing, and you need to enjoy moments here and now.

Against the philosophy of Epicurus were the Stoics. If we talk about Stoics way of education we can see that it has some similarities with epicurean, but epicureans and stoics held different views on life. The Stoics said that philosophy is like an orchard, where logic is a fence, physics is trees, and ethics are fruits. They were convinced that a man must live courageously, heroically and hopelessly. The Stoics adhered to the principle of ‘passive heroism’ – the principle of indifference to the vicissitudes of fate, you need to live vigorously and carefully carry out everything that you have written (above, the emperor). Despite the well-known similarities between the Stoic and the Epicurean ethics, the difference between them is very significant: the Stoics ideal is more severe, they adhere to the altruistic principle of duty and fearlessness before the blows of fate; the ideal of the Epicurean sage is not so much a moral as an aesthetic, it is based on self-enjoyment.

How is this way of educating people connected, for example, with the way of education people in the University of New York in Prague? Not depending on the subjects and majors for which the students are studying, they get a background for the values of a country, in my case it is America. When we are teaching subjects, we also teach Western values, for example, how to behave with people, and this also means ethics. It is important that people communicate with each other at university. I think that education in Ancient Greece served as the background for today’s universities. For what people go to the universities? Furthermore, most of the students prefer to study in prestigious universities if there is an opportunity for this. First, of course, for knowledge to be knowledgeable in one area or another.

Education has for quite some time been considered as having an influence on the development or formation of self and character. The cycles of education and self-formation, being historically and socially formed, show the worries and highlights of time and spot. This essay will think about the job that customary types of education that may keep on playing a role in establishing self-formation and personality in a genuine, epitomized world.

Education can be perceived as an interaction of self-formation or self-development, drenched in complex information, that empowers the students to turn out to be more capable and more self-governing and self-deciding. Education as self-formation lays on the final actuality that while learning is adapted by outer elements, by the student’s experience and assets, the foundation, the curriculum, teaching, and different circumstances, just the student does the learning. Historically, Autonomous agency is ‘the critical idea of innovation (Giddens). Agency opportunity as means and end Standardizing. Education, especially higher education can be perceived as ‘self-formation and the extension of opportunity’ and esteemed for its commitment to the development of self-deciding people in social settings, by means of submersion in information.

As a philosophy and practice of education, self-formation has its first predecessor in Confucian learning as self-formation. Self-formation in Kant’s meaning of the Enlightenment meant the arrival of people from their ‘self-brought tutelage’ through the activity of their ‘own understanding’. Here the job of education is to develop the internal identity in both scholarly and moral terms, to shape residents in open discernment who will comprise arising common society. Kant underlined that Bildung would not happen by itself, it required education. The point of education is ‘the dynamic independent individual inside the structure of social life’, a sane subject who utilizes reason in a public manner and ‘lives in the open arena among other individual creatures.’

Bildung suggests the educational cycle committed to being and turning out to be, to the open-finished advancement of human potential, not static proportions of abilities and information. Its thought of perfectibility looks like Confucian self-development: the objective is rarely accomplished. Self-formation, a ceaseless obligation, opens new ideas as it continues. The educability of oneself framing student is not fixed yet is consistently growing.

Compared to Bildung, Dewey, and Confucian self-development, the market-purchaser worldview radically recoils the worth of education to students and societies. It is significantly mediocre as a clarification of advanced education! But a few students do put resources into themselves as human capital, figuring their lifetime profit, some in any event, seeing themselves as purchasers (more in high charge UK). Nearly all future graduates want to be employed straight after college, and numerous desires to accomplish social situations through education. So, the financial worldview is not entirely off-base The fact of the matter is that there are additionally alternate manners by which students extend themselves, their assets, and their undertakings. Some fall in love with the subjects they study. Some seriously participate in social or political activity nearby. Some consideration about the benefit of all and the need to work on worldwide issues. Some need to get married. Many are simply getting themselves while moving into grown-up life. There is no vital clash between ‘instrumental’ objectives (education for work, profession and profit, social position, and so forth), what is more, individuals who select in light of the fact that they love learning or need to get themselves. Numerous students need every one of these things at the same time. Students choose the harmony between objectives, which can change after some time The basic component is shaping students. This incorporates every one of the various ways that students fabricate organization, and by enlarging themselves broaden their opportunities. Arguably, Higher Education as Self-Formation is a general hypothesis, though (like all social hypotheses) ready to be perceived as shifting by public provincial social settings.

Education in these terms is a connection (or a bunch of relations), not a foundation a style of self-formation, that includes a principal re-connotation of the classes of student and teacher, and their collaborations, purposes, and relations. As such, this is simply the consideration of the, crafted by the ‘legislative issues of oneself’, a consistent act of contemplation, which is simultaneously receptive to a study of the world outside: This is not something we can do alone and not something that comes without any problem. Instruction should turn into a site of training and a space in which to procure the abilities and sensibilities of self-creation. As a system for instructive practice, this recommends the need to take care of:

1. A climate that empowers experimentation
2. A consciousness of one’s present condition as characterized by the given culture and recorded second. That is; parentage as an educational plan (question of truth)
3. A mentality or attitude to investigate; an emphasis on the creation of specific kinds of miens that would be esteemed and encouraged, made express (inquiries of subjectivity) like incredulity, separation, shock, narrow-mindedness, and resistance.

In the entirety of this, education, the physical education teacher, and teaching method are explained not as abilities and familiarities but rather as the development of good subjectivity, a type of governmental issue, and a connection to morals instead of to truth. This is not freedom yet enactment, a suffering commitment in the struggles and disappointments of self-forming, exploring different avenues regarding and picking what we may be and how we may identify with others, not finding who we truly are. Here teaching method turns into the act of scrutinizing, learning by resistance, an ongoing basic defiance pointed toward destabilizing truth, instead of learning it, a historizing of greatness and magnificence as opposed to liking it. This should lay on and add to a type of force relations that are empowering, innovative, and positive.

The teacher turns into a ‘veritable conversationalist’ and should support truth-telling, hazard, and relish difficulties, and make a public space where daring discourse is energized. That is, ‘Instructors and different experts have moral work to do on themselves, to try not to utilize insight as ‘psychological oppression’ on those without it while likewise working with their students’ moral work’ (Julie Allen). The teachers’ student’s relationship thereupon turns into an unpredictable association, a discourse, and a progression of examinations dependent on regard and common consideration and shared turn of events an organization that is available to consistent investigation and amendment with every one of the perils and dangers that that may imply. education self-formation.

In The Republic, Plato discusses education as an essential aspect of a more extensive discussion of a society’s well-being. Plato establishes what education is worth for both the individual and the state in The Republic, emphasizing the crucial function of those who select the materials to educate the state’s future guardians (Jowett, 2012). Plato considered men and women as equals in their humanity. He was among the first to advocate for equal education for men and women based on their capacity to study rather than their gender. One of the educational theories Plato used was question and answer methods, which allow students to employ critical thinking. Additionally, he notes in the Allegory of the Cave how necessary experimentation is for people to see the “truth” (Plato, 2010). Aspects of his philosophy in education have contributed to an organized education system to establish citizenship and leadership qualities.

Plato’s philosophy on education has influenced learning standards for structured lessons without considering one’s age. According to Plato, the quality of a society depends on the kind of education people receive (Jowett, 2012). Therefore, he places importance on the need for education. He acknowledges that children can innately capture knowledge (Tate, 2016). Modern education begins in childhood when a child’s character is formed via emotions. They can begin to grasp logical reasoning, science, and philosophy by adolescence. Younger individuals can begin to comprehend more complicated physical and mental versions of reality. Moreover, education is not limited to any age group. Alluding to the “truth” from The Allegory of the Cave, Plato notes that people who seek experiments gain knowledge. Schools understand the importance of experimenting with practical courses in schools to ensure correct learning. Plato’s philosophy on education accommodates all ages, requires experimentation, and creates a standard of learning for creating a just society.

References

Tate. (2016). The case against the arts from Plato to Tolstoy and its implications for why and how the arts should be taught in schools. Educational Review (Birmingham), 68(1), 24–39. Web.

Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.” (2010). In Milestone documents in world history: Exploring the primary sources that shaped the world, 1, 153–165.

Jowett. (2012). The Republic by Plato. (2nd ed.). Andrews UK Ltd. Web.

Introduction

Islamic thought and practice has been greatly influenced by al-Ghazali, a representative of conciliatory Islam, for almost one millennium. There has been a new wave of combative Islam in the last few decades that has been perceived differently by people, as a danger and cause of destabilization, and as a new revival movement. The new movement is hostile in its objections of modern society, advocating for change in social lifestyles and violent eradication of current regimes.

The new movement is fueled by the teachings of al-Maududi and others, as well as their followers. This movement is due to the belief that Islam holds the solution to all aspects of problems facing the Islamic world and the world. The future of the Arab and Islamic world is dependent on the results of the battle between the teachings of al-Maududi and those of al-Ghazali. In spite of the new movement and the conflict of teachings, al-Ghazali was one of the most dominant philosophers on education in the history of Islam.

Philosophy of Al-Ghazali

The philosophy of al-Ghazali was focused on the relationship between God and his creation. He followed the traditional Sunnite in unfolding the essence and power of God. He also followed the Sufi undercurrents in understanding the association between God and humans. In understanding the mainstream of Islamic fiqh, he proposed his own ideas of the essence, characteristics and deeds of God.

Al-Ghazali divided the universe into two parts, just like the other philosophers, namely the transitory world and the everlasting after this life. According to him, the transitory world was not dependent on science, but by the will of God, who is in control of all events, regardless of its magnitude or timing.

According to al-Ghazali, mankind lives in a society that is so evil that it would be best if man isolated himself from it. At the same time, he acknowledged that an individual was no match to a group, since societies were split into two groups, the elite rulers and the masses, and it was the elite who controlled the society. He also believed that the role of societies was to maintain the religion of God since he was the provider.

The most vital attributes in a person according to al-Ghazali are knowledge and awareness, which are obtained from the reason and inspiration or revelation by God. A virtuous man would be expected to isolate himself from the company of people and all evil, and refocus his life to eternity, in the afterlife. A man of virtue would be expected to rely on God and give up the struggle to achieve dominanceⁱ.

Principles of education

Al-Ghazali was a philosopher of religion and ethics, though he ended up teaching his philosophy, which was focused on stability as opposed to change. His teachings were aimed at providing education necessary to allow man to follow the shari’a so that he can glorify God, and gain everlasting happiness in the after-life.

When al-Ghazali talked of character formation, he emphasized that the parents and teachers had the obligation to bring up the children with the right kind of influence, since it is at this point that children formed their character. He encouraged parents to take their children to school at an early age, since their minds were more receptive at that point, and good character could be cultivated from that point.

Conclusion

Al-Ghazali referred to scholars as people who sought the truth, and transformed their lives in order to live in accordance to the best of their knowledge, and in so doing serve as examples while disseminating their knowledge to the masses. He believed that the scholars would be rewarded in heaven due to their quest for knowledge, acting on the knowledge and teaching it to the people. He also believed that the teaching process should be selective, taking in mind that not all information was fit for everyone.

Some information was fit for the elite, while some was best kept hidden. Some information that could create confusion regarding religion was also hidden, since it was necessary for the scholars to protect themselves from persecution. Al-Ghazali was also concerned with the relationship between scholars and rulers, and that between scholars and the masses. Al-Ghazali was one of the most profound Islamic thinkers, who lived a short but productive life, influencing not only the Islamic world but also the European Christians.

Bibliography

al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid Muhammad, et al. “Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism: His Deliverance from Error (al-Munqidh min al-Dalal) and Five Key Texts.” Louisville, Kentucky: Fons Vitae, 2000.

Hoffman, Valerie. “An Islamic Activist: Zaynab alGhazali.” In Women and the Family in the Middle East. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.

Iqbal, Muhammad. “The Development of Metaphysics in Persia a Contribution to the History of Muslim Philosophy.” Kila, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2005. 67-70.

Mahmood, Saba. “Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject.” 2005.

Nofal, Nabil. “AL-GHAZALI (A.D. 1058-1111; A.H. 450-505).” Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (1993): 23(3/4), 519-542.

Shariff, M. M. “History of Muslim Philosophy.” Connaught Place, delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2007. 457-513.

Education has always been considered an important part of life, which leads to a higher quality of existence and better understanding of the surrounding environment. Many writers, philosophers, thinkers and psychologists have argued that not only the amount of information matters but also, the way it is understood and used.

Schools, colleges, universities and other educational institutions provide a vast amount of knowledge that directs and helps anyone in life and choices being made. An important argument of many philosophers and thinkers is that arts and liberal education adds another very important component to the mindset and understanding of a person. The comprehension of the surroundings and structure of the world depends not only on bare reasoning but also on feelings and special sensing. In order for any information to be useful, it must be understood and used practically, to the best of ability. A large amount of information by itself is useless, if a person cannot apply it in the real world and demanding settings. One example of more in-depth and comprehensive thinking was made by Stephen Gould in his “Nonmoral Nature”. He talks about the way nature runs its course and the laws that govern the order. He compares it to the world that humans have created and how much it is different from the animal kingdom (Gould 37). This creates a perspective for humans that they are not the rulers of the world and nature. There are forces that are at work, which are very hard to comprehend and quantify. People are not the ones who made these laws and so, people just follow them, trying to figure out best solutions on the way. This fact cannot be taught by simply remembering vast amounts of information. People must use their soul or the part of mind that answers to the “liberal arts”. Machiavelli is another person who has deepened the human understanding of the concepts in the world. He teaches ethics and gives qualities of a leader that must be present for him to be successful. His specific statement that the way a certain result is reached must be unimportant, comparing to the end result, raises questions of morals and justice (Jacobus 36). This is crucial to human reasoning because people must understand how far they are prepared to go to reach a goal and what rules and laws they are prepared to break. The key concept here is the greater good and what it is for different people. Everyone has their own perspective but in reality, truth is one and the same. Something that causes pain to anyone who is not deserving or unaware of its causes is considered unjust, no matter what part of the world they are in. A higher state of opposition and fighting for human rights can be seen in the work and life of Martin Luther King. His non-violent protesting is the highest moral reasoning that can be achieved by any human (King 220). Every person must know that there are many avenues when striving towards a goal and the most just one must be taken. Education must be centered on a person’s feelings and moral make up, in order to show and teach the right way to act and think. The same is true in the work of Virginia Woolf. Her work represents another fight for human rights and moral freedoms (Woolf 842). This form of knowledge and understanding cannot come from information by itself. It must come from a deep comprehension and feeling. The understanding of suffering and hardships a person experiences towards others are the greatest type of feeling. When an individual is able to see what makes others hurt, walk in their shoes and find ways to help and reassure, it truly says a lot about the sensitive nature of a person. This sort of quality can be reached through close relationships with art and education of the human mind and soul. There is no denying that education must include emotions and soul, so necessary for everyone.

Works Cited

Gould, Stephen. “Nonmoral Nature,” Further Reflections in Natural History. New York, United States: W. W. Norton, 1994. 32-44. Print.

Jacobus, Lee. A world of ideas. New York, United States: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. Print.

King, Martin. “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” A World of Ideas. Ed. Jacobus, Lee. New York, United States: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. 211-231. Print.

Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. Peterborough, Canada: Broadview Press, 2001. Print.

The philosophical doctrines have always had a significant impact on educators’ views of their mission and the methods for achieving their goals. The debates concerning the primary purpose and content of education programs resulted in emergence of diverse educational philosophies.

The blend of various historical educational philosophies and the compromise between the teacher-centered and student-centered approaches to classroom activities is useful for creating a theoretical framework for the teacher’s personal philosophy of education.

The issue of deciding between various philosophies of education is related to the problem of choosing between teacher-centered and student-centered approaches to classroom activities as the most effective method for reaching the education targets.

Essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, social reconstructionism, existentialism and constructivism are regarded as the most popular philosophies of education. Though the first two of them, essentialism and perennialism, are often criticized for their obsolete teacher-centered authoritarian approach to education, these systems have their advantages. Thus, the teacher-centered approach to the organization of the classroom activities is said to be helpful for developing a tough and demanding curriculum, for example.

On the other hand, the proponents of progressivism, social reconstructionism, existentialism and constructivism emphasize the importance of active involvement of learners in the teaching-learning process for the purpose of enhancing its effectiveness and improving the outcome. The educators who decide on the student-centered model of curriculum are certain that learners would find the lessons which were imposed from above irrelevant and will forget them soon.

Considering the variety of philosophical approaches to the primary goals, content, structure and methods of the educational programs, a young teacher is not obliged to decide on only one of them and can blend the features of several or even all of the approaches for developing an individual teaching style and educational philosophy within the paradigm of the most popular contemporary theories.

Creating a theoretical framework for the teacher’s philosophy of education, an individual should overcome the misconceptions concerning the obsoleteness of the teacher-centered approaches to the organization of the classroom activities. The elements of essentialist and perennialist theories can be beneficial on the condition of adapting them to the realities of the contemporary education systems and needs of contemporary learners.

Though overemphasizing the importance of learning the traditional academic disciplines without modifying them in accordance to the needs of contemporary learners is the weak point of educational essentialism, the principle of proceeding from less to more complex materials and assignments is beneficial for all types of curricula.

It is important to ensure the acquisition of the basics before proceeding to more complicated tasks. A learner needs some basic knowledge for realizing the creative potential and expressing personal views on the problem. In other words, it is essential to lay the foundation for further acquisition of knowledge because students need some skeleton for constructing their system of knowledge.

The same goes for the principles of educational perennialism which are not always applicable to the educational programs but can be advantageous in the context of particular lessons. Learning from primary sources as it is suggested by the proponents of perennialism philosophy should not become an end in itself but still can be helpful for creating learners’ awareness of particular issues. It is essential to consider the students’ level of preparation for selecting appropriate materials and methods for processing them.

The analysis of primary sources can be helpful for developing students’ skills of critical thinking and expressing their personal opinions. Disregarding the obsoleteness of particular aspects of educational essentialism and perennialism, some elements and principles of these theories can be integrated into the philosophy of a contemporary teacher on the condition of adapting them to the realities of educational process and real needs of learners.

Developing an individual educational philosophy, teachers need to strike the right balance between teacher-centered and student-centered approaches, not going from one extreme to another. A teacher should not go too far, implementing the innovative educational techniques and methodologies.

Thus, allotting class time to modeling democratic values, exploring social inequities and discussing human tragedies, as it is requested by the principles of social reconstructionism, teachers should not underestimate the importance of creating the learners’ awareness of the existing views on the problem and the current debates.

The primary goal of a contemporary program should not be limited to shedding light upon the problem of social inequity only. It is essential to provide learners with an opportunity to view issues in their complexity and to consider the context of the debates and various perspectives on the problem. On the other hand, an educator should pay proper attention to preparing learners to live in the community and implementing the knowledge acquired at school in their daily practice.

At the same time, choosing only themes which learners consider as relevant and exciting for the curriculum, a teacher undergoes risk of reducing the efficiency of the program. Students are often reluctant to study some theoretical and complicated topics, for this reason, teachers should not only decide on the topics which would generate learners’ interest but also develop the lesson plans which would make the less exciting themes interesting for learners, selecting appropriate assignments and techniques.

It is vital to integrate the elements of teacher-centered and student-centered approaches to the development of the educational philosophy for enhancing the effectiveness of educational programs and improving the learning outcome.

The proper level of involvement of both students and educators into the teaching-learning process is significant for reaching the final goals. I share the views of the proponents of constructivism who consider the process of knowledge acquisition possible only on the condition of interpretation and reinterpretation of materials by learners.

Knowledge is not a substance which can be transmitted from one individual to another one as it is. Mere understanding and memorizing of materials is insufficient for the acquisition of knowledge, and learners’ active participation in the process of processing the information is important for developing their skills of applying it in practice.

On the other hand, despite the recent shifts in defining the role of educators in the teaching-learning process, their involvement is required for modifying the curriculum to the actual needs of community and a particular class. Along with students’ involvement in the process of knowledge acquisition, teacher’s flexibility is a crucial element of teacher’s philosophy required for developing effective lesson plans and curricula.

Creating a theoretical framework of teacher’s philosophy of education presupposes considering the context of the existing educational philosophies and blending their particular elements after adapting them to the demands of the contemporary teaching-learning process. Developing an individual teaching style requires striking the balance between the teacher-centered and student-centered approaches to curriculum.

Reference List

Sadker, D.M. & Zittleman, K.R. (2007). Teachers, schools, and society: A brief introduction to education. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Overview and Introduction

Papastephanou’s article “Globalisation, globalism and cosmopolitanism as an educational ideal” published in 2005 is the center for discussion in this paper. The article is focused on the problem of the failure to distinguish between the notions globalization, globalism and cosmopolitanism that leads to the failure to consider the place of the current education in the modern world and its role in the international affairs.

The article starts with the discussion of the John Dewey’s words about the place of globalization and the absence of the international interchange on the level of education and knowledge. The main idea of the article is to consider the connection between globalism and globalization with the further reference to the in factual, emotional and intellectual significance of globalization with the purpose to show that cosmopolitan pedagogical ideal must be taken.

Discussion of Diversity as Discussed in the Article

Globalization is considered as “an ideological device that states and governments employ as an excuse for imposing certain policies that would otherwise fail to gain public acceptance or support” (Papastephanou, 2005, p. 534). Additionally, it is important to state that some scholars consider globalization as the denial of the reality which should not be taken for granted.

Globalization should not be considered as the desire to do anything; it should be viewed at the events which are happening. The notion of globalism should be discussed as something different from globalization. Globalization may be viewed as the object of globalism which is defined as the ‘discourse in which the very idea of globalization is articulated, disseminated, justified, debated, in short, constituted as an object of reflection and analysis’ (Isin & Wood, 1999, p. 94).

Globalism denotes the increase and spread of education using globalization as the foreign experience has become vital for those who have the desire to study. However, Papastephanou (2005) says much about educational frames and ethical dimensions which are considered within globalization.

Taking a closer look at globalization and its impact on “unity and plurality, social and international justice, and emancipatory enrichment of humanity and protection of natural life” (Papastephanou, 2005, p. 535), the author of the article refers to the following categories which are going to be analyzed in detail, “nation-state and territoriality”, “diversity and homogeneity”, “identity and rootlessness” and “equality and life options” (Papastephanou, 2005).

Analysis of the Philosophical Perspectives Advocated or Otherwise Discussed in the Article

The nation-state and territoriality, according to the discussed article, impact human understanding of the educational processes via a number of issues. First of all, the author of the article refers to the tribal instinct of the citizens, which raises the competition.

Thus, the learning and educational processes are based on the national and territory assumptions only when it deals about career competitiveness (Papastephanou, 2005). The notions of diversity and homogeneity are closely connected wit multiculturalism. Searle, Rorty, and Taylor (in Nicholson, 1998) have managed to prove that multiculturalism impacts educational process positively.

These scholars state that multiculturalism should be considered as the new way of thinking on the basis of the old methods of teaching. They are sure that “A multicultural curriculum works very well in fulfilling the traditional goals of education in philosophy. It can assist the teacher as Socratic” midwife” and” gadfly” in delivering students of their narrow and uncritical opinions and awakening them to a world of intellectual diversity” (Nicholson, 1998, p. 6).

Identity and rootlessness may also be considered as the essential impact in the learning diversity as the increate of the national and international relationship encourage the educational process. Nevertheless, the ideas of equality and life options can be considered as the positive impact on the educational processes and the philosophy of education as seeing the national and international conditions in comparison, people want to learn more. Thus, the opportunities are appreciated.

Summary of Implications for a Specific Educational Setting

Thus, “nation-state and territoriality”, “diversity and homogeneity”, “identity and rootlessness” and “equality and life options” (Papastephanou, 2005) as the central ideas of globalization, the object of globalism, and multiculturalism should be considered as the basis for educational purposes.

Teachers are to reconsider the goals they set applying to the modern view of the philosophy of education. Applying to the modern view a person should be considered individually within the global aspects. The changes which occur in the world and the tendency to the globalization impact educational processes positively, teachers are just to meet those changes.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Therefore, it may be concluded that globalization, globalism and multiculturalism have impacted the situation positively. The educational process based on the principles of globalization and multiculturalism allow teachers reconsider the principles of teaching and make those meet the necessity of the modern society.

To make sure that the new philosophy of education is met and teachers are able to restructure their plans, they are to consider different perspectives on education used by the international professionals. The ability to apply various means and methods of education in the multicultural society is essential as the processes of globalization dictate their own rules.

Reference List

Isin, E. F. & Wood, P. K. (1999). Citizenship & Identity. London: Sage.

Nicholson, C. J. (1998). Three views of philosophy and multiculturalism: Searle, Rorty, and Taylor. Encyclopaedia of Philosophy of Education. Web.

Papastephanou, M. (2005). Globalisation, Globalism and Cosmopolitanism as an Educational Ideal. Educational Philosophy & Theory, 37(4), 533-551.

Introduction

Philosophy of education is an academic field that is involved with the application of philosophies in order to define as well as explain goals and meaning of education (Noddings, 1995). It is imperative to note that education has its own challenges, goals and related theories. In this case, philosophy of education involves the study of educational process, aims, forms and methodologies of study. This field highly focuses on the process of educating individuals in various fields.

Research has revealed that philosophy of education also focuses on how learning takes place (Schunk, 1996). In addition, it exposes the theories involved in learning and the practice of teaching. Moreover, the discipline legitimizes and exposes the limits of certain educational practices and theories (Schunk, 1996). Notably, different people have various thoughts on education, the concepts of learning and truth.

It is against this scope that this paper intends to explore the meaning of truth, how it is taught and the theoretical basis of learning and teaching. Additionally, the paper will also elaborate the process of learning and effective teaching and learning strategies that can be adopted in a classroom environment. Moreover, it will also shed light on the role of schools and teachers in a multicultural society besides the integration of personal faith in philosophy of education and how it manifests itself in teaching.

What is truth?

Studies have shown that truth is one of the central aspects in philosophy (Groff, 2000). Nevertheless, the concept has various meanings. For instance, truth can be defined as the state of being in accord with reality. Moreover, the concept can also be used to mean sincerity of the matter or action (Groff, 2000).

Explain why what a person believes about truth is important

It is notable that a person believes that truth is important since it helps in understanding and accepting reality. In this case, truth helps an individual to overcome falsehood (Groff, 2000). As a matter of fact, it enables a person to work towards a particular target in accordance to reality. It is also worth noting that truth has a unifying effect since it solidifies the actual essence of reality.

What should be taught and how should it be taught?

Truth is all about reality and thus individuals should be taught about it right from childhood age (Schunk, 1996). Quite a number of persons have problems coping with reality which can only be learnt through experiences. In this case, truth should be taught in all aspects of life through formal, non-formal and informal education systems.

For instance, individuals should be taught about reality in vocational and non-vocational settings. This can be done through the use of mentors, teachers, counselors and guardians (Groff, 2000). The latter category of individuals is quite instrumental in the process of teaching.

What is the theoretical basis of your personal philosophy of learning and teaching? Describe this theory or theories, including the individuals associated with these theories

In terms of John Locke’s idea on learning; I strongly believe that learning and teaching are active and two-way processes that take place between the learner and teacher. Theoretically, it is evident that learning and teaching have two phases namely sociological and psychological (Noddings, 1995).

In line with this, there are theories that can be used to support this fact. For example, we have philosophy-based and psychology-based theories that explain how learning and teaching take place. Notably, theorists have emerged in the past to explain how the process of learning takes place.

As a result, different viewpoints have been presented. Needless to say, these viewpoints have been used to explain how education and learning processes occur. It is vital to point out that the philosophy-based theory of learning was spearheaded by early philosophers and scholars such as Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato (Schunk, 1996). In this case, they argue that effective learning occurs in tandem with the desired outcomes.

Therefore, these philosophers debated on why and how people learn and eventually concluded that the desired outcomes shape both the nature and process of teaching and learning. The ancient scholars perceived learning as a training of the mind in order to make new discoveries (Frank, 2005).

Nevertheless, there are scholars who appreciate learning as vocational training through apprentice method. In this case, it is arguable that vocational training encourages inherent learning that is characterized by inquiry, reflection and discourse (Locke, 1996).

On the other hand, psychology-based theory of learning emerged in the 19^th century and it is all about the scientific study of learning. Notably, scholars who proposed this theory included Descartes, Thorndike, Skinner and Kant (Schunk, 1996). Research has revealed that these scholars were influenced by the studies of Darwin.

The theorists studied how people learn and also attempted to explain the best teaching strategies. Notably, the theory addresses how a human mind is influenced by psychological and behavioral mechanisms, a factor that makes one to construct knowledge depending on stimulus derived from the environment through senses (Schunk, 1996).

These theories derived a scientific approach to explain how the human mind develops mental connection with positive stimuli in the environment. In this case, they argue that learning occurs due to association of impression from senses with impulse action. The latter may occur either consciously or subconsciously.

How do you believe learning occurs? Describe the learning process

There are numerous processes through which learning can occur. Therefore, it is imperative to note that though quite a number of theories have emerged to explain how learning occurs, there are those that appear more precise than others (Noddings, 1995). In this respect, John Locke’s theory of learning is apparently explaining how learning occurs more effectively.

By adopting his idea, I believe that the human mind at childhood is like a blank slate or tabula rasa bearing in mind that there is nothing recorded in it. In regards to how learning occurs, experiences encountered from childhood to adulthood shape human minds (Locke, 1996).

As a matter of fact, the human mind gathers information, skills and knowledge through experiences. This enables the learner to create more complex ideas (Gutek, 2009). It is also imperative to note that education system is structured in a manner that it will provide adequate experiences to learners depending on the discipline of study.

How does this understanding of learning affect your teaching?

This understanding affects my teaching positively since I will be able to enrich learning environment with necessary resources to facilitate effective acquisition of knowledge. In my position as a teacher, I will be able to employ numerous teaching strategies in classroom in order to shape the minds of learners effectively.

Notably, this approach will also enables me to apply good moral standards since learners are likely to copy from what they encounter. Therefore, in case they observe negative aspects in classroom; they are likely to portray the same in future. Additionally, this will also help me to present the much needed information, knowledge and skills that are updated to learners. It will further ensure that they get the best form of knowledge through firsthand experience.

In line with the aforementioned elements, enhanced understanding will also affect my strategies for teaching bearing in mind that I will transform my delivery strategy from teacher-centered to learner-oriented.

In this case, my lessons will be directed to the learners in order to give them room for exploration. Consequently, the learner will be able to gather knowledge and skills from the environment. Nevertheless, it is also vital to mention that knowledge and information should be presented to the learner before experiencing the real situation.

What teaching and assessment strategies do you believe are effective, based upon how you believe students learn?

Empirical research studies have revealed that learning is an active process that involves both a teacher and learner. Since learners gain a lot from experience, it is essential to use numerous teaching strategies to ensure that they participate actively in classroom (Frank, 2005).

For instance, other than just using lecture method, it is important to make the process of learning to be learner-centered. Needless to say, the teacher should give learners assignments to do on their own. In line with this, group work and projects assist learners to cooperate and remain active in finding out new sources of knowledge on their own.

In terms of the above perspective, the teacher should also allocate variety of teaching materials in classroom such as books, objects and reference materials (Frank, 2005). Besides, it is essential for a teacher to employ effective assessment methods to identify how learners progress in classroom.

For instance, one of the effective assessment methods is through keen observation of learners in order to study their level of motivation and attitude toward specific concepts. For instance, according to behavioral theorists, one can be able to understand and assess learners’ ability by observing their behavioral patterns. Another effective method of assessment may entails posing questions in classroom to evaluate learners’ ability to understand and comprehend concepts that have been taught (Frank, 2005).

What is the role of the school in a multicultural society?

It is definite that school is a social institution that plays crucial role in society (Frank, 2005). It is also imperative to note that society uses the institution of school as a tool which assists children in gaining skills, knowledge, values as well as etiquettes related to life. In this regard, a school fosters socio-cultural development in the sense that it prepares learners to become reliable individuals in future.

Notably, learners who come from a multicultural society are bound under one culture at school (Smith, 2009). For instance, every school has a syllabus that is being used to guide and educate learners. Therefore, it is arguable that a school is an institution that fosters oneness in society regardless of the prevailing cultural differences.

That notwithstanding, a school establishes balance in multicultural society by enabling learners from different cultures to explore, learn, discover, create and construct new ideas from the experiences gained through education (Smith, 2009).

What is the role of a teacher in multicultural classrooms?

From a careful review of literature, it is evident that a teacher plays a crucial role in enhancing harmony and effective learning in a multicultural classroom (Frank, 2005).

For instance, a teacher often acts as a decision maker in classroom by ensures that all the activities being done in classroom are geared towards attaining major values in society such as harmony, integration and equal participation in classroom regardless of learners’ individual differences (Smith, 2009).

In addition, a teacher acts as a planner in classroom. As part and parcel of the teaching responsibility, a teacher allocates resources to learners and organizes how learning will take place (Frank, 2005). In line with this, a teacher also plays the role of a craftsman. This involves a case whereby he or she assists learners to acquire skills and attain knowledge related to life through demonstration, asking questions, motivating and guiding learners in a classroom set up.

How is your personal faith integrated into this philosophy of education? How does your faith manifest itself in your teaching?

It is essential to note that religion plays a key role in philosophy of education and hence it is an indispensable aspect in learning. Additionally, personal faith helps to instill morals and values in the learning process. Therefore, it is definite that my personal faith is very much integrated in the philosophy of education and is also manifested in various methods of teaching.

For instance, when interacting with learners, I guide them on how to apply moral virtues such as obedience and honesty in classroom. By so doing, it helps them to adhere to instructions and rules and eventually prepares their minds in readiness to learn.

References

Frank, C. (2005). Teaching and Learning Theory: Who Needs It? College Quarterly, 8(2), 1-12.

Groff, R. (2000). the truth of the matter: Roy Bhaskar’s critical realism and the concept of alethic truth. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 30(3), 407-435.

Gutek, L. (2009). New Perspectives on Philosophy and Education. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Locke, J. (1996). Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the Conduct of the Understanding. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co, Inc.

Noddings, N. (1995). Philosophy of Education. New York: West view Press.

Schunk, H. (1996). Learning theories. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Smith, E. (2009). Approaches to Multicultural Education in Pre-service Teacher Education: Philosophical Frameworks and Models for Teaching. Multicultural Education, 16(3), 45-50.

Introduction

Facilitation entails using a neutral third party to guide others towards making responsible decisions during discussions. The facilitator therefore acts as a referee, who controls activities and processes in agreement with the participants (Gower, Haley-Speca &Saphier, 2008). Facilitators should not take an active role in discussing the content but guides group members on the appropriate structures, tools and processes which apply to the underlying objectives. Facilitation also entails helping participants define their personal and team objectives in order to design appropriate plans to accomplish them. Through a needs assessment, individual group members are helped through a credible facilitator to understand the right processes for effective interaction and discussion. The underlying objective for effective facilitation is the goal of achieving a functional group through a collaborative approach.

Facilitation in perspective

The facilitator helps a group to communicate effectively by creating a positive environment where individual team members are appreciated and given equal opportunities to present their opinions with respect to the content. Participants’ skills are recognized and appreciated for the mutual benefit of the group (Brookfield, 2006). Conflicts are also effectively managed through available internal and external resources within the reach of the group. Consequently, the responsibility of decision making and solving problems is shared among group members from a dynamic talent pool. The philosophy of facilitation appreciates the contribution of two or more people with a common purpose in setting and implementing a common task. Participants can therefore be trusted to implement policies and decisions which they have helped to create.

Groups provide the right environment through which a proper intersection between process and content can facilitate successful outcomes on assignment (Bens, 2009). Facilitators ensure that both leaders and group members assume responsibility for the outcome of group discussions by creating a level playing field for achieving results. Facilitation requires that the credibility and mandate of the facilitator is sanctioned by both organizational leadership and group members. A normative contract from the group members empowers the professional facilitator to take responsibility for the processes that guide group members in discussing the content of their tasks. Members are therefore empowered to make decisions which conform to organizational objectives without fear of reprisals. The right process through which deliberations on the content are carried out is designed by the facilitator.

Knowledge, skills and attitudes

The group obtains a common identity from a mutual philosophy statement that clarifies the principles for their existence and maturity of their common tasks (Bens, 2005). The content provides a description of the knowledge which is relevant to a successful fulfillment of the group tasks. A needs assessment provides insight into the current competencies and skills of group members which also helps facilitators when designing structures, tools and procedures for effective interaction to take place. The concept of neutrality is central to facilitation since it defines the principle through which issues become explored (Bens, 2005).

Facilitation ensures that both leaders and group members are accorded the same status irrespective of rank or position. Essentially, the facilitator leads and guides a group in the manner through which the subject matter is discussed. Facilitation is leadership by consent provided by the normative contract from participants either through word of mouth or through a written agreement (Bens, 2009). Group members subscribe to the leadership of the credible facilitator who guides their deliberations by providing the right tools and structures for group effectives.

Roles and responsibilities

Facilitators offer groups support right from their formation to dissolution upon maturity of their term. First and foremost, members are facilitated to define group goals and objectives in a specific manner. Individual members are also helped to identify their needs and priorities. Appropriate plans are thereby designed to ensure successful implementation of group needs. A facilitator also guides group members in designing timeframes within which different tasks and needs can be implemented (Brookfield, 2006). He/she takes note of important points from different group members. Facilitators also assist group members to communicate effectively without compromising on the reputation and character of individual members. The facilitator utilizes probing queries to obtain feedback on group goals. The question and answer method provides the framework that facilitates critical thinking and decision making processes. Facilitation actually empowers members of a particular group to be accountable for their destiny. Coaching, teaching and empowerment are the most salient features of effective facilitation.

Who can facilitate

Facilitation can be provided by the leader of a group, one of the members of the group as well as a professional facilitator outside an organization. The neutrality aspect of facilitation demands that whether the facilitator is an internal or external person, he/she should not be oriented on either side of the discussion (Gower, Haley-Speca &Saphier, 2008). External facilitators can effectively be neutral except that they may not be conversant with the background of the group in terms of the history of the organization and the personalities of team members. That notwithstanding, an expert external facilitator is credible for a professional outcome of a group discussion since they do not harbor personal interests on the subject matter. However, they do not get to see the manifestation of the group outcomes they initiated. External facilitation may also take time take a meaningful course since group members take time to get acquainted with the external facilitator.

Leaders can also take charge of group discussions except that they may not be trusted to neutral due to vested interests in the outcome of the deliberations. Organizational leaders playing the facilitator role have the advantage of the fact that they understand group dynamics such as the personalities of the individual participants and the history of the organization. To this end, leaders can afford to take substantial risks during group facilitation because they understand the scope of the tasks at hand as well as the strengths and weaknesses of participants (Bens, 2005). On the other hand, leaders’ credibility for facilitation is compromised due to the perceived vested interest in the feedback processes and the final decisions made by a group. Members could also be rendered naïve by the presence of an authoritative leader taking control of discussions on content they have created being part of the administration. Members could also be entrusted with the facilitator role.

Facilitation in education

Both child education (pedagogy) and adult education (andragogy) derive a lot from the philosophy of facilitation (Bens, 2009). Facilitation dominates adult learning processes due to features that conform to experiential learning. Adult learners are understood to be inspired by practical needs during learning. As such, they are motivated to learn from an experiential perspective and through a methodology that empowers them to define their learning goals. Adults are mature people with a wealth of experience and knowledge in different life situations. Adult learners benefit from teaching if they are facilitated to establish a link between theoretical content and life skills. Formal teaching takes different paradigms which consist of “reading, listening and watching” (Bens, 2005). However, meaningful education takes place when adult learners are practically engaged in the process of relating theoretical concepts to practical life situations.

Adult learning is therefore reinforced with practical experiences and applications which stimulate learners to reflect on real life situations that require the input of the curriculum content. Facilitation in education is achieved by integrating small groups in conventional classroom settings. Knowledge is disseminated through appropriate tools such as flipcharts and markers which promote active exchange of ideas on the subject matter (Gower, Haley-Speca &Saphier, 2008). A survey can be conducted to determine the skills profile of the individual students. Teaching is therefore facilitated through group work where a needs assessment of the participant students is factored during discussions on the subject matter. The exchange of ideas that takes place among students provides a concerted approach in doing assignments. Group members could be assigned a common task, say carrying out interviews in order to collect data on different market dynamics. Assignments are allocated to different teams depending on their preferences.

Students are encouraged to come up with relevant questions which they would like answered during the field surveys. Students are also involved in designing implementation strategies for classroom activities diversified into individual teams (Brookfield, 2006). This facilitates the formulation of learning goals, theoretical materials and implementation strategies. Participants are also directly engaged in evaluating the learning process. The teacher is therefore concerned with the approach taken during learning instead of the curriculum content. Essentially, the facilitated classroom is characterized by exploration strategies, discussions and feedback initiatives which ensure that knowledge is acquired and applied appropriately.

Underlying beliefs and values regarding your philosophy of facilitation

Traditional teaching is unidirectional and teacher-centered. However, teaching through facilitation entails the exchange of ideas as well as sharing information from different dimensions between the facilitator and group members (Gower, Haley-Speca &Saphier, 2008). In this case, the facilitator engages group participants in constructive discussions as equal partners. The facilitator utilizes both open-ended and closed-ended questions in order to stimulate creative and critical thinking among group members. Equilibrium exists between offering ideas for group discussion and patiently listening for feedback. Teaching in a classroom is quite different from adult education where experiential learning is facilitated through group discussion without the formal leadership role of a teacher. The relationship between the facilitator and group members is characterized by trust, respect and servant-hood.

Language of facilitation

The evolution of facilitated teaching is accompanied with a specific style of language which is neither critical nor judgmental. Facilitation is adapted with “language techniques such as paraphrasing, reporting behavior, describing feelings and perception checking” (Bens, 2005). Paraphrasing is the main language technique which utilizes repetition to highlight important points during discussions particularly when divergent opinions engage students in an endless debate. It helps facilitators to paraphrase members’ opinions in order to stress a specific feedback. Reporting behavior helps a facilitator to describe participant behavior without making accusations or labeling them. Feelings are described using metaphors or related figures of speech which ensure that the personality of the student is not interfered with during learning. Behaviors which act contrary to the wellbeing of the group are discouraged in a positive manner boosting the confidence of the team in the process of achieving common goals. Perception checking helps the facilitator to verify participants’ experiencing emotions as a means to engage the entire group in the discussions.

Conclusion

Teaching appears to be out of fashion. Facilitation is therefore a new paradigm in learning particularly in adult education and online courses. Traditional teaching is teacher-directed while facilitated education is learner-oriented (Brookfield, 2006). According to Tuckman’s leadership model, “group development goes through defined stages beginning with formation, then norming, performing and finally adjourning” (Bens, 2005). The situation leadership theory underscores the need for task-oriented interaction and group-oriented interaction during group development. Facilitated teaching therefore incorporates the above leadership attributes in moderating between teacher-directed and student-directed learning. Teachers facilitate learning through a community of functional groups which empower students to develop their competencies according to their passions, interests and career aspirations.

Self-directed learners develop their competencies and talents during the various stages of group development (Bens, 2009). Learners develop through the process of socialization in their respective groups. Online education is facilitated through an orientation process that ensures students are familiar with relevant computer skills and the application of appropriate communication used in learning. The online environment is therefore dynamic and incorporates a greater participant pool than the classroom environment. Adult education utilizes group discussions which adapt the experiential learning mode in ensuring that practical applications of education are aligned with real life situations.

Reference list

1. Bens, (2009). Facilitating with Ease! Cd-Rom Part. California: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
2. Bens, I., (2005). Advanced facilitation strategies: tools & techniques to master difficult situations. London: John Wiley and Sons.
3. Bens, I., (2005). Facilitating with ease! Core skills for facilitators, team leaders, and members, managers, consultants, and trainers. Helsinki, Finland: John Wiley and Sons.
4. Bens, I., (2009). Facilitation at a Glance: A Pocket Guide of Tools and Techniques for Effective Meeting Facilitation. New York: Goal/QPC.
5. Brookfield, S., (2006). The skillful teacher: on technique, trust, and responsiveness in the classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
6. Gower, R. Haley-Speca, M. A. & Saphier, J., (2008). The Skillful Teacher: Building Your Teaching Skills. Acton MA: Research for Better Teaching.