Category: Philosophy 1203

Introduction

The problem of determining human nature has always been topical. Individuals have always tried to determine the nature of their selves and find their places in the world. For this reason, the question of self is one of the fundamental ideas in both Western and Eastern philosophies. Thinkers have tried to describe how individuals exist in this world, interact with others, and evolve. As a result, numerous perspectives on the concept of self emerged. However, it is impossible to select the most applicable or correct one because of the relativity of the problem. Every person can have his/her vision of self and his/her nature. It arises from the experience, knowledge, and peculiarities of past interactions. Speaking about my position on the question, I think that Aristotle and the avocado view on human nature might help to describe my beliefs.

Discussion

As has already been mentioned, human nature is a complex phenomenon. It implies the idea of self as one of the core components impacting peoples individuality, their character, and their interaction with the world. For instance, Aristotle is one of the outstanding ancient Greek thinkers who discussed the concept of self. His view implies that every human being has a soul, which cannot be separated from the body (Sihvola, 2008). Moreover, he defines the soul as a principle of life-impacting all choices and causing people to live (Sihvola, 2008). At the same time, it is a unique substance that differs among individuals, and it is impossible to find two identical ones (Mitchell, 2019). In other words, following Aristotles view, a persons existence is influenced by a specific abstract substance existing somewhere within. This self, or soul, determines who the person is and how he/she lives.

Aristotles vision is one of the first attempts to delve into the peculiarities of peoples nature and explain it. At the same time, his definition of the concept of self coincides with my one. I agree that every individual has a particular inner substance or soul that can be viewed as a principle of his/her life impacting all interactions (Gertler, 2021). From my own experience, I can say that my actions are always motivated by my views and values, which are evolving with me. At the same time, I refuse to make some choices, even if they might seem as beneficial because of my beliefs. It means that the idea of a soul as self offered by Aristotle is the closest to me. Every living creature might have a certain code of behavior deeply rooted in his/her conscience and functioning as the major guide.

Moreover, as a supporter of Aristotles idea of self, I accept the avocado view of self. It assumes that every person has a unique inner core that remains unchanged and can be discovered when all outer skin is peeled (Mitchell, 2019). From the religious perspective, it can also be viewed as the soul, a unique and valuable concept. For me, it means that human beings might be impacted by external factors, such as environment, upbringing, and people surrounding them; however, the influence of all these forces is mediated by the inner core. In other words, the choices I make impact my evolution as an individual and the formation of my personality. However, all these decisions arise from a set of inner values that should be considered part of my core.

Moreover, I believe that other demographic characteristics, such as gender, class, culture, or orientation, are essential characteristics impacting a persons self. I assume that my personality is formed under the impact of values peculiar to my culture, my perspective on relations with other people, and my class. It means that my core evolves under the impact of these aspects and acquires new features because of their strong impact. They also affect my judgments, attitudes, and responses to specific stressors. It is impossible to disregard external factors and their influence on every individual (Gertler, 2021). For this reason, my soul, or self, resonate with the external environment and responds by forming specific features and concepts in my mentality. For this reason, the factors mentioned above are critical for the development of every individual and the formation of his/her inner core.

Conclusion

Altogether, the problem of self, its definition, formation, and development have always been an important philosophic question. Thinkers have tried to offer their views on the problem and discuss it using their views. Aristotle was among the outstanding philosophers who offered the definition of self as a concept inseparable from the body and impacting all individuals actions. This definition coincides with my own one, as I believe every person has a core or soul that affects his/her choices and daily interactions. The environment and other factors are also important; however, their impact is mediated by the inner substance making individuals behave in a specific way. For this reason, the avocado view of self is more attractive to me. Every human being is unique, and these differences come from the unusual peculiarities of the inner core that evolves and determines who we are.

References

Gertler, B. (2021). Self-knowledge. In E. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Web.

Mitchell, H.B. (2019). Roots of wisdom: A tapestry of philosophical traditions (8^th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Sihvola, J. (2008). Aristotle on the individuality of self. In P. Remes & J. Sihvola (Eds.), Ancient philosophy of the self (pp. 125-138). Springer.

Summary

Groundhog Day is an iconic film that has a classic rethinking of the time loop theme with deep philosophical overtones. Even though I had watched the movie several times before, I rewatched it a few days ago and found a lot to think about. The film builds parallels with the philosophers Plato and Aristotle, raising the eternal and topical themes of morality and the human meaning of being.

Plato and Aristotle

The concept of the Giga ring from Platos Republic is quite similar to the setting of Groundhog Day. Plato introduces an invisible ring to avoid responsibility, to test how moral principles can protect a person from immorality (Matt 00:00:30-00:03:00). Perhaps a major difference would be that the Platonic hero could use the ring as he wished. Both concepts reflect the idea that the immorality of human actions cannot go unnoticed and will have its consequences in the future. Phils suicide would prove that impunity would lead to the destruction of the soul and moral human identity.

Aristotle considered generosity, courage, friendliness and patience to be the highest standards of virtue. Phil really got better by the end of the film, abandoned the stereotypical attitudes, imbued with people, became patient and even began to correct his vices by immersing himself in art. The fact is that Phil is re-aware of his life, having fallen into forced conditions. According to Aristotle, a good deed must be the result of a persons pure desire. Phil did get better, but he didnt do it entirely of his own free will.

Sisyphus and Sartre

Undoubtedly, work on oneself can be called an act of creativity. However, it seems that Sisyphus and the creation of the Taj Mahal are more conscious acts than the work of Phil. In general, one can draw parallels if one considers working on oneself creatively, however, everything seems to work out for Phil without his personal decision to change. It is not easy to draw parallels with Groundhog Day and Sartre, because the film celebrates the celebration of life, while Sartre recognized its meaninglessness. It is difficult to say whether Sartre realized the value of being when Phil clearly began to appreciate life more. Nevertheless, the film can be called a demonstration of the idea of existentialism, where the hero simply lives for the sake of life itself, and not for a deeper meaning.

Work Cited

Matt. Gyges Ring Movie. YouTube, 2013, Web.

Moral judgment is the process of deciding what to do when faced with an ethical dilemma, including questions of right and wrong. Different philosophers have developed theories for criticizing right and wrong and the forces that drive people to decide what is wrong and right. These philosophers include David Humes, Alfred Jules Ayer, and John Mackie. David Humes is the author of the book, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, where he forms a basis of discussion on moral judgment. Both Ayer and Mackie borrow ideas from Humes perspective in their works of ethics, although they arrive at starkly different conclusions concerning moral judgment. This article aims to explain how Ayer and Mackie seem to follow Humes lead on the analysis of moral judgment but arrive at opposing conclusions.

In ancient Greece, some felt that morality stemmed from ones emotions, while others held that it originated from ones mind. In his book Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Hume explains his thoughts on both sides. However, Hume concludes that sentiment rather than reason ultimately determines morality (Hume 160). According to Hume, the concept of right and wrong is highly relative and based on many emotions, including social empathy and the want for approval. Because exhibiting them leads to positive outcomes, including social acceptance and safety, personal fulfillment, a positive public image, and high esteem, certain traits are valuable.

Attractiveness is higher for those who are helpful, agreeable, and pleasing company than those who are hostile or opposed. Furthermore, Hume argues they are essential for contentment since knowing and caring that people have acted rightly brings happiness and satisfaction with peoples behavior and peace of mind. On the other hand, those who work immorally, are unjust, or are apathetic toward right and wrong will not.

Ayer appears to follow Humes lead on moral judgments since he holds on the same ground that reason cannot be sufficient to judge right and wrong because it is based on facts, but feelings evoke what is termed as good and evil. According to Ayer, every theory of ethics should examine the terminology used in moral debate (Ayer 239). Ayer argues that ethical judgments are not factual since they are expressions of emotion; therefore, they cannot be classified as either true or false (Ayer 232).

Since there were no objective moral facts, he reasoned, moral claims could not be tested and thus had no intellectual weight (Ayer 237). Ayer argues that moral assessments are more evaluative than descriptive and they are assertions of opinion rather than facts. Therefore, they cannot be accurate or incorrect; or, at the very least, they would be more transparent if they were not.

Ayer also borrows ideas and assumptions from Humes concept of motivation. Humes declares that moral distinctions motivate people to take action and that people cannot be moved to action by logic alone. One must feel some desire, objective, or want to take any action. Ayer argues that since moral judgment is linked to peoples motivation, and since motivation is linked to peoples emotions, it was only reasonable to interpret these moral utterances as serving the purpose of emoting (Ayer 238).

Ayer was careful to emphasize that his position was not synonymous with subjectivism, the idea that when people make moral claims, they are merely describing their emotions. If one takes the latter view, then moral claims are truth-evaluable, which is something Ayers moral emotivism rejects. It seemed to him later that expressing ones emotions, whether happy or bad, also had a prescriptive element; by doing so, people encourage others to share their feelings and act appropriately. This demonstrates that the opinions voiced are generalizations about behaviors rather than criticisms of specific ones.

According to Mackie, there is no rational basis for trusting objective values or a unique capacity for moral judgment. Mackie agrees with Hume that beliefs are insufficient to generate behavior or only considers one alternative to Humes theory of motivation. Only the prospect that outlandish ideas, like moral intuitions, can inspire people to take action is considered by Mackie. Based on his moral error theory, Mackie argues that the existence of objective values would be strange or queer (Mackie 15). Both the argument from queerness and the argument from relativity are presented as supporting evidence for his thesis (Mackie 36-42).

The objective values include right and wrong, moral goodness, obligations, and duties. Nevertheless, he also extends his reasoning to include specific nonmoral values. Mackie argues that if there were such a thing as objective values, they would be utterly alien to everything else in the cosmos. However, neither the existence of such entities nor how people can learn about them is explained in a philosophically satisfactory way. For this reason, people ought to abandon the idea that there are such things as objectively reasonable values. Mackie agrees with Humes concept of experience by acknowledging that moral knowledge can serve as both a guide and an incentive; he also notes that anyone who became familiar with an objective good would want more of it, suggesting that this familiarity would be exciting and motivating. Without moral belief, it is unclear how moral information could inspire action.

From the above discussion, therefore, it is deductive that both Ayer and Mackie borrow some concepts of moral judgment from Humes works. Ayer and Mackie agree that motivation is a driving factor toward good and evil or right and wrong. It would appear that Ayer follows in the footsteps of Hume when it comes to making moral judgments, as Ayer shares Humes view that reason alone is insufficient to determine right and wrong because it is fact-based.

However, that emotions evoke what is often referred to as good and evil. Mackie also follows Humes lead when he argues, based on irreducible normativity, that the desires that people have that drive the actions taken to fulfill those desires but not the reason for pursuing a certain desire that drives someone towards a certain action. However, they both come to a different conclusion about right and wrong.

Markie argues that objective values do not exist, and if they do, it would be strange. He argues that it is through moral knowledge or experience that peoples actions are motivated and driven. On the contrary, Ayer concludes that there is right and wrong, good and evil, good morals, obligations, and duties which exist in society and describes what is expected to achieve happiness. Ayer further argues that moral assessments are more evaluative than descriptive, are expressions of opinion rather than assertions of fact and that it is more helpful to think of them as persuasive arguments than true or false claims.

Works Cited

Ayer, Alfred Jules. On the Analysis of Moral Judgments. Philosophical Essays. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1972. 231-249.

Hume, David. An Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals: A Critical Edition. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Mackie, John Leslie. Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. Penguin Books, 1977.

Introduction

Humean compatibilism is a belief in the possibility of free will within the context of determined actions. This viewpoint is a compromise between the philosophically opposed ideas of free will and determinism. Whereas free will argues for the absence of predetermined fate, determinism states that all events are caused by natural laws and cannot be avoided. The debate around Humean compatibilism primarily focuses on different interpretations of laws of nature.

Discussion

Arguments against Humean compatibilism revolve around human inability to affect the laws of nature and the past. First, people are inevitably influenced by previous events, which cannot be changed regardless of their decisions. Second, human actions cannot alter the laws of nature, which determine the consequences on human lives (Buckareff, 2019). Therefore, compatibilism is not true since all actions and events are determined by the laws of nature and the remote past.

Arguments for Humean compatibilism focus on the flexibility of laws of nature. Humeans believe that laws of nature do not govern or necessitate but rather, they are descriptive (Buckareff, 2019, p. 56). In essence, human actions can transpire according to the variants set by laws of nature, but they are not determined by them entirely. Therefore, free will exists, as the universe allows people to choose among the possibilities determined by the laws of nature.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Humean compatibilism is a plausible position because there is no consensus on the essence of the laws of nature. As much as determinists believe that laws of nature govern all events, compatibilists believe that laws of nature merely set the rules for behavior. Subsequently, free will can also be interpreted differently, as it can be determined by fixed laws of nature or allowed by the possibilities set by the laws of nature.

Reference

Buckareff, A. A. (2019). Time, leeway, and the laws of nature: Why Humean compatibilists cannot be eternalists. Metaphysica, 20(1), 51-71. Web.

A fable is a short narrative that can be written in prose or rhyme and conveys a straightforward moral or lesson. Examples of animal characters that are humorous, clever, or foolish creatures who reflect human flaws and vices abound in tales. The moral lesson of a fable may occasionally have to be deduced, while it is briefly stated at the tales conclusion. A tale sometimes has a twist or a shocking conclusion.

Fables, fairy tales, and parables all share the trait of being passed down orally and occasionally written down much later than when they were created. One can discover historical remnants of earlier customs, beliefs, and rituals in such instances. Fables often lack the fantastical aspects seen in fairy tales (Slowik, 2018). Contrary to fables, tales do not use anthropomorphism; rather, they portray people as they are.

The fox and the Grapes tale is an illustration of a fable. One hot summers day, a Fox was roaming through an orchard until he came to a group of Grapes just blossoming on a vine that had been stretched over a towering limb, goes. He said, Just what I need to satisfy my thirst. He missed the group a few steps after pulling back, running, and jumping. He turned around and leaped up again, but this time without any more success. He kept trying to get the tempting treat, but eventually, he gave up and went aside with his nose inside the sky while stating, Im sure theyre sour.

The word sour grapes, a widespread idiomatic expression that most English speakers understand, sums up the moral of the narrative, which is that you cannot always get what you desire. The moral of the tale is universally applicable, and most readers understand that the foxs mentality is a typical human flaw (Slowik, 2018). Fables are an instructional literary form, meaning their main goal is to educate or guide rather than only amuse(Slowik, 2018). Fables also allow the reader to laugh at human foolishness, especially when they serve as models for actions that should be resisted rather than imitated.

Fables frequently have as their central characters animals given anthropomorphic characteristics such as the ability to reason and speak. In antiquity, Aesops fables presented a wide range of animals as protagonists, including The Tortoise and the Hare, which engage in a race against each other; and, in another classic fable, The Ants and the Grasshopper, the ants chide the grasshopper for not preparing for the winter

Adult writing has recently adapted the tale as a literary genre. For example, James Thurber employed the approach in The Monster in her and Other Animals and Fables for Our Time. His stories are renowned for their incisive depictions of contemporary worries. George Orwells Animal Farm mocks tyranny in overall and Stalinist Communist rule in particular in the guise of an animal tale. The Irish author has woven the stories The Fox and the Grapes and The Ant and the Grasshopper into James Joyces Finnegans Wake. The stories contribute to the fantastic atmosphere that permeates this book.

Reference

Slowik, M. (2018). The animal fable, Chuck Jones, and the narratology of the looney tune. Narrative, 26(2), 146162. Web.

Postmodernism is a philosophical aspect that is described as a truism. It is a concept characterized by relativism, subjectivism, and skepticism. Postmodernism plays a role in asserting and balancing life through a general suspicion of reason. The basis of postmodernism is the reaction against the intellectual assumptions and traits of the present-time history of Western philosophy. Postmodernism presents specific ideas, such as language, that have dramatically informed the concepts of social constructionism, diversity, equity, and therapy.

Postmodernism, in its spheres, presents language as a construct of the person and the concept of difference as a connection of severe interpersonal misunderstanding (Smoliak & Strong, 2019). Generally, language is a product of social circumstances rather than a natural link. Such theoretical concepts inform my personal and professional skills. They are exciting ideas that aid in perfecting myself and improving my practice as a marriage and family therapist. Like the system theories, postmodernism is an essential tool in understanding both the language and behaviors of human beings.

Postmodernism and systems theories bear the same concepts. They share several similarities in the understanding of reality and logic. Both contextualize human behavior in defining a persons unique experiences. Each approach identifies and focuses on different markers of the context. Still, it can be revealed from a close examination that the two seek insights into an individuals members specifics in life (Smoliak & Strong, 2019). Additionally, to understand a persons behavior, systems theories, like postmodernism, assess the cultural identifications and backgrounds of the people. However, the two have one significant difference in the modality of therapy. System theories usually pay more attention to homeostasis as a human behavior predictor, while postmodernism weighs into individual reality. Therefore, they can be used to improve the outcome of therapy sessions such as marriage and family therapy.

Just like social constructionism, postmodernism presents various presuppositions that guide my work as a marriage and family therapist. As such, they include differences that are systematic misunderstandings between people that occur when people wrongly interpret the language and words used by someone. This is because, in postmodernism, language has been made to be a construct of an individuals experience, culture, reality, and background (Smoliak & Strong, 2019). This aids my practice because, as the MFT, I am an observer. Therefore, I can identify the issues causing the misunderstanding and help eliminate them and resolve the conflict.

Differences also inform social constructionism by manifesting an individuals identifications, such as ethnic background. Language imperfections are outlined by describing the arrays of its practical demonstration and establishing its reality (Smoliak & Strong, 2019). This also reveals that a person cannot be perfect in language. As an MFT, this helps me formulate a strategy to navigate the imprecise issues, identify the chief sources of the misunderstanding, and address the problem.

According to postmodernism, personal truth and reality are directly related to experiential, cultural, and linguistic constructs. Further, it explains that, as humans, we tend to develop our subjective truth rather than find objective facts. A marriage and family therapist who understands these concepts can better their services. This is because they can assist one to have insights into their truth and bring it to a family system without altering the reality of other members.

One other aspect that has been influenced by postmodernism is social justice. It has dramatically impacted the social structures and aspects of diversity, equity, and inclusion and has changed conversations related to such concepts. This is due to the changes it has brought to human understanding. The present-day philosophy has assessed and challenged past norms and awareness of diversity. It has presented a new contract that each individual has imaginative realities and truth. This has promoted the idea of respecting human diversity and constructs. Further, postmodernism has played a role in changing the views on the roles and interactions of people in different societal systems. The inclusion of persons in families and the community has changed as each persons duties and uniqueness are acknowledged.

Additionally, postmodernism, through its ideas, has restructured the recovery model that seeks to improve a persons mental health. The primary factor that is considered in the recovery model is the holistic approach to the condition. The main focus should be on the well-being of an individual rather than the elimination of the symptoms. The ideas presented by postmodernism can be directly related to the model. Such concepts, such as life fragments, reveal the different aspects that could be considered when providing care.

Postmodernism, like the recovery model, emphasizes a persons local issues and struggles. This is because mental problems result from minor issues (Qu, 2022). A core idea that is also related to the recovery model is language understanding. This concept facilitates the identification of the critical issues that can be resolved and promotes recovery. However, the dialogue between Jack and Jill and the concepts of realism versus antirealism still need clarification. Further, I also have questions on the connection between postmodernism and MFT and on which of the different therapy approaches comprehensively employs the ideas of postmodernism.

In conclusion, postmodernism is a concept of philosophy that seeks to assert and provide a balanced life by describing the key ideas that are critical in modern society. As such, they include language that has been illustrated as a construct and, more often, a concept of difference. Like system theories, postmodernism also assesses human behavior and its uniqueness through cultural identifications and backgrounds. Therefore, the aspects of postmodernism are essential professions such as marriage and family therapy. However, which therapy approach is comprehensively related to postmodernism is still being determined.

References

Qu, N. (2022). Individualized Assessment and Therapeutic Intervention for Mental Health of American Postmodern Novelists. Occupational Therapy International, 2022. Web.

Smoliak, O., & Strong, T. (2019). Postmodernism in couple and family therapy. In Encyclopedia of Couple and Family Therapy (pp. 2260-2266). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Web.

Introduction

These days, the words minimalism and sustainability are most often mentioned in the same breath. A modern, minimalist lifestyle usually goes hand in hand with sustainable products and the fundamentally sustainable use of facilities. These two concepts were born from different parts of the same problem, which perhaps show signs of the times quite clearly. Overconsumption, disposable products and subsequent environmental pollution over the past few decades have been responsible for the resurgence in the popularity of minimalist living. Japan is considered the birthplace of minimalism as a philosophy of life that has spread throughout the world. In this regard, it is necessary to consider whether minimalism is still part of the Japanese way of life or if it is now a Western concept.

Concept of Minimalism

Minimalism as a lifestyle involves, first of all, the rejection of excessive and unnecessary things. Modern society is a consumer society that provides easy access to various goods and services. However, in the past, most people led a lifestyle of voluntary simplifiers (Ohira & Masuda, 2022). The common characteristic that defines all minimalist lifestyle narratives is that people implicitly reject established ideals of maximizing consumption.

Origins of Minimalism

In Japan, several origins laid the foundation for minimalism. First, the attitude towards emptiness in Japan is connected with religion. The countrys culture is inextricably linked with Buddhism, and emptiness is one of the three characteristics of existence. In front of Shinto temples, an empty space is deliberately left where the gods are believed to live (Haimes, 2020). This place is covered with pebbles and fenced with a rope and it is customary to pray (Haimes, 2020). At the same time, in Zen Buddhism, emptiness is perceived as the truth, the nature of all things, not absence, but fullness (Han, 2022). This perception of space and the objective world was reflected in the Japanese lifestyle.

At the same time, the emphasis on nothing has a decisive consequence on the notion of well-being in Japanese culture. Because external realities appear fluid, ever-changing, and often incomprehensible, it is complicated to adjust to them (Han, 2022). Thus, the reality is perceived as limiting and sometimes even oppressive. One consequence is that people tend to experience certain positive feelings of peace, relief, and calmness when they separate from reality.

Western Conception of Well-Being

Much Western well-being refers to the hedonistic qualities of happiness, including joy, excitement, and a positive attitude. In addition, personal achievements, property, and other forms of independence are important (Kan et al., 2009). Researchers also highlight social harmony, empathy or sympathy, camaraderie, and other forms of interdependence (Kan et al., 2009). These three broad categories cover almost all descriptions produced in the West (Kan et al., 2009). Thus, the general idea of Western culture has nothing to do with the concept of minimalism. The notion of well-being and happiness, on the contrary, attaches great importance to maximization is inextricably linked with the idea of the self as an independent person (Haron et al., 2020). However, the concept of nothing more has long been familiar in the West but does not have the same meaning as for the culture of the Japanese.

Conclusion

Thus, minimalism has more meaning in Japanese culture than in Western culture. For the Japanese, the philosophy of minimalism is more than just a rejection of consumer reality. On the contrary, modern Japanese are known for their passion for maximalism, which manifests itself, for example, in the media. However, in everyday life, the Japanese still, for the most part, retain the tradition of minimalism as a philosophy that allows one to enjoy the moment of happiness and take a break from the fast-paced reality. Japanese minimalism arose as a result of religious and historical development and still has a deeper meaning than in Western practice.

References

Haimes, P. (2020). On Japanese minimalism. Contemporary Aesthetics. Web.

Han, B.-C. (2022). The philosophy of Zen Buddhism. Polity Press.

Haron, H., Jamil, N. N., & Ramli, N. M. (2020). Western and Islamic values and ethics: Are they different? Journal of Governance and Integrity, 4(1), 1228. Web.

Kan, C., Karasawa, M., & Kitayama, S. (2009). Minimalist in style: Self, identity, and well-being in Japan. Self and Identity, 8(2-3), 300317. Web.

Ohira, S., & Masuda, A. (2022). Voluntary simplicity consumption in Japan: Alternative consumption and backward consumption among minimalists. Web.

Middle class has historically exhibited higher internal complexity and greater regional volatility and has been highly vulnerable to changes in business cycles. It is commonly believed that middle-class status is most reliably associated with business people, even though it can also refer to a variety of other groups, such as civil servants and other intellectuals (Cole & Symes, 2020, 567). According to the philosophy of nationalism, a country comprises people who share a similar identity, language, history, and customs (Cole & Symes, 2020, 578). Nationalists believe that people should work together to advance their nation, protect it, and enlarge its boundaries and culture.

These two pieces perfectly combine in a character that will be described in this essay. I am French merchant living with my family and aspire to the ideals of the French Revolution and its repercussions. Nationalism gained me a new sense of identity because of its growth, which also strengthened nation-state competition. Moreover, I am a fervent advocate of France and its dominance of intellectual thought in Europe. However, I had to encounter several issues specific to middle-class nationalism during the period. As demonstrated by my background, communalism is one of the main barriers to national unity. Many groups and political parties are battling to utilize the benefits of independence to further their own agendas while disregarding the needs of society as a whole (Cole & Symes, 2020, 599). Regionalism, which also stands in the way of national integration, is another challenge for me. A rivalry develops because of the countrys partition into several states, regions, and individual states. My standing as a merchant is also impacted, which harms both my business and my aspirations of the middle class. Lastly, I have to deal with issues of religious bias, which are the root of division and potential war. Being a staunch nationalist, I believe in a secular lifestyle.

Reference

Cole, J. and Symes, C. L., 2020. Western Civilizations. Vol. 2. New York: W. W. NORTON & COMPANY.

The problem of evil has been debated since the dawn of time. Komodo Dragons hunt their prey by biting them; the blood attracts other dragons, and they all wait for the venom from the bite to take effect, which can take days, weeks, or even months (Smithsonian Channel, 2016). Fans of the problem of evil argue that incidents like these happen because animals cannot understand that they are causing harm to others to feed themselves and survive. The unfortunate reality is that some species must suffer for others to survive, and this is due to the balance that governs nature. Both animals will suffer as a result of the actions of others. Philosophers believe that a perfect God created the world in this manner because, according to the problem of evil, happiness cannot exist in the absence of pain. As a result, humans can believe or not believe in whatever they want.

The occurrence of earthquakes is an example of natural evil. Earthquakes are caused by plate movement, for which humans bear no responsibility but suffer as a result. For example, consider Haiti, devastated by an earthquake every now and then. Every time they try to rebuild their country, another earthquake occurs, causing loss of life and property. Slavery is another example of the evil that has caused me to question God. Several arguments challenge the philosophy of the issue of evil, One of which claims that if God were truly good and if a negative contrast was really needed, in order for us to understand the goodness of the world, then would not he merely give us a lesser evil. Additionally, if God is all-knowing and all-powerful, he could end all of the sufferings that he is aware of or that are about to occur in the world. This objection is valid since it may be argued that a perfect God would not let suffering in his creation.

References

Smithsonian Channel. (2016). Buffalo Mud Pie | One Life. Www.youtube.com. Web.

Epicurus defines pleasure as nothing more than the elimination of pain. If a person can attain a mental state without pain, they have achieved a state of pleasure. Therefore, Epicurus holds that individuals experience the greatest pleasure after all suffering has been eliminated (Voorhoeve, 2020). This implies pure, genuine pleasure is experienced in the absence of pain. Besides, hedonists support this claim by indicating that the only thing an individual wants for their own sake is pleasure (Augustin, 2021). As a result, this essay will argue for Epicuruss claim that the greatest pleasure is perceived once all pain has been removed. Consequently, individuals maintain their drives to seek pleasure, and by seeking pleasure, they maintain their desire to escape pain. Therefore, the greatest pleasure exists in the complete removal of pain.

In a way, hedonism has two components: people seek pleasure for their own sake, or pleasure and the avoidance of suffering are the only things one desire for their reason. The foundation of ones desires is pleasure and pain prevention, even if the second component is more contentious (Augustin, 2021). Yet, to investigate this, it is necessary first to define pleasure and pain. Following the rules of thermodynamics, there is no such thing as cold, just the lack of heat; similarly, pain is only the absence of pleasure. Consequently, there must be a total lack of pain to enjoy the highest pleasure genuinely. Based on the above description, if one is in a condition of balance between pleasure and pain, they are in a neutral position and not in pain or enjoying pleasure (Voorhoeve, 2020). In addition, if the greatest pleasure can only be felt without suffering, then the greatest misery can only be felt in the absence of both. The greatest pain would thus be the whole lack of pleasure since the definition of pain is the absence of pleasure.

In addition, according to hedonistic principles, a happy life provides maximum pleasure. As Epicurus says, we sometimes forego many pleasures when they result in a larger amount of pain for us (Rider, 2020, p. 300). Hence, hedonism cannot apply in explaining drug usage or other forms of addiction and vices (Augustin, 2021). This is because many extreme bodily experiences might result in suffering; if they do, such pleasures should be avoided. Nonetheless, it is possible to seek out pain if it leads to pleasure or less pain. For instance, many have surgery to alleviate chronic pain. In the case of knee replacement surgery, for example, the pain after healing will be more acute than the pain that prompted the operation. Still, it will heal over time, while the pain previous to the surgery would not have cured without treatment. Consequently, to live the most pleasurable life possible, people must pursue pleasures and pains that would improve their lifelong pleasure (Wilson, 2018). Based on these considerations, it is fair to assert that an individual can obtain the greatest pleasure when all suffering has been eliminated.

Moreover, it is essential to notice that Epicurus does not simply speak to physical discomforts, such as toothache. Pain, in his view, is any unpleasant experience that prevents one from being at ease (Wilson, 2018). This might be a toothache, but it could simply be hunger, thirst, or fatigue. It may also refer to worry, such as the fear of losing ones employment. These are all causes of pain, with fear being the most significant of these factors. Everyone is scared of little things, such as dark hallways at night, and larger things, such as losing loved ones in an accident, developing an incurable illness, and dying (Austin, 2020). It suffices to say that those with such anxieties will not be happy, and they must be able to eliminate all fear and worry before experiencing pleasure (Austin, 2020). Consequently, it is accurate to argue that the limit of pleasure is eliminating all pain, including but not limited to physical pain.

Similarly, the level of pleasure fluctuates owing to the presence of pain. Based on the concept of pain as the lack of pleasure, various pleasures are not as intense as others because of pain. One need not necessarily be in pain to experience pain. The key is figuring out the greatest pleasure and how to tell the difference between above-average pleasure and the highest possible pleasure. For instance, if the pain is felt, despite the degree of pain, it is not the greatest pleasure (Voorhoeve, 2020). Nevertheless, if there is pain, which, by definition, is the exclusion of pleasure, there is still the chance of experiencing greater pleasure. Hence, if there is the prospect of experiencing further pleasure, it is not the highest pleasure (Voorhoeve, 2020). It is possible to experience pain and pleasure simultaneously because individuals spend their whole lives in a condition of balance between pleasure and pain. An injured ankle, for instance, may be a source of agony, but if one is eating their favorite dish, they may still be having a pleasant experience. In this case, if the ankle is well and there is no pain, one may feel the greatest pleasure.

In addition, the greatest pleasure is not determined by the level of various bodily pleasures but by eliminating suffering. Research argues that the lack of pain does not produce pleasure, but the consciousness of its absence does (Wilson, 2018). This is false since individuals need not be conscious of the lack of pain to recognize pleasure. According to the meanings of both pain and pleasure, they are mutually exclusive (Voorhoeve, 2020). In a kind of symbolic tug-of-war, pain and pleasure converge. In the case of the pleasure that follows the completion of exams, for example, this pleasure is felt because of the elimination of pain. Here, awareness is not required for someone to experience pleasure. As a counterexample, individuals seek counseling to comprehend why they experience specific pains. A persons subconscious might be the source of their misery, meaning they are ignorant of its cause (Wilson, 2018). People seek therapy to determine the basis of their discomfort and eliminate it. If someone may be oblivious yet experience pain, the reverse holds for pleasure. Hence, it is impossible to experience the greatest pleasure or pain; however, the degree of pain might be minor or nonexistent, and perfect ecstasy is outside the horizon of human experience for the greatest joy. Individuals will always experience pain to some extent (Wilson, 2018). According to hedonism, one should aspire to live the most enjoyable life possible, even if the ultimate pleasure is unattainable.

Others claim that pleasure is only felt when contrasted with pain. They argue that hunger-promoting AgRP neurons in the hypothalamus affect taste; tastes are stronger, sweeter, and saltier when hungry (Voorhoeve, 2020). Hunger is not a pleasant sensation; on the contrary, it is painful. Yet, bodily hunger increases the mental enjoyment of eating. By evaluating the relationship between hunger and the pleasure of eating, one might infer that hunger (pain) enhances flavor (pleasure). Hence, the reasoning that the absence of pain results in ultimate pleasure does not hold in this instance. If humans lived in a world devoid of pain, they would not value pleasure; gold is only valued owing to its scarcity. Humans value various levels of pleasure after feeling pain, which is why they value taste more when hungry. This is why they value blankets more when it is chilly. Similarly, loneliness increases their appreciation for companionship. If humans were born without the capacity to experience pain, pleasure would be natural; nevertheless, they would not be conscious of their pleasure (Voorhoeve, 2020). One needs to experience pain to have a satisfying life; otherwise, one cannot gauge the degree of their level of pleasure. Pleasure would be different without pain. Humans can determine the intensity of pleasure and pain since they continually experience both. A world without pain dulls individuals to the sensation of genuine, incontestable pleasure.

Nonetheless, a person cannot experience human life without pain and pleasure. Regarding the case of hunger making eating more pleasant, the pain was experienced before eating. Although the contrast between hunger and satiety heightens pleasure, there is no hunger after a meal. This is because the craving for food has been satisfied. It is more enjoyable since there is no longer any hunger or pain. Masochists might be a counterexample, but they are useless because each person defines pain differently; if one derives pleasure from something, it cannot be suffering. For instance, although some may consider scrapping the skin of the lips painful, others find it fulfilling and delightful since it is a reflex action (Voorhoeve, 2020). Consequently, the pleasures above are those that alleviate the pain being experienced. One feels pleasure after eating, after being wrapped in a blanket, and after the feeling of loneliness has passed. In these instances, there was the need for the absence of pain to experience the indicated pleasure. According to Rider (2020, p. 301), Epicurus asserted that natural and essential desires are those that alleviate pain. According to this view, the pleasures above result from natural and essential desires. The pain itself had no effect on the pleasure experienced. It was the eradication of pain that made pleasure possible via relief.

An earlier counterargument was that pleasure could not exist without suffering. However, in a more biological and literal sense, the National Institute of Health asserted that individuals with congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA) could not experience pain (Wilson, 2018). The nerves that cause pain are not adequately linked to the parts of the brain that receive pain signals. Despite being unable to sense physical pain, some individuals may experience physical pleasure. Unlike pain, which is transmitted by nerves, pleasure is produced through the bodys dopamine release (Voorhoeve, 2020). For instance, when individuals feel love for someone and caress their arms or embrace them, its the dopamine thats generated that makes the connection so pleasurable. However, this is not always the case for physical pleasure, as sensory neurons are responsible for the sensation of physical pleasures such as taste (Wilson, 2018). Yet, the notion that it is impossible to have pleasure without first experiencing pain is erroneous. This is because, according to Epicurus, pain does not lead to pleasure; rather, the elimination of all pain does.

In conclusion, whenever individuals generate desires, whether conscious of it or not, they are motivated by a desire to experience a pleasure. Based on the hedonistic view, people are compelled to pursue as much pleasure as possible to live the good life. However, people must learn the risks and benefits of each pursuit of pleasure since some of the greatest joys are produced by substances that also provide suffering that is more painful than the desired pleasure. Thus, one must seek out situations that provide more joy than suffering. Attempting to attain maximum pleasure is impossible if there is any pain present. Each experiences pain in a unique way. Others perceive physical pain to be unpleasant, yet others find it pleasurable. Because of this, one cannot experience the greatest pleasure while something that a person personally defines as pain is present. Others may counter that suffering is necessary for pleasure to exist. However, pleasure does not originate from the presence of pain. In the same way, pleasure occurs in the absence of pain; pain persists in the lack of pleasure. Thus, it is inevitable that humans will constantly endure pain. Pain is an integral part of the human experience. Hence, after defining pleasure and pain, I assert that the highest pleasure arises when all pain is eliminated.

References

Augustin, M. J. (2021). Health and Hedonism in Plato and Epicurus. In K. E. Arenson (Ed), Ancient Philosophy, 41(2), 578-583. Web.

Austin, E. (2020). Epicurus on Sense-Experience and the Fear of Death. In K.E. Arenson (Ed), the Routledge Handbook of Hellenistic Philosophy (pp. 171-183). Routledge.

Rider, B. A. (2020). Epicureans on Pleasure, Desire, and Happiness. In K. E. Arenson (Ed), the Routledge Handbook of Hellenistic Philosophy (pp. 295-306). Routledge.

Voorhoeve, A. (2018). VIIIEpicurus on Pleasure, a Complete Life, and Death. In G. Longworth (Ed), Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 118(3), 225-253. Oxford University Press. Web.

Wilson, C. (2018). Epicurus and the meaning of life. In S. Leach & J. Tartaglia (Eds), the Meaning of Life and the Great Philosophers (pp. 65-72). Routledge.