Category: Philosophy 1203

Introduction: Marx, Nietzsche, and Du Bois

Marx, Nietzsche, and Du Bois have contrasting views on modern ideology, specifically liberalism. Liberalism as a concept, both from an individual and societal level, has been criticized by all three political thinkers, yet for different reasons. Marx, who was the founder of the communist political ideology, supported the idea of a society in which resources, both social and economic, are shared. This opposes the idea of liberalism, in which the right to private property. However, Marx confronts the ideological component of liberalism as well as the political structure it illustrates. Marx highlights that a society can only be successful if nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity (Marx & Simon, 1994, p. 119). Thus, society itself shapes the individual, which, in turn, creates demands that one is to fulfill despite being interested in other activities. As a result, the liberal ideology based on individual freedom is overthrown by the needs of the community.

Nietzsche and Du Bios, on the other hand, did not believe liberalism at its core can benefit everyone. However, the two critical thinkers differ based on the perceived negative aspects of said ideology. Nietzsche believed in a similar paradigm as multiple Greek philosophers. Namely, that freedom is a luxury that not every individual deserves and is only reserved based on ones capacities. This is partly while the philosopher has argued against Kantian beliefs in operating based on the hearts desire on their own responsibility ((Nietzsche & Samuel, 2021, p. 102). Since Nietzsche does not believe freedom correlates with responsibility, it cannot be linked to morality.

This material may be protected by copyright. The political thinker highlighted that repulsive growth as it was, it would be missing, had not a tremendous quantity of freedom been expelled from the world. Thus, the lack of freedom is an opportunity for improvement since creativity arises from limitations, and overcoming barriers implies an extensive effort that would otherwise not be needed. Those who manage to prove their right to freedom through their exclusive capabilities do, in turn, deserve to enjoy the benefits of liberalism. Du Bois, on the other hand, criticized liberalism for the same reason as Nietzsche partly accepted it. The author does not agree with the idea that the ideology facilitates equality.

Furthermore, Du Bois highlights that African Americans, while being granted more freedom, cannot access the same opportunities as liberalism benefits white people. The authors mention the intrinsic persistence of heritage that shapes ones freedom by saying, American and black are two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings (Du Bois & Edwards, 2007, p. 13). Thus, freedom is different for the two demographics, which in turn cannot contribute to equality. When ones freedom is different from the same concept for someone else, the notion of liberty becomes redundant.

On the one hand, the thinkers are similar in acknowledging that certain individuals can benefit from a liberal ideology. In Nietzsches case, it can benefit society only if liberation is earned through an illustration of capacity and not a given right accessible to each individual. Du Bois also believes the liberal agenda benefits a specific demographic, namely, white Americans. However, the thinkers differ when it comes to the predicted outcomes. Nietzsche suggests a liberal ideology leads to degradation and hedonism, a world in which self-interest, pleasure, and desires rule men. Du Bois, on the other hand, associates liberalism with inequality. Since freedom allows each individual to strive for success individually, competition is created. Under the condition that competition rules society, bias creates circumstances in which different groups have contrasting inputs. As a result, marginalized demographics always lose while majorities win at their expense.

This may be interpreted as a critique of Nietzsches standpoint on enslavement. According to the political thinker, The revolt of the slaves in morals begins in the very principle of resentment becoming creative and giving birth to values (Nietzsche & Samuel, 2021, p. 35). Thus, ones lack of opportunities and freedom generates creativity, which is the opposite in Du Bois work since suffering creates inequality. From this standpoint, Du Bois appears to be more compelling. The philosopher highlights that intrinsic characteristic that hinders ones opportunities create circumstances in which freedom cannot be beneficial for everyone equally. If it were the case, the Civil Rights Movement would have been enough to erase all social and economic disparities.

Gandhis Transformational Power

Gandhi was a transformative political actor and thinker who formulated certain ideas in relation to how the political environment of a society is to look. The proposed ideology encompasses certain elements present in socialism yet differs in regard to several elements. First, it is important to mention that ethical consideration is at the core of the ideology presented by the author. The ethicist believed in equality, liberty, fraternity and mutual assistance (Ghandi & Parel, 1997, p. 16). Thus, competition is diminished, and, instead, the ideology is to be based on the shared and collective input. This, in turn, does not correlate with the previously covered topic of liberalism, as individual freedom and non-secular society are not implemented in Gandhis ideological doctrines. Instead, non-violence, common interest, and a communal way of living were promoted. Marx would have associated with certain aspects of the doctrine. Namely, the father of communism would support the implementation of communal interest over personal gain. However, the non-violent approach to current political systems would not have been associated with a plausible solution as Marx believed in a global revolution against elitists. This contrasts with Nietzsches views in regard to the capability-based elite who is able to exercise freedom with dignity.

Moreover, Marxs views oppose those of Ghanis in regards to a secular vs. non-secular society. The presence of religion is not a product of communism, but it is a vital component of Gandhis ideological beliefs. From this perspective, Marx also criticizes Hegel in regards to differences in definitions when it comes to the presence or lack thereof historical meaning of change (Marx & Simon, 1994, p. 188). Thus, in regards to the transformational power of the approach, Marx would have agreed with certain elements and their potential in relation to a systematic change. However, aspects such as non-violent approaches, the focus on ethics over benefit, and the presence of religious doctrines within political aims would have been disregarded by Marx and considered non-efficient and not transformative enough.

Du Bois, on the other hand, would have aligned with multiple aspects of the ideology presented by Gandhi. The thinker wrote, By every civilized and peaceful method, we must strive for the rights which the world accords to men (Du Bois & Edwards, 2007, 44). The aim is similar to Gandhis proposal of a non-violent approach to societal change. Both ideologies are based on pacifism. Hence, from this particular perspective, Du Bois would have assessed the transformational power of Gandhian politics as high.

Du Bois also aligns with Gandhi in regards to socialism as he was a member of the socialist party (Du Bois & Edwards, 2007, p. 32). Gandhian socialism, while differing from the traditional ideology, is rooted in the same belief system (Ghandi & Parel, 1997, p. 28). Thus, both believe the means of production are to be communally controlled. The view opposes capitalism and liberalism in the sense that society is to have power over production. From a religious perspective, the two differ. This highlights that Du Bois would not have ranked the transformations of Gandis teachings as high. According to the thinker, in relation to separation, the church has done much to stop this practice (Du Bois & Edwards, 2007, p. 98). However, religion is also portrayed as something that has given white Americans a foundation to discriminate and exploit. Gandhi, on the other hand, based multiple aspects of his ideology on religious dogmas. These include the peaceful approaches to protests, the ethical consideration of others as having the same importance as everyone else, and cooperation. While the same concepts are present in the works of both thinkers, the implications of spirituality are different. In one case, it is to be separated from political systems, while in the other case, it is vital.

Marx, Gandhi, and Du Bois have similar views when it comes to certain perspectives aligning with socialism. Thus, both Marx and Du Bois would have agreed that Gandhis transformational politics would have a revolutionary impact if practically implemented. However, in regards to the religious, peace-centered approaches to political systems, Marx does not align with the same premises. Du Bois, on the other hand, shares similar views, which implies that the critical thinker would have agreed with the notion that the ideology can provide transformational power. The only contrasting limitation is on the importance of religion when it comes to the governing system and political importance.

Conclusion

Based on the analysis of the three political thinkers, the most persuasive appears to be Du Bois. The philosopher managed to highlight the essence of inequality as illustrated not merely through a lack of written liberties but through inherited biased. Thus, freedom cannot be achieved when the conditions vary based on different demographics.

References

Du Bois, W. E. B., & Edwards, B. H. (2007). The souls of Black Folk. Oxford University Press.

Ghandi, M., & Parel, A. (1997). Gandhi: hind swaraj and other writings. Cambridge University Press.

Marx, K., & Simon, L. H. (1994). Selected writings. Hackett.

Nietzsche, F. W. (2021). The genealogy of morals. (H. B. Samuel, Trans.). Global Grey.

A utilitarian person is usually characterized as having a desire for practical benefits. The concept of utilitarian means imbued with narrow practicality, limited by immediate interests, needs or prescriptions of utility motives, benefits (Mensah & Agyemang, 2020). This means that such a person will see a valuable advantage in having the sheriff lie. The choice of the path of lying and condemning an innocent person will be that there will be no riots in the city that can lead to destruction and casualties. Naturally, every resident wants to protect himself from the dangers on the streets of his hometown, but still, everyone is afraid of serious crimes and is eager to punish the perpetrators. In addition, the person they want to convict is not liked in the city, and people will be glad that he was punished. Therefore, according to utilitarianism, lying will be the most profitable and practical option in this case.

For a utilitarian, in this case, a critical reflection would be that there is a person who is hated in the city and whom, if necessary, people would be happy to get rid of through prison punishment. In addition, people will be able to live in peace knowing that the criminal has been punished and is already serving time in prison. The Kantian are guided by the principles of ethics, which means that they would disagree with the utilitarian and insisted that punishment be applied only to the guilty person (Mensah & Agyemang, 2020). Even though there would be riots in the city, it would still be unfair and cruel, according to ethical considerations, to detain a person hated by residents and not guilty.

Reference

Mensah, R. & Agyemang, E. (2020). A comparative philosophical analysis of the Kantian principle of moral theory and the utilitarian theory: Applications and critiques. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(3), 127-131. DOI: 10.33140/JHSS.03.03.02

Jean-Paul Sartre is a renowned philosopher of the 20th century, belonging to the same group of philosophers as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche and contemporaneous to Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir. The latter ones all experienced the same significant event that tremendously influenced their life and philosophy: The Second World War. The despair and inability to conceive the violence of life in the conditions of meaningless struggle made the notion of absurdity prevalent among these Western thinkers. So, the existential philosophers, including Sartre, reflected upon the central topics: fear, hopelessness, anguish, crisis, absurdity, and the phenomenon of individuality. Sartre is distinguished from others by his answer to the question about the meaning of life and the way of being that a person might choose.

The core concept that determines Sartres philosophy is the absurdity of life. Namely, the thinker perceives life as a constant struggle that arises from a necessity to make choices. This process is not pleasant to people because it urges them to realize that they are the only ones responsible for their actions and lives (Bhandari, n.d.). Hence, the reality of life is that each person is entirely alone in their consciousness, which precedes their being. This understanding of being is related to the notions of existence and freedom, elaborated further in the paper. By now, it is essential to note that the philosopher distinguished three categories of being: being in itself, being for itself, and being for others (Bhandari, n.d.). The first term denotes the existence of an object, a passive fact of existence. Being for itself means the realization of being separate from things and unlike others. Finally, being for others is the awareness of the existence of other people and the recognition of outer observation (Sartre, 2021). Therefore, life is not homogenous and presents suffering related to the manifestation of free will.

The meaning of life in Sartres understanding is closely connected to the decision-making process. Precisely, he states that life is primarily accidental and has no point. It is meaningless unless one enters being-for-itself, which demands to somewhat restrain from the whole world and yet embrace others (Sartre, 2021). Hence, each individual decides their purpose in life and creates their identity by interacting with others. This identity has value only if a person realizes that it is not their true self but an image for society; moreover, one might seek freedom from this identity, which would awaken their consciousness. Therefore, there is no predetermined meaning in life but only the one that each person creates for themselves by rejecting the identities and things that do not comprise them.

Next, the concept of freedom should be discussed in greater detail since it is essential for Sartres philosophy. One of Sartres most renowned expressions is that man is condemned to be free (Sartre, 2007, p. 29). He explains that a human being is condemned, because he did not create himself, yet nonetheless free, because once cast into the world, he is responsible for everything he does (Sartre, 2007, p. 29). This entails that, although some factors predetermine the life of people, each person can decide further what to do with the situations that the world presents them. Moreover, responsibility as a part of freedom is predated by the realization that one is not everything that surrounds them. This negation is painful since it is comfortable to agree with what others expect one to be, but separation is what makes a person human. Therefore, to be free is to accept the nothingness of others in ones consciousness and remain to be a self.

In turn, freedom constitutes the existence of every human being. Namely, all emanations of being are always present in the existence of a person, whether they are aware of them or not. The being-in-itself is constant and does not evoke many emotions, while being-for-itself causes struggle. Being for itself looms over an individual every time they face a situation that makes them decide what their further actions are. Every time the individual becomes afraid of their loneliness and responsibility but makes a choice is the experience of existence.

A note on death should be made to contrast it with existence as it is presented in Sartres works. For example, the philosopher states the following on this subject: Ultimately, at the infinitesimal instant of my death, I will no longer be anything but my past. It alone will define me (Sartre, 2021). Since the past presents only being-in-itself, it does not denote existence. Similarly, death is not a part of life because it invokes no choices that an individual might make. Everyone is afraid of death and tries to avoid it; hence, everyone makes decisions and accepts the suffering of existence.

The other concept often appears in Sartres reflection on existence is bad faith. The philosopher seems non-religious in his works, yet this notion does not relate much to the idea of spirituality. Instead, bad faith is the desire of an individual to avoid the turns of free will by accepting the expectations and identities that others present to them. Bad faith is when being in itself is the primary strategy of ones consciousness while an individual is still capable and aware of making choices that correspond to themselves.

So, for an individual to become a self, a process of realization of these phenomena must occur. It is argued by Sartre that identities do not comprise ones genuine personality but only trap people in others beliefs about themselves (Sartre, 2021). The placement of stereotypes and conventions restricts an individual to their being-in-itself. The self is achieved through the negation of the things that are external to an individual and through interaction with others. Thus, to become a self, one suffers the free wills weight and accepts their consciousness that is separated from all others.

After discussing all the important concepts of Sartres existential philosophy, it could be stated what exactly means the absurdity that was often mentioned. Specifically, it rises from the notion of the angst caused by the freedom which is inevitable for each human being with consciousness. However, the suffering continues because an individual cannot accept death and tries to avoid it. Then, making decisions is the only available option, although some attempt to invoke bad faith to prevent it. In the end, the absurdity is the fact of the contradiction of the suffering and its avoidance that nevertheless leads back to anguish.

To conclude, Sartres existentialism is distinguished by the notions of free will, angst, and the dual nature of human existence with the presence of others. The philosopher believed that existence is possible only when a person negates with others about the nature of the self. So, the realization of nothingness, which is being apart from peoples beliefs, denotes free existence and constitutes an individual.

References

Bhandari, D. R. (n.d.). Existentialist perception of the human condition: With special reference to Sartre. Paideia. Web.

Sartre, J. (2007). Existentialism is a humanism (C. Macomber, A. Elkaïm-Sartre, & A. Cohen-Solal, Eds.). Yale University Press.

Sartre, J. (2021). Being and nothingness (S. Richmond, Ed.). Washington Square Press.

Introduction

The focus of the philosophical trend of existentialism is the question of existence. The absurdity, despair, freedom, alienation, and responsibility became entrenched in the system of theoretical science and the social and moral cultural model emerging in the twentieth century with existentialism (Hayim 14). The supporters of existentialism aimed to search for new methods of realization of human freedom. In addition, ways to eliminate fear and loneliness and appeal to the responsibility of every person living in society, mandating respect for the rights and dignity of the individual. Existentialism is humanism, Sartre argued, but it is not the kind of humanism that considers the human being as the highest value, but one where the individual is beyond oneself (Hayim 16). Hence, it is essential to interpret Sartres philosophy and analyze various aspects of his point of view.

The Explanation of Philosophy

Sartre considers that human freedom renders them open and constantly imperfect. It is impossible to experience this, and people attempt to close this freedom. God is the figure needed to justify that not everything depends on persons because there is divine predestination, mission, and destiny. God always appears when people want to escape from their freedom and responsibility. The meaning of the title of the article, Existentialism is Humanism, is that existentialism, especially atheistic existentialism, teaches humans for the first time that they need not rely on a higher power (Hayim 23). No power generates human beings and would expect anything from them. People should not hope for anything; they need to embrace life into their own hands and accept this tragic freedom with courage.

A person is a way of being in the world in which existence precedes essence. Sartre suggests that human existence precedes essence, while essence precedes existence in the rest of the world. He states that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world  and defines himself afterward (Sartre 28). That is, a person originally just exists, feels alive, and then in the process of life gradually acquires a certain essence. This indicates that people initially exist, meet, and present themselves in the world, and only then are they determined. For the existentialist, man is undefinable because initially, he is nothing.

A human being becomes a person only at a later stage and solely as the creature one makes of oneself. The person never finds his essence definitively; he is constantly changing it, making daily concessions, decisions, and choices. The significant discovery of existentialism is that man is a project; it is something that is constantly being made, and a person is never in a finished state (Hayim 25). In this way, the central idea is that human beings are continually making themselves.

My Example

It is crucial to emphasize that, for Sartre, existence precedes essence, which indicates that nature is not created on a pre-designed standard. At the same time, without denying the limiting conditions of existence, he responds to Spinoza, who argued that people are defined by what surrounds them. Consequently, for Sartre, a problematic situation that negatively affects a person is not definitively hopeless, but when it is considered as such, the situation becomes a real challenge (Hayim 26).

There was an example in my life when I found myself in a difficult situation but was capable, through my actions, of solving it. I received my first unsatisfactory grade in school, and it appeared to me to indicate my negative traits and inability to develop. When I realized this, my classmates got better grades because they worked harder at completing the paper. Then I realized that an excellent grade resulted from hard work and, not by nature, inherent human characteristics. This situation is fully consistent with Sartres philosophy that existence precedes essence (Sartre). It is because there is no definite predetermined essence, and the nature of the individual is determined by how the individual creates and constructs ones own life. Therefore, I started to devote more effort and received positive results in my studies. In other words, now I understand that I affect the evolution of my life.

The Aspects of the Philosophers Point of View

It is interesting to note that Sartre responds to criticism and focuses on the words abandonment, anguish, and despair. The philosopher does not use them in a general sense but assigns these words an unusual variation of color. For example, abandonment in Sartres philosophy means to leave God. Notably, the philosopher does not indicate that God existed with a person for a long time and then decided to abandon him. At the same time, he observes that God does not determine mans moral choices and does not influence significant decisions (Sartre). I maintain this position of Sartre because I consider that God enabled humanity to live and that people are capable of making moral choices for themselves. Hence, the philosopher emphasizes that there are no clear instructions that an individual should follow to obtain salvation. I completely agree that a person is endowed with the right to choose and is capable of influencing their own life.

Sartre believes that individual has the freedom to choose accordingly; they are responsible for their actions. This is emphasized by the philosophers words that we are left alone without excuse (Sartre 34). Sartre argues that the person does not choose their parents or place of birth but that human being is influenced and is responsible for their actions, feelings, and emotions. Thus, Sartre refers to the experience of this responsibility as anguish and argues that such a state is inevitable. I cannot approve that one will inevitably suffer from a sense of responsibility. Hence, I suggest that a person is capable of analyzing for themselves the consequences of their actions and of refraining from those that might harm them. At the same time, the philosopher indicates that a human being cannot predict the outcome and will inevitably face anguish. It is essential to note the word despair, Sartre understands it as an existentialist attitude to those aspects and conditions that one cannot change (Sartre). In this way, the philosopher uses conventional words to describe the speci
c sensations of the individual.

Conclusion

Hence, existentialists consider a person to be judged not based on potencies but on the ground of the actual actions that this individual performs. People tend to assume that birth defines a human, meaning that at the same time, a person is endowed with some constant essential values that cannot be changed and determine a peoples future. Sartre maintains that atheistic existentialism teaches that even if there is no God, there is at least one being whose existence precedes essence and that being is the human being. In other words, there is nothing beyond the person; thus, this confers the persons freedom of action and decision. Therefore, the individual can determine his life and be responsible for the consequences of his actions.

Works Cited

Hayim, Gila. Existentialism & Sociology: The Contribution of Jean-Paul Sartre. Routledge, 2017.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism Is a Humanism. Yale University Press, 2021.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas is one of the brightest systems of thought in medieval Europe and world philosophy in general. Thomas Aquinas himself did not consider his philosophy original and claimed that he was striving only for an exact reproduction of the main ideas of Aristotle (Brook, 2018). However, he clothed Aristotelian thought in a new, medieval form, whose originality raised it to the rank of independent teaching. The ideas and categories of Thomas Aquinas partly laid the foundation for the philosophical language of modern times (Elders, 2018). According to Thomas, philosophy in the proper sense, first philosophy, has been as such (ens in quantum ens) as its object (Brook, 2018). There are two types of being (entia): material objects that exist objectively, really (esse in re), and substances, ideal entities (essential, substantiae). Most of the latter, like the former, consist, as Aristotle taught, of form and matter. There is only a straightforward essence or pure form without the admixture of matter, which Thomas considered the Lord.

I like the ideas of Thomas Aquinas precisely because of his understanding of the fundamental concepts of mind and God. According to the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, only one form of form, that is, God, does not combine with any matter; it has neither origin nor corruption (Elders, 2018). The more imperfect the form, the more it seeks to increase the number of individuals (individual manifestations) that realize it; the more perfect the form, the fewer individuations it has (Brook, 2018). The form of forms, God, no longer forms a species that could be decomposed into separate individuals but as a whole being in which the differences of persons continuously merge into the unity of essence.

Since God alone is a pure form (actus purus), without matter and, consequently, without imperfection. For matter is, in essence, an unrealized possibility, something that does not yet exist, an absence, a lack of being, then one God, and there is the perfect and complete reason, the meaning of all things (Brook, 2018; Elders, 2018). In him is the absolute truth, for he is the truth. Truth, Thomas Aquinas develops further, is the agreement between a thought and its object (Brook, 2018). This agreement exists to a greater or lesser extent in man but never in perfect fullness. It never reaches absolute identity in man; never in his mind does a thought merge with the object of thought.

There is always a more or less significant gap between cognition and its object. In God, the ideas accurately reproduce things, and even the ideas of God are the things themselves. From the point of view of man, things first exist, and then he thinks about them. From Gods point of view, thought precedes things that exist only because God thinks them and that exist as he thinks them (Brook, 2018). So, Thomas concludes, in God, there is no difference between a thought and its object; in it, thought and being are identical. Furthermore, since this identity is the truth, God is the truth itself (Brook, 2018). From the fact that God is truth, it follows that God exists. For it is impossible to deny the existence of truth, and even those who deny it think that they are correct and therefore thereby assert that truth exists.

Like many peoples lives, my life crumbled at a particular moment. I felt as if the earth had left from under my feet. For all people, sooner or later, the so-called dark night of the soul begins. Furthermore, it is precisely in this that Thomas philosophy stands most firmly and unshakably. A Thomas is a person who stands calmly in the path of the tsunami of existence that will destroy him (Elders, 2018). He recognizes the futility of existence but continues to fight, aware of imminent defeat. It is love for existence and anti-nihilism through the pain of accepting reality. These principles help me, as well as all people who have accepted the ideas of the Stoics in their lives, and will always help.

References

Brook, A. (2018). Thomas Aquinas on the effects of original sin: A philosophical analysis. The Heythrop Journal, 59(4), 721732.

Elders, L. J. (2018). Thomas Aquinas and his predecessors: The philosophers and the church fathers in his works. The Catholic University of America Press.

In the John Lockes Of Identity and Diversity under review, the author discusses several definitions of identity and self and separates them into component parts and terms. His philosophical definitions of thought, perception, and interaction intersect with rejecting and denying certain definitions and concepts. It is necessary to analyze and search for counterexamples corresponding to the redefinition of these concepts to consider the reasons for Lockes conception of identity and his disagreement with certain ideas. In evaluating the definitions and terms proposed by the author, it becomes possible to better understand the meaning and complexity of identity for the individual.

One of the first Locke defines substance identity, arguing that something remains the same if the material or substance does not change. Such identity consists of preserving the same substance throughout the time of existence. This notion is further divided into two conditions, sufficient and necessary at the same time  continuity of consciousness and substance. However, due to reflection and reasoning, the author rejects this definition because of the possibility of the transfer of consciousness or the commonality of memories.

Another definition of identity is the concept of life and body identity. According to the author, this concept is the simplest and most common way people identify something. It is conditioned on the preservation of identity while maintaining the same life and the same body. The concept is divided into two necessary and sufficient conditions  continuity of physical form and continuity of physical substance. However, this definition does not take into account the physical changes that can occur over time and therefore is also rejected by the author. As a counterexample, the famous philosophical paradox of Theseus ship  if the physical body of an object, while preserving its essence, completely changes its composition and substance over time, it can barely be considered the same object. According to the authors version, both conditions are violated. Hence the identity of the ship is violated.

In addition, another definition must be distinguished: the identity of consciousness, that is, the presence of identity and sameness while maintaining the same consciousness unchanged. According to Locke, this definition is the most viable of the above because it can explain changes in body, life, or substance while maintaining the same identity. When the authors perspective on consciousness as a set of memories and experiences is realized, two sufficient and necessary conditions of identity can also be distinguished. These include the continuity of consciousness and the obligatory connection between the experience of one consciousness and the next. However, in considering the soul as an analogous concept of religious consciousness, this version is refuted since, in one being, there cannot be several souls or no souls at all, according to the authors version. The counterexample with the identity of inanimate objects does not stand up to criticism either, depriving the concept of universality.

In examining the counterexamples given by the author, it becomes evident that none of the definitions satisfies the author completely. Each listed concept does not correspond to reality completely and demonstrates exceptions or notable shortcomings. Even the same stable definition of consciousness can be shattered by examples of the existence of people with clinical memory loss. In this case, it is unlikely that a person can be considered to have retained an identity with a fully renewed consciousness. The same physical parameters do not correlate even with the bodys normal aging. In light of these and other counterexamples, the need for a more complete definition of identity becomes clear, with a complete redefinition of concepts and the individuals relationship to terminology.

Thus, the complexity and importance of understanding the identity of something become clear after reading and analyzing Lockes material. The authors reasoning is largely logical, and his counterexamples refute many standard ideas about identity factors. Nevertheless, his essay makes even more apparent the lack of awareness of the real causes and manifestations of identity and the demand for further research in this direction.

It is important to note that the first five correspondences between Elisabeth and Descartes delve into the subject of soul and body. The central question posed by the Princess is about how an immaterial substance, such as a soul, can move and affect a material body. The analysis of the arguments in these correspondences showcases the ineffectiveness of Descartess initial replies. While Elisabeth was asking a question about how the soul moves the body, Descartes was explaining what they are, which is why the Princess had to reiterate her concern repeatedly.

In the first correspondence, Elisabeth asks for clarification on Descartess definition of the soul and how it influences bodies. She argues that objects require physical contact to be moved, objects have physical qualities, and the soul is an immaterial thinking substance. As a result, an immaterial substance, such as the soul, cannot touch anything causing voluntary actions. Elisabeth seeks further clarification from Descartes on his definition of the soul.

In the second correspondence, Descartes replies by providing key concepts. He states that there are basic notions, such as numbers, the body has physical features, such as extension, and the soul has different features, such as thought. Descartes concludes that soul and body only have a union between passions and sensations. Thus, he addresses Elisabeths request to define the soul by outlining its main parameters. Although he describes the soul, he does not properly define what it is and what the immaterial means in general.

In the third correspondence, Elisabeth asks for further clarification about the concept of immaterial. She argues that the soul is immaterial and immaterial cannot move the material, which is why the soul should be material and have the extension. Therefore, she asks for further clarification on what constitutes immaterial. Elisabeth correctly requested a definition for the immaterial, which was not answered in the previous correspondence.

In the fourth correspondence, Descartes replies by how soul and body can be known. He states that the soul is only known through understanding, the body is best known through imagination with understanding, but their union is mostly known through senses. Thus, excessive reliance on senses makes these two be perceived as one. Descartess answer is ineffective because it does not answer how the soul affects the body.

In the fifth correspondence, Elisabeth returns to her main point on the question of how the soul moves the body. She argues that imagination, intellect, and senses do not explain how the body is moved by the soul, the soul likely has unknown characteristics, and thoughts can be another essential function of the soul. The lack of explanation on how and inconsistencies might indicate that soul does not exist. Elisabeth appropriately reiterates her doubt despite the definitions provided by Descartes.

In conclusion, Elisabeth repeatedly sought clarification on how the soul moves the body, as Descartes focused on explaining their nature, leading to her reiterating her concerns. The core issue raised by the Princess revolves around the ability of an immaterial substance, such as the soul, to influence and move a material body. Examining the arguments in these correspondences reveals the inadequacy of Descartes initial responses. In essence, he should have divided his response into two sections, where he provides the definitions, followed by the answer to her question.

This lecture is the primary source that focuses on existentialism, where the author argues how it is synonymous with humanism. According to the author of this article, everyone tries very hard to become what they wish to be. From the onset, Sartre has a conflict with his public image, which he sees as being at crossroads with his detractors, who view the issue of existentialism differently from his worldview (Sartre 1). For example, his critics dismiss existentialism as something that does not exist in the first place. However, he vehemently opposes that notion and argues that existentialism exists and is the principle that makes people take responsibility for their ethical and moral actions. According to the article, existentialism happens to be a framework through which human action forces people to have moral responsibility and ethical judgments.

In his opening remarks in the lecture, Sartre defends existentialism because of the criticism it had attracted from Christians and Communists. The article argues that existentialism is not an excellent philosophical concept because it is action-averse. In this case, Communists who criticize the existentialism concept claim that it acts like contemplative philosophy. According to the Christians perspective on the issue of existentialism, they criticize the concept because it does not provide an interconnection between individuals and their projects (Sartre 4). In addition, Sartre argues that Christians accusations are because they think existentialism has a disproportionate view of the negative aspects of life. According to the lecture, Sartre also argues that people only view existentialism as pessimistic, which means it does not give hope to the lives of humanity.

This article is a secondary source with a lot of relevance because it focuses on the need to highlight the issues of elderly people whose population is on the rise globally. According to this article, old age is a sensitive period that deserves a lot of attention. Therefore, it is a social necessity to demonstrate concern for the elderly and the issues they face. The article highlights that older people have limited social interactions which makes them vulnerable to social and psychological issues (Khezri et al. 63). Therefore, it is common to find most elderly people having mental challenges since they do not have people to socialize with. The author of this article argues that most elderly individuals have reduced relationships and also constant withdrawals which all affect their social and emotional well-being. According to this article, the elderly population is vulnerable to depression and psychiatric disorders which may lead to early death.

The journal is a secondary source that has a lot of relevance in highlighting the correlation between humanism and existential hope in suicide interventions related to COVID-19. According to this article, there is a need for the world to have numerous inquiries to have many lessons to learn from. In this case, the author argues that having such inquiries will provide an opportunity to act as an intervening opportunity for spiritual and religious support in the event of a pandemic (Egargo and Jan 2). The article highlights the relevance of religious bodies like the Catholic Church and spirituality in the provision of humanism and hopes to the affected people. According to this article, the long periods of lockdowns in various countries such as the Philippines adversely affected the people because of exposing people to psychological challenges that also resulted in self-destructive behaviors and self-harm. Therefore, the article provides the significance of religious bodies such as the Catholic Church in providing and conveying messages of hope during times of crisis.

This article is a secondary source that focuses on the relationship between higher education and existentialism. In this case, the journal is significant because of highlighting how enhancing the well-being of the faculty, staff, and students has become the primary perspective for many colleges in North America. According to this article, the well-being of everyone who works or resides in an institution of higher learning has relevance in the present society (Sherman 2). Therefore, promoting the well-being of people tends to focus on their wellness, which relates to stress management, environmental conditions, enhanced coping, and overall health. However, the author asserts that well-being efforts only focus on the symptoms without looking at the root causes of the un-wellness of people. The article also signifies the role of the well-being theory in a higher education setting. According to this article, the students subjectivity connects to higher education.

This article is a secondary source focusing on Ubuntu, which means togetherness as part of the existential-humanistic approach to social work issues. According to the article, the axiology and ontologies of the existential-humanistic approach are very relevant in contemporary society. The journal is significant because it highlights the relevance of Ubuntu within the context of existentialism (Chigangaidze 148). The journals author provides relevance to some features of the existential-humanistic methodology, which are explored to have a comparative analysis of the axiology and ontologies of the approach. Some features include spirituality, motivation, social justice, death, human dignity, self-determination, and social justice, among others. This journal contradicts other articles that do not see the relevance of Ubuntu in the existential-humanistic approach. Therefore, the Ubuntu philosophy happens to be at the core of the primary thesis of this article.

Works Cited

Chigangaidze, Robert K. An Exposition of Humanistic- Existential Social Work in Light of Ubuntu Philosophy: Towards Theorizing Ubuntu in Social Work Practice. Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, vol. 40, no. 2, 2020, pp. 146165..

Egargo, Faye Jessa, and Jan Gresil Kahambing. Existential Hope and Humanism in Covid-19 Suicide Interventions. Journal of Public Health, vol. 43, no. 2, 2020.

Khezri Moghadam, Noshiravan, et al. Efficiency of Cognitive-Existential Group Therapy on Life Expectancy and Depression of Elderly Residing in Nursing Home. Salmand, vol. 13, no. 1, 2018, pp. 6273.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. P. 1-5.

Sherman, Glen Lewis. Existentialism and Higher Education: A Renewed Intersection in Well-Being. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 2020, p. 002216782091723.

The fact that humans are aware of time and space demands that science investigates consciousness from a near-spiritual perspective on existence. Physicalism is a worldview rooted in the notion that everything is physical with no room for any other domain, such as epiphenomenalism or soul. This essay answers Thomas Nagels viewpoint on the mystery of physicalism, which may explain the subjective nature of experience. The adopted viewpoint does not reject the stand of physicalism but holds out hope for a new approach to investigating the perceptional aspects of being a living non-human. This paper aims to identify the influence of physicalism on human understanding of reality while introducing new notions such as the sense of time, the science of consciousness, and the idea of the present in defining what it means to be alive. The primary hypothesis is based on vibrational energy as the fundamental force. The influence of intelligent energy, which is responsible for memory, intellect, imagination, and reasoning, distinguishes humans from bats. Subjectivity and its related experiences can be explained through physicalism solely, which is evidenced by the measurability of the human brain, subatomic particles, and the perception of time.

Perception of Time

Firstly, physicalism can explain subjective experience since the perception of time is both measurable and differentially experienced. The sense of time differs substantially between humans and bats due to the time perception variance. Psychologists and neuroscientists believe that humans have many complimentary systems that control the experience of time, even though the perception of time is not related to a single sensory system (Segun 31). The study uses a widely dispersed method comprising the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and basal ganglia to manage memory performance. The researchers acknowledge that at the base of the forebrain, cells in the dorsal striatum detect the frequency of these cells activity. The trends suggest that the representation of time might be created by the rhythmic frequency of cells in the higher cortex.

There are two modalities of time experienced internally or externally, depending on the physiology of an experiencer. Physicalism concurs with the observations but distinguishes between explicit and implicit time. Physicalism estimates that the endurance of a stimulus on such a basis would need accurate timing. However, some suggest that specialized neurons process extremely brief durations in the brains earliest sensory regions. In humans, implicit scheduling estimates the number of clock cycles between one and an upcoming event that is anticipated to transpire in the near future. These two-time assessments do not use the same neuroanatomical regions specific to evolutionary biology. The cerebellum in humans is required for seeing the past, present, and future in such sentient species. For sentient beings, implicit timing accomplishes motor tasks within both the conscious and subconscious realms.

Physicalism within the Context of Physics

Secondly, modern physics is continuously and constantly expanding the cumulative knowledge of the nature of the universe with a sole physical perspective. From the level of astrophysics to quantum physics, no reasonable or justifiable observations were made to indicate the presence of something corresponding to anything other than within the realm of physicalism. In philosophy, the hypothesis of vibration has been developed as energy that resides inside the subatomic levels of matter. Even things that seem to be stationary vibrate, oscillate, and resonate at different frequencies. From this scientific standpoint, resonance emerges as a vibrational shift defined by oscillation between two states. The idea emphasizes that all matter is ultimately vibrations of many underlying fields, with the slowest rates of flux being categorized as physical things. From such a perspective, everything in nature vibrates at every scale, including awareness as the foundation of the human experience of reality and energy. Thus, even these philosophical ideas fell within the domain of physicalism.

The Human Brain and Subjective Experience

Thirdly, practically all activities of the human brain can be explained through physicalism alone in its derived scientific fields, such as chemistry and biology. The human brain is a neuronal network that employs vibration and energy flow to generate human awareness. Neuroscientists have shown that large-scale neuron firing happens at measured frequencies in human brains, and mammalian consciousness is believed to be often related to several types of neuronal sync (Hosseini and Abbas 611). Pascal Fries, a German neurophysiologist, has studied how multiple electrical patterns synchronize in the brain to form several kinds of human consciousness (Segun 31). According to Fries, focusing on gamma, beta, and theta waves may demonstrate primates required relationship between physicalism and awareness (Segun 33). In the brain, clusters of neurons make electrical oscillations utilizing action potentials to communicate with one another.

The human brain research based solely on physicalism made it identifiable that subjective experience is strongly interconnected with the brains functional features. The notions of electrical signal speed between neurons imply that biological creatures may rapidly communicate information through different electrical and electrochemical biophysical channels. Studies in the physiology of living things indicate that faster information flows result in a heightened awareness of the present on a grander scale than in animals of comparable sizes, such as bats (Wohlgemuth et al. 251). The patterns demonstrate that biological structures of the brains neural networks have a significantly more vital intrinsic link that characterizes sentience. From such a basis, humans have the most complex neural networks linked to sentience as a fundamental aspect of being.

Moreover, even if a new discovery is revealed indicating some form of panpsychism or sentience in everything, the given conceptual framework will still be compatible with physicalism. In other words, subjective experience is most likely tied to something material and physical, which leaves no room for other explanations, such as dualisms epiphenomenal ideas of the soul. Based on the observable behavior of the energies surrounding us, ranging from electrons to atoms to molecules, to bacteria to mice, bats, and rats, all forms of existence are likely at least somewhat aware. The intricacy of brain connections is directly proportional to both the ability to detect time and the primary distinction. Despite the limitations of physicalism in describing time-space perception, the science of consciousness is based on the principles of vibration. As matter grows more intertwined and complex, so does the mind, and vice versa.

Conclusion

In conclusion, physicalism alone is compatible with a productive study of the subjective character and does not require any other domain of explanation due to evidence from the perception of time, the human brain, and subatomic particles. However, the study requires a radically new approach that identifies the influence of physicalism on human understanding of reality while introducing new notions such as the sense of time, the science of consciousness, and the idea of the now. Consciousness improves the possibility that an organism will focus its attention and, eventually, its motions on whatever is most crucial for its survival and procreation. The basic argument of this paper is that the links that enable large-scale awareness are shared by humans and other primates but are mainly undeveloped in many smaller living forms, such as bats, which can only see the present moment as the ultimate reality. The science of consciousness presents a superior perceptive of reality as the signals in a human brain achieve synchronization far greater than the number of neurons and neural connections in bats, thereby giving humans a higher perception of time and sentience.

Works Cited

Hosseini, Samad, and Abbas Yazdani. Phenomenal Consciousness; a Challenge to Physicalism. Journal of Philosophical Investigations, vol 15, no. 37, 2021, pp 607-626. doi: 10.22034/jpiut.2022.49453.3081

Segun, Samuel T. Neurophilosophy and the Problem of Consciousness: An Equiphenomenal Perspective. New Conversations on the Problems of Identity, Consciousness, and Mind. Springer, Cham, vol, 1, no. 1, 2019, pp. 33-65. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-14262-9_3

Wohlgemuth, Melville J., Ninad B. Kothari, and Cynthia F. Moss. Functional Organization and Dynamic Activity in the Superior Colliculus of the Echolocating Bat, Eptesicus Fuscus. Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 38 no. 1, 2018, pp. 245-256.

Since the beginning of time, paradoxes have fascinated both scientists and laypeople, igniting debate. Some have not yet been resolved or cannot be resolved in general, while others appear paradoxical because the solutions defy logic. In science, the emergence of any new field of understanding often starts with discovering previously overlooked paradoxes. Similarly, the moving observers paradox inspired Einstein to develop the theory of relativity, while the ultraviolet catastrophe paradox inspired Max Planck to develop quantum physics. One such paradox is the Thompson Lamp, coined by the 20th-century British philosopher James F. Thompson.

Thompsons lamp paradox refers to the class of supertasks, infinite sequences that arise in a particular order of actions over a finite period. Imagine a table lamp with power off button. Consider turning on the lamp for a minute, turning it off for 30 seconds, turning it back on for 15 seconds, and so on, reducing the length of time each time. The question is, will the lamp be on or off after 2 minutes? It is difficult to provide a solution to this dilemma because if we use the experiments precise logic, we will have to keep turning the bulb on and off indefinitely, never arriving at the designated time.

This contradiction has captured my attention since it challenges our current understanding of space and time. The contemporary understanding of space and time was the foundation for many theories and ideas. But what if our current understanding of time and space is flawed? So all of the contemporary science-based claims are false?