Category: Phillis Wheatley

In Crevecoeur’s Letters from an American Farmer and the assigned poems of Phillis Wheatley, both authors use their unique backgrounds to discuss the complex and often opposing views of society in British America. Told from the perspective of a fictional narrator in correspondence with a gentleman, Crevecoeur’s Letters describe British society as revolutionary yet overshadows it by the joy and liberation experienced in the transition from Europe to America. On the other hand, the assigned poems by Phillis Wheatley includes a pointed criticism of the hypocrisy of the institution of slavery created by the Christians around her which was masked by an outer unconventional appeal to British society and “reaching salvation.” The complexities of both works of literature share the view that although life in British America demands rigorous work, there is a significant amount of liberation and opportunity that goes along with the journey to America, strengthened by the doubles meanings in Wheatley’s poems.

In Crevecoeur’s Letters, he assigns each letter to concern a different aspect of life in the British colonies of America and highlights differences through comparisons with Europe. In Letter 1, Farmer John’s wife beings by seemingly praising the English for the “worldly learning” (Letter 1), but immediately following up with the contrast that the American lifestyle of manual labor is superior than studying the abstract. Letter 1 establishes the common theme of Crevecoeur by mentioning the positive qualities of the British and Americans and then being more critical of their lifestyles and actions. He then uses a comparison that an American farmer would be the equivalent of a “peasant” or “boor” (Letter 2) in Europe, openly acknowledging Europe to be prosperous and economically advantaged. However, he immediately states his empathy of the Europeans that serfdom is absent is his life as an American farmer. In the third letter, Crevevouer compares British America as a “melting pot” (Letter 3) to emphasize the amount of diversity saturated in America and how it is vital to the growth of the nation. He sees that the emotions brought from opportunities opened up my transitioning to America is incomparable to those back home in England. Overall, he considers British America as distinctive and admirable largely due to personal freedom and increased opportunities, while also acknowledging that the major influence from Great Britain was a strong attributing factor. He recognizes that although an Englishman may see similar qualities between his old country and the new one, the personal exploration and rigor in the new land is unprecedented.

In Phillis Wheatley’s poem, she uses her experiece as an African kidnapped into slavery to point out the hypocrisy of the institution of slavery. In the poem titled ‘On Being Brought From Africa to America’, Wheatley utilizes a strategic approach through irony, multiple double meanings, and a rhyme scheme to convey her point that although she views slavery as a positive for being introduced to slavery and reaching salvation, she achieved the same amount of freedom back home in Africa. In essence, she is stating that she had nothing to be liberated of back in Africa, and the Christians’ effort to spread Christianity is fruitless because she was enslaved when she got to America. She uses loaded diction with words such as “Pagan Land”(p.13) and “benighted”(p.13), referring to Africa as Pagan, masking her actual thought that America was more of a pagan land with the introduction of slavery. Wheatley ends the final two lines with a reminder that all people can be saved regardless of skin color, adding to the hypocrisy of the Christians for ironically attempting to save people by enslaving them. In relation to society in British America, Wheatley sees it as distinctive yet hypocritical because more freedom and opportunities are being taken away than given through the major contradictions of Christian views on salvation, slavery, and death.

The complexities of Phillis Wheatley’s poems, especially ‘On Bring Brought from Africa to America, is regarding the idea that there are essentially two meanings of the poem since it was written to strategically hide her true perspective on slavery, salvation, and death and as a political and moral statement to stir up controversy. The surface level meaning of the poem agrees with Crevecoeur’s letters since both emphasizes the opportunities for personal liberation that goes along with the transition to America. However, the true meanings of Wheatley’s poems concludes that she doesn’t see the British American society as admirable but rather blatantly hypocritical because of the Christians and the institution of slavery. She sees the Christian perspective as contradictory in the root of freedom, since she was essentially enslaved in the process. In contrast, although Crevecoeur’s letters acknowledged British America to be rigorous and demanding word, he sees it in a positive light due to the amount of liberation gain after leaving the oppressive land of Europe.

Freedom in British America

Crevecoeur through the persona of James writes letters to an Englishman and describes what life is like in America. Phillis Wheatley, a slave who came to the colonies as a child, received an education from her Christian owners and began to write poems on various aspects of life in America. Crevecoeur’s ​Letters from an American Farmer and Phillis Wheatley’s poems both demonstrate that society in British America is admirable compared to that of the motherland in Europe. However, their perspective of freedom in America differs in that Crevecoeur defines freedom as economic opportunity while Wheatley places more emphasis on religion, specifically Christianity.

Crevecoeur affirms that land ownership is responsible for the higher quality of life in America. He begins by explaining that ‘in Europe, they were as so many useless plants … but now by the power of transplantation, like all other plants they have taken root and flourished,’ (Crevecoeur III). Through this plant metaphor, Crevecoeur illustrates the difference in environment between America and Europe and its effects on those who live there. He claims that the surroundings in America allow the colonists to prosper just as a plant would when taken care of properly. Crevecoeur credits that “the laws, the indulgent laws, protect them as they arrive,” (Crevecoeur III) are the reasons that the colonists can lead a better life in the colonies.

Specifically, he describes that “his labour is founded on the basis of nature, self-interest,” (Crevecoeur III). This demonstrates that the colonists are independent and no longer have to rely on another individual to survive. Crevecoeur again reiterates that “we are nothing but what we derive from the air we breathe,” (Crevecoeur III) in order to emphasize that the environment an individual lives in has a direct effect on their way of life. Through new opportunities to own land in America that were not available to them in Europe, colonists are able to work independently to sustain themselves free from the rule of another individual.

On the other hand, Wheatley believes that Christianity is the reason that the quality of life is higher in America. She refers to her homeland of Africa as ‘the land of errors, and Egyptian gloom,’ (Wheatley 11). Through her word choice, Africa is given a negative connotation.

Wheatley explains that her journey ‘brought [her] in safety from those dark abodes,’ (Wheatley 11). This line demonstrates that she is thankful she was brought to America as she was able to escape the darkness of her homeland. She details that Christianity “taught [her] benighted soul to understand,” (Wheatley 13). Through this, Wheatley describes that she went from a state of ignorance to being knowledgeable after discovering religion. Wheatley goes on to say that “some view our sable race with scornful eye,” (Wheatley 13). This refers to the discrimination against

Africans in the colonies. However, she asserts that “Christians, Negros, black as Cain, maybe refin’d, and join th’ angelic train,” (Wheatley 13). Wheatley emphasizes that no matter your race, God sees all Christians as equals therefore all who convert to this religion are able to lead a better life. Through conversion to Christianity, all the inhabitants in the colonies have the opportunity to reach salvation and be freed.

Although Crevecoeur and Wheatley have contrasting point of views on what makes society in British America distinct, they both share the belief that freedom is what makes an American colonist different from a Brtish citizen. Whether that freedom be from gaining the ability to own property or from finding enlightenment through religion, American colonists have the opportunity to live a life free from restrictions from the British government. The colonists no longer have to deal with land scarcity or live in ignorance. America gives the colonists the tools to build a life better than what they were given in Europe.

Works Cited

1. Crèvecoeur, J. Hector St. John de. “Letters from an American Farmer.” ​Gutenberg​, 3 Sept. 2019, http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4666/pg4666-images.html.
2. Wheatley, Phillis, and Vincent Carretta. ​Complete Writings​. Penguin Books, 2001.

For many people, the American colonies was a chance to start anew, as they sought to escape political oppression, to be able to practice their religion, or for new opportunities that had been denied to them back home. This was the case for J. Hector St. John Crèvecoeur and Phillis Wheatley, as they both were able to explore their own brands of freedom in the new land they called home. Crèvecoeur’s ‘Letters from an American Farmer’ and Phillis Wheatley’s poems both conveyed their admiring attitudes towards the British colonies. However, they maintain distinctive views that reflects who they are, as they explain their own perspective of British American society.

Through Crèvecœur’s character of James, a simple American farmer, he is able to portray his version of the America dream: freedom and success through hard work and land ownership. For Crèvecoeur, being able to own land is the embodiment of freedom. In Letter III, James notes, “here are no aristocratic families, no courts, no kings, no bishops, …no great manufacturers employing thousands…The rich and the poor are not so far removed from each other as they are in Europe”. In essence, Crèvecoeur defines freedom as owning land, as he believes that owning land enables men to eventually achieve success through hard work, without being impeded from a monarch, the church, or a landlord. As such, Crèvecoeur upholds a strong belief that anyone can become successful in America. For Wheatley, one might think that she would be bitter, having been forced into slavery in a foreign country. Indeed, she does appear to mourn her new status in society. In her poem ‘On Being Brought from Africa to America,’ she observes the white people who “view our sable race with scornful eye, /‘Their colour is a diabolic die’”. However, that is not her main focus; instead she is thankful for leaving her home country, which she terms as a “pagan land”, as she was given the opportunity to convert to Christianity. Despite being enslaved, she was freed from life without a God and sin. This viewpoint ultimately lines up with Crèvecoeur’s thoughts about British American society, in which they agree that it is a new kind of society where they are able to transform themselves into something better. Although these differing beliefs aren’t mutually exclusive, they demonstrate how the British American colonies had a variety of philosophical differences, stemming from the different cultural backgrounds of the inhabitants.

In his letters, Crèvecoeur addresses the identity of the American colonists. In Letter III, James ponders, “Can a wretch who wanders about, who works and saves, whose life is a continual scene of sore affliction or pinching penury… call England or any other kingdom his country?”. For Crèvecoeur, the absence of a societal system that is based on birth is the essential right of every American. What he is describing is an idealized depiction of the early years of colonial life, which is something to be proud of. However, despite this sunny optimism, James’s definition of the American identity is somewhat hypocritical, as these rights were only granted to an exclusive few. Although Crèvecoeur explains that the foundation of freedom is through land ownership and hard work, he neglects the additional requirement that one needs to be a white man. In contrast, Wheatley maintains a firm belief that anything is possible, with the help of God. Despite being a black female slave living in the late 1700s, she was able to learn how to read and write, becoming well-versed in Christianity and successfully publishing her first book of poems. Although she mostly avoids the subject of slavery, preferring to write about spiritual freedom, she does maintains the belief that anyone, even blacks, “May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train”. She demonstrates that she is not ashamed by any part of herself, whether it be her position as a slave or as a woman.

‘To the University of Cambridge, in New-England’ is an early poem by Phyllis Whitley, the first black woman to publish poetry in English. In this poem, Whitley pleads with a group of new Harvard students to be good Christians and never forget the magnitude of Jesus’ sacrifice for humanity. The poem is a kind of imaginary sermon or opening speech in which Wheatley demonstrates his authority and precocious understanding of poetry. In this Phillis Wheatley essay, I will delve into the intricate layers of her poem, uncovering the nuances that unveil her remarkable authority and remarkably astute comprehension of poetry.

The humble tone which the speaker adopts while presenting herself in the position of inferiority to the addressees of the poem might also be purposeful. Regardless of the apparent differences between the poet and her audience, her choice of religious ideology of modesty allows her to effectively transmit the central and the undercover messages of the poem. The fact that everyone is equal in the eyes of God grants her with advocacy to speak to people who otherwise would appear to be out of her reach due to her status of a female Afro-American slave.

In the second stanza of the verse, the poet introduces vivid Christian imagery. While reminding the readers of God’s sacrifice, she uses explicit descriptions, “How Jesus’ blood for your redemption flows. /See him with hands out-stretcht upon the cross” (12-13). They serve as tools for transmitting the theme of merciful liberation through sacrifice which is available to anybody who rejects the sin.

The last stanza of the poem contains another juxtaposition of the poet’s seemingly inferior status of an “Etioph,” with a glorification of student’s position of “blooming plants of human race divine” (27). Such formulation may serve as proof that anyone, even someone claimed to be inferior, can be converted and lead a life freed from sin. In this part of the poem, the lyrical subject encourages her audience to improve themselves upon the uncommon privileges granted to them by God and to reflect upon their morality. She warns the readers that “transient sweetness turns to endless pain” (29). In other words, about the temporality of benefits derived from sin.

Considering such reading of the poem ‘To the University of Cambridge, in New-England’, it should not be regarded as a peaceful expression of submission to the Western social arrangement. Although the composition might not be a pronounced criticism of it either. It serves as a starting point for a necessary discussion on issues such as the justness of forced labor or racism. In challenging times Phillis Wheatley happens to live, she adopts the only position which enables her to be heard by her audience which is her equal status according to Christian faith. Wheatley cannot escape the prejudices of the discourse of the 18th century, but she can use the language of the Bible to establish a possible way for other women, especially of color, to view literature as an opportunity to express themselves creatively and intellectually.