Category: Pharmacy

Introduction

Within the rapid growth and development of the healthcare industry, pharmacogenetics (PGx) addresses critical difficulties concerning data integration into clinical practice. It is necessary to design simple and convenient to use bioinformatics means to assist the clinicians in the fast access and usage of data in clinical decision-making. Weitzel, Cavallari & Lesko (2017) believe that the health care system should concentrate on developing and disseminating needed resources to provide doctors with clinical implementation of pharmacogenetics (p. 1551). The advances in extensive pharmacogenomics implementation strategies contribute to the production of new drugs based on a better understanding of genetic control of cellular functions.

Brief Summary of the Phenomenon

Pharmacogenomics is a broader concept that involves integrating information about the patients genotype into pharmacotherapy decisions and aims to provide the most efficient and safe therapy. Considerable patient variability in terms of drug response is, to a great extent, connected with the inherent differences among individuals. To be more specific, these differences are related to patients ability to process and respond to medications (Francis Lam, 2019, p. 2). The genomic variants are highly significant in regular clinical practice for adjusting medical therapy. As described by Baskys (2018), advances in pharmacogenomics significantly enhanced the general understanding of the correlation between genetic variations and drug efficiency, or their side effects. Such advances are mainly caused by the increase of drug labels that include pharmacogenomics guidance, pre-prescription testing, and the development of prescribing guidelines.

Interpretation of the research knowledge into the clinical experience usually involves multiple challenges, highlighting the need for changes to the process and organizational culture. Abou et al. (2019) define the following universal challenges concerning pharmacogenetics testing, such as the insufficient knowledge, the lack of evidence for clinical utility, and the gap between PGx experts and physicians (p. 2085). With that said, the PGx segment requires a more comprehensive understanding of how clinicians respond to genomic data in routine care provision. Thus, a qualitative approach will be applied for further research through semi-structured interviews with healthcare practitioners. The main research question is: How do clinicians perceive the use of pharmacogenomics in practice, and what kind of unforeseen barriers emerge within medication-gene interactions in routine healthcare practice?

Description of the Sample and Recruitment

The research will be based on panel-based genotyping, pharmacy monitoring, as well as medical decision support by electronic health records to promote genome-guided prescribing of target pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, the sampling plan for interviews will be designed considering two perspectives, such as patterns of use and practice domain. According to Kim et al. (2017), an examination of the PGx test application criteria, result from analysis, and reporting methods based on current literature enhances the clinical utility of pharmacogenetic tests (p. 181). The sample will engage ten clinicians from different kinds of practice and different usage categories, including primary care and cardiology, due to the evidence for the widely used drugs. The physicians perceptions and knowledge about PGx testing will be evaluated through semi-structured interviews based on prior experience assessing health information technology and programs. The additional interviews might be conducted in case of the need for significant supplementary knowledge or even with nurse practitioners who actively prescribe medications and engage with clinical decision support.

A Structured Interview Guide

It is intended to conduct semi-structured interviews with ten physicians related to various clinical practices and nurse practitioners. Hence, it is crucial to design an interview guide based on the key questions about implementing pharmacogenetics in the clinical practice (Unertl, Jaffa, Field, Price & Peterson, 2015). The in-depth research on pharmacogenetics testing might improve clinical outcomes (Johnson et al., 2017). The interview guide consists of the following sections, such as role and computer usage, significance and use of pharmacogenetics, experience with PREDICT, language and word choice, and general questions.

Role and computer use

This part of the interview aims at identifying the interview subjects role in the provision of healthcare and interaction with health information technology.

1. How can you describe your current role in healthcare? What is the most prevalent type of patient?
2. What are the tools that you apply for ordering tests and procedures? Do you use computers in healthcare frequently?
3. Are you familiar with any other health information technology systems?

Significance and Use of pharmacogenetics

The goal is to understand how clinicians conceptualize pharmacogenomics and its role in the healthcare system.

1. How do you define the concept of pharmacogenetics and your personal experience with PGx?
2. How did this perception change over the time of your clinical practice?
3. Did you receive any informal or formal training in PGx?
4. How can you describe the role of pharmacogenomics testing in your current healthcare practice? What are your suggestions concerning the PGxs role in the future?

Experience with PREDICT

Pharmacogenomic Resource for Enhanced Decisions in Care & Treatment enables patients and clinicians with the genetic data needed to predict and prevent adverse medication reactions. The questions are focused on gathering current usage of PREDICT, an example of current experience with the use of PREDICT, and subjects anticipated future use.

1. How frequently do you use the results of PREDICT tests?
2. Can you outline some of the reasons why you order PREDICT testing during clinical meetings?
3. Are there any conditions that can make you doubt whether to order a PREDICT test?

The choice of language and words

This part is targeted at investigating how the phrasing of PREDICT prompts influences their understanding.

1. How do you consider the PREDICT guideline recommendation language, which is currently demonstrated?
2. How do you rank the words of pharmacogenomics guideline recommendations from highest to lowest degree of obligation?

General questions

The goal implies concluding the interview, acquiring any additional comments that clinicians would like to share.

1. What are your recommendations concerning the best integration practice of pharmacogenomics data into the clinical environment?
2. Do you want to provide any other comments about your interaction with PREDICT?

Interview Setting and Method

The study is designed for a medical center to be performed through semi-structured interviews to evaluate clinician attitudes and knowledge based on prior experience in terms of health information technology and program evaluations. It is a preferred method due to the limited time that a specific physician can devote to interact with pharmacogenomics testing or clinical decision support. Bank, Swen & Guchelaar (2018) state that the current lack of policy concerning PGx testing coverage is a critical reason why the implementation of pharmacogenomics among healthcare professionals is low (p. 222). Different categories of the research questions aimed at receiving particular feedback regarding pharmacogenomics adoption in practice. Before the interview, clinicians can choose between the two options of audio or video record and review a written informed agreement document.

Conclusion

The recent improvements in the understanding of the effect of genetic differences on interpersonal variability in drug response significantly contributed to the development of pharmacogenetics. Pharmacogenetics testing is used to determine genetic mutations that anticipate patient responses to pharmacological treatment. A semi-structured interviewing was selected as a preferred qualitative method commonly applied to healthcare research. Therefore, the questions were designed per the research questions inspiring the study and existing knowledge. To conclude, improvements in PGx testing might surpass the preparedness and responsiveness of physicians and other medical staff to use the results efficiently to adapt therapy.

References

Abou Diwan, E., Zeitoun, R., Abou Haidar, L., Cascorbi, I., & Zgheib, N. K. (2019). Implementation and obstacles of pharmacogenetics in clinical practice: An international survey. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 85(9), 20762088.

Bank, P. C. D., Swen, J. J., & Guchelaar H. J. (2018). Implementation of pharmacogenomics in everyday clinical settings. In K. Brosen & P. Damkier (Eds.), Pharmacogenetics (p. 219240). Academic Press.

Baskys, A. (2018). Application of pharmacogenetics in clinical practice: problems and solutions. Journal of Neural Transmission, 126(1), 109113.

Francis Lam, Y. W. (2018). Principles in pharmacogenomics: Pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. In Y. W. Francis Lam & S. R. Scott (Eds.), Pharmacogenomics: Challenges and opportunities in therapeutic implementation (pp. 238). Academic Press.

Johnson, J., Caudle, K., Gong, L., Whirl-Carrillo, M., Stein, C., Scott, S., & Wadelius, M. (2017). Clinical pharmacogenetics implementation consortium (CPIC) guideline for pharmacogenetics-guided warfarin dosing: 2017 update. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 102(3), 397404.

Kim, S., Yun, Y.-M., Chae, H.-J., Cho, H.-J., Ji, M., Kim, I.-S., & Chun, S. (2017). Clinical pharmacogenetic testing and application: Laboratory medicine clinical practice guidelines. Annals of Laboratory Medicine, 37(2), 180193.

Unertl, K. M., Jaffa, H., Field, J. R., Price, L., & Peterson, J. F. (2015). Clinician perspectives on using pharmacogenomics in clinical practice. Personalized Medicine, 12(4), 339347.

Weitzel, K. W., Cavallari, L. H., & Lesko, L. J. (2017). Preemptive panel-based pharmacogenetic testing: The time is now. Pharmaceutical Research, 34(8), 15511555.

Pharmacy is one of the unique and creative professions which combine modern knowledge and skills and ancient traditions. I am excited about the profession because it joins unique principles of folk medicine and modern innovative approaches to treatment and curing. Popular medicine was based primarily on the use of home remedies, dietary control, and behavioral rules generated by the notions of hot and cold.

Preventive and remedial practices emphasized balance and equilibrium of intake and action for health. Popular medical practices also included religious petitions for health, the purchase of herbal substances in the marketplace, and family patterns of avoidance and magical influence. Even today in Central America and Africa, herbalists are to be found selling dried preparations in some small local pharmacies, in stalls within the central market, and along the central plaza with hand trays of their remedies. Clients visit these stalls either with specific home recipes to be filled or for direct consultation and prescription with the practitioner (Desselle and Zearrick 34).

A variety of medications are sold for such diverse ailments as a weak liver, impotency, tired blood, and general health maintenance. The task and role of a good pharmacologist are to use folk knowledge and skills and apply them to modern medicine. I am really excited about this profession because it requires extensive knowledge of remedies and herbal treatments based on medical beliefs. The pharmacist gives personal advice and has direct contact with the client.

Innovations and developments in pharmacy rely on responding directly to client needs and less on sundries and beauty items. To compete successfully, the pharmacist diagnoses the illness and provides a treatment regime. The pharmacist assures the citizens they are making the appropriate purchase and asks them to come again. The history of pharmacy amazes me because the pharmacist was a person who treated a patient and prepared drugs for him.

A modern pharmacy is a commercial unit that specializes in the sale of patent medicines. Thus, the pharmacist is responsible for medicines and drugs quality. In spite of the fact that he does not carry many herbs nor prepare any of the traditional remedies commonly found in the community locale, they rely on folk medicine and knowledge as a part of the profession. Historically, the community pharmacist established a therapeutic relationship that was the focus of primary care for the families. In this sense, the pharmacist participated as an alternative health practitioner. Pharmacy today cannot maintain itself with only the sale of medicines.

In order for it to be a business, a pharmacy has to sell cosmetics, sundries, and other items. Nonetheless, the popular medical role of the pharmacy has expanded: an individual goes to the pharmacy most often when they are ill because they can purchase medicines for anything and can trust the pharmacist to advise wisely if you do not know the remedys name.

Even today, in the urban environment, many of the popular remedies used at home and in self-care have been replaced by patent and prescription medicines purchased in local pharmacies and stores. Modern medicine cannot exist without pharmacology and innovative solutions which help to treat previously incurable diseases and relieve pain. It is difficult to represent the entire professional medical sector in any detail and at the same time fully cover the breadth of practitioners and office settings.

Works Cited

Desselle, S. P., Zearrick, D. P. Pharmacy Management. McGraw-Hill Medical, 2004.

Summary

Pharmacology can be defined as the field of science that deals with the source, essential qualities or characteristics, chemistry, consequences and uses of drugs; or the analysis of the science and clinical application of medications; the detailed critical inspection of drugs, their sources, essential qualities or characteristics and properties. In relation to this, retail pharmacies are on the leading edge of rendering health care services to patients after the health professionals trained in the art of preparing and dispensing drugs (pharmacist) have filled the consumers drug that is available only with written instructions from a doctor or dentist to the pharmacist. Because of the different types of drugs that patients and consumers may call for at any time, it is needed, retail pharmacies must stock a variety of drug brands and generic drugs.

Keogh, James & Keogh, James defined pharmacology as the branch of knowledge that deals with the effects of chemicals on living tissues. On the other hand, focuses mostly on how chemicals assist in the prevention of diseases, correct functioning of living tissues and providing health care in order to reduce diseases. Nevertheless, chemicals with medicinal properties are referred to as drug or medicine that is prepared or dispensed in pharmacies and used in medical treatment. Pharmacology, therefore, minutely examined the safe and efficient use of pharmaceuticals (p 2).

The regulations regarding retail pharmacy technicians in Maine

Though Maine has not had much requirement or regulation regarding retail pharmacy technicians, therefore, pharmacists may independently provide therapy.

However, in Maine pharmacy technicians are trained through pharmacy employer-provided training programs are carried out by the head pharmacist.

In Maine, the regulation also necessitates that prescriptions or products must be sold by pharmacy/ pharmacist/ pharmacy technicians or clerks.

Additionally, the requirement to produce recognition documents to purchase pseudoephedrine products is put in force at the discretion of the pharmacist. The requirement even when put in force is inapplicable to 60mg. Single prescribed amount packages presented for sale pursuant to particular display methods. Inclusively Maine pharmacy technicians regulation requires a log or record requirement but does not require the purchaser to sign the log or record.

A retail pharmacy shall install closed-circuit cameras to keep an eye on the important sections of the retail pharmacy department, together with, at least, the prescription collecting point, the important drug safe, and the departure point. The cameras shall operate continuously, without interruption, 24 hours per day each day of the year. The closed-circuit cameras (CCTV) shall always videotape and store images of the supervised departments at intervals. A place of business for retailing drugs (retail pharmacy) shall keep hold of recorded images for no fewer than 30 days after storing and recording and shall present the stored images to the board of pharmacists or agents when its being requested for.

One of the most important tools of physicians providing treatment to persons requiring medical care is medication. In spite of the fact that doctors recommend pharmaceuticals, the health care professionals who really administer the medication are pharmacists. Pharmacists recommend proper selection and use of medicines for health professionals and the general public, with this, the specialized skill and knowledge of the pharmacist is essential because of the complexity and latent secondary and usually adverse effect of the large and rising quantity of pharmaceutical products on the market. Besides passing information, pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines suggested by physicians and other health professionals.

Pharmacy technicians perform their duties under the direction and management of pharmacists and may carry out the responsibilities allowed under state law. State pharmacy laws and regulations differentiate between the task and responsibilities that pharmacists perform and those that pharmacy technicians are allowed to perform under the pharmacists supervision (Hui, & Peggy 146).

Pharmacy technicians are not allowed to carry out pharmacy practice and responsibilities that demand the professional judgment, education and training of a licensed pharmacist. They are only allowed to carry out permissive and nondiscretionary tasks under the pharmacists supervision.

State pharmacy laws and regulations lay down requirements for pharmacy practice like licensure of pharmacies and pharmacists, the scope of pharmacy practice for pharmacists and pharmacist-in-control requirements. Many states have laws and regulations governing pharmacy technicians, as well as registration or licensure, tasks or duties that pharmacy technicians may carry out some chores performed only by pharmacists. State boards of pharmacy are the primary state agency in charge of supervision, discipline, and rulemaking authority for pharmacy customary way of operation or behavior, together with rules and regulations covering pharmacy technicians. Usual rules or principles which restrict the requirements for pharmacy technicians include registration or licensure, minimum age, training and education, examinations, certification examinations, criminal background checks, technician-to pharmacist ratios, permitted responsibilities, prohibited conduct and disciplinary penalties.

Duties of a Pharmacist Technician

Whether in a retail drug store, hospital, clinic, or nursing care facility, pharmacy technicians carry out a number of responsibilities, which require the quality of having high accuracy, consistency and attention to detail. In a retail pharmacy, technicians carry on their duties under the leadership of a pharmacist. Their tasks include filling prescriptions and preparing labels for drugs that are available only with written instructions from a doctor or dentist, in addition to stocking and taking record of prescriptions and over-the-counter medications.

They also do other book-keeping duties, like keeping a database of patient medication records, preparing insurance claim forms, and overseeing the cash register. The pharmacy technicians also clean and sterilize glassware and equipment.

In a hospital, pharmacy technicians carry out several of the same duties as in retail pharmaceutical outlets. In a nutshell, a pharmacy technician may effectively handle addictive and costly drugs, so they need to be principled. Since they (pharmacy technicians) handle patients files, they should not disclose personal information about patients or customers. Good communication skills are also necessary because pharmacy technicians are required to offer customers or patients instructions on taking prescribed drugs. However, they must relate well to a variety of people, as well as customers, patients and their colleagues (Ferguson 639).

Code of Ethics for Retail Pharmacy Technicians

In a Pharmacy, there are specialists who assist in carrying out daily activities, in as much as patients care is concerned, however, these classes of people are known as the pharmacy technicians. The ethics of the pharmacy technicians principles or laws are grounded on the function and maintenance of the ethical responsibilities that direct the pharmacist line of work in as far as patients and the entire society are concerned.

Pharmacy Technician-to-Pharmacist Ratios

There are laws and regulations that lay down limits on the number of pharmacy technicians that may help a pharmacist in the retail pharmacy or pharmaceutical stores. These are known as pharmacy technician-to-pharmacist ratios or pharmacy technicians ratios. If the ratio is 3:1 the pharmacist may oversee up to three pharmacy technicians. In relation to this in Maine, the ratio is 3:1, if no technicians are advanced.

Generally, the ratio varies from 2:1 or 4:1. In some cases, a higher pharmacy technician ratio is allowed if one or more of the pharmacy technicians meet supplementary requirements such as certification or pursuant to a utilization plan presented by the pharmacy and approved by the Board of Pharmacy (Darvey 92).

Principles

• Pharmacy technicians main concern should be to guarantee the health and wellbeing of the patient.
• Truthfulness and reliability in the profession are to be sustained, maintained and encouraged by a pharmacy technician, which includes the responsibility of observing the law, sustaining the highest honest and ethical behavior and sustaining the ethical ideologies of the profession at any given time.
• A pharmacy technician helps and or supports the pharmacists in a safe, successful and in-pocket friendlier manner, with the delivery of health services and health care resources.
• A pharmacy technician retains proficiency in their exercise and persistently improves their professional acquaintance and know-how (American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Ashp 346).

Roles and powers of the Pharmacy Board

Where there is any pharmacy, there has to be a watching power which in this case is the Board of Pharmacy. The Board has the mandate and authority to punish and/or ban pharmacists, pharmacy interns, certified pharmacy technicians, or pharmacy technicians who infringe the Act or Rules from carrying on to intimidate the public if it is to accomplish its everyday jobs. The Board must possess the capability of stopping those who transgress or goes against the Act, either enduringly or for a short term, discipline them, and if necessary, direct and support errant licenses in reinstating them (Darvey 107).

Standardized corrective action conditions and explanations were increased to alleviate the precise reporting of disciplinary actions taken by the Board of Pharmacy and to shun misunderstandings associated with state-to-state fluctuations in terms and definitions. The basis for disciplinary actions was developed to guarantee the protection of the public while reserving to the Board the power to expand upon them and adapt them to changing or local conditions as necessary. The penalties permitted under the Model Act will afford the Board the flexibility to conform and relate discipline to offenses.

References

American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Ashp Best practices for hospital and health-system pharmacy. Bethesda, MD: 2008. Print.

Darvey, Diane. Legal Handbook for Pharmacy Technicians. Bethesda, MD: ASHP, 2008. Print.

Ferguson Publishing. Exploring tech careers, Volume 1. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing, 2006. Print.

Hui, Yiu. & Peggy, Stanfield. Introduction to the health professions. Mississauga, ON: Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2002. Print.

Keogh, James. & Keogh, James. Schaums Outline of Pharmacology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2010. Print.

Introduction

Globalisation has been on the increase in the last couple of decades, as the worlds economy continues to grow. This has led to increased international trade. Most organisations are seeking to expand their customer base in the international market. International trade refers to the type of trade that occurs among nations. In other words, it can be defined as the exchange of goods and services among different countries or organisations from different countries (Dlabay & Scott 2010).

Multinational organisations have increased with the development of globalisation. There are a number of reasons why most organisations and countries prefer international trade. However, it should be noted that international trade also poses a threat to the organisations and nations participating in the trade (Brown, Gutterman & Curry 2011). This article will discuss the international business opportunities and risks faced by the pharmaceutical industry in the UK.

International business opportunities

The pharmaceutical industry in the UK is a significant sector in the country, as it contributes to a significant amount of the countrys GDP and it provides employment to the citizens. The country is home to some of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. It also hosts significant foreign pharmaceutical companies (Grossman, Lindgren & Dor 2010). Therefore, the industry has a good presence in the international market. There are a number of opportunities that the industry realises in the international market, which would probably not be available in the domestic market. Some of the major benefits are discussed below.

The international market provides an extensive market to the UK pharmaceutical industry. The companies in the country are able to reach more customers for their products, which is important because it increases the chances of success for the companies (Aswathappa 2010). It should be noted that business organisations are formed with the aim of maximising profits, and the best way to guarantee profits is to capture as many customers as possible.

The international market presents the UK pharmaceutical industry with a wide pool of customers for the companies to sell their products. This is a great opportunity that is essential to the future, as well as current growth and development of the industry. The fact that an international pharmaceutical firm can access many customers means that it is highly likely to increase its profitability and growth.

The UK pharmaceutical industry is able to come across a wide range of similar products that are of varying quality, distinct designs, as well as different product development strategies by participating in the international market (Whewell 2010). This acts as a learning opportunity for the industry, as the industry is able to understand the products better. This facilitates quality improvement. An international organisation in the pharmaceutical industry is better positioned to produce better quality through learning from the international market. This improves its competitive advantage, as it increases customer satisfaction.

The industry also gets a chance to spread its portfolio. The industry becomes secure from probable events that may take place in the UK, which are likely to have a negative effect on the industry or the economy at large (Pugatch & Perez 2004). In addition, the companies in the industry find markets for some of the products that may not be selling well in the domestic market. Any international firm in the UK pharmaceutical industry can, therefore, be better positioned to spread its production portfolio because it can produce a wide range of products.

The pharmaceutical industry in the UK will face reduced competition in the international market. The UK has a competitive pharmaceutical industry, given that it is home to some of the largest pharmaceutical companies. Companies are likely to reduce the level of competition that they would face domestically by expanding into the international market.

International business risks

One of the major risks that firms from the UK pharmaceutical industry would face is the failure to understand the local legal framework of the countries in which they expand to, as different nations have different legal frameworks. It is important for the companies to understand these requirements to successfully trade in the country of expansion with less or no sanctions (Tihanyi, Devinney & Pedersen 2011). This is a risk that the pharmaceutical industry faces, as it is not easy to understand the legal framework of each nation.

The lack of effective communication with the international business partners is a common risk to most industries (Rugman, 2009). This is caused by the language barriers between nations. Failure in communication may present a great risk to the industry, given that communication is one of the major factors that lead to success in business. Distance may also be a barrier to communication. The UK pharmaceutical companies may have to spend a lot in travels, thereby increasing expenses and reducing profitability.

An unstable profitability is another risk that the pharmaceutical industry in the UK faces by participating in the international market. It is hard to have a stable profitability due to the fluctuations in the foreign exchange rates. It is not easy to predict the exchange rates, thus the pharmaceutical companies may not be able to predict their expected expenditure and revenue with precision (Paul 2009). The profits are also unstable, making it difficult to plan for the future.

Conclusion

International business is important to many industries and organisations as it helps in expanding the market and reaching new opportunities that may not be available domestically. However, companies also face challenges that may threaten their success in the international markets. It is, therefore, important for the firms in the UK pharmaceutical industry to understand all the relevant factors in the international market and make the right decisions when approaching the international market.

Reference List

Aswathappa, K 2010, International business, Tata McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi.

Brown, R, Gutterman, AS & Curry, JE 2011, A short course in international business plans: Charting a strategy for success in global commerce, World Trade Press, Petaluma, CA.

Dlabay, LR & Scott, JC 2010, International business, South-Western, Mason, OH.

Grossman, M, Lindgren, B & Dor, A 2010, Pharmaceutical markets and insurance worldwide, Emerald, Bingley.

Paul, J 2009, International business, PHI Learning Private Ltd, New Delhi.

Pugatch, M & Perez, M 2004, The international political economy of intellectual property rights, Edward Elgar Publishers, Cheltenham.

Rugman, AM 2009, The Oxford handbook of international business, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Tihanyi, L, Devinney, TM & Pedersen, T 2012, Institutional theory in international business and management, Emerald, Bingley, UK.

Whewell, R 2010, Supply chain in the pharmaceutical industry: Strategic influences and supply chain responses, Gower Publishing Ltd., Farnham.

Introduction

Employee engagement illustrates willingness and desire of employees to give their best and outperform themselves daily, motivated to contribute to organizational success (Fried & Fottler, 2015). It is considered a very important factor to ensure low turnover rates and prevent burnout. Medical and pharmaceutical industry is known to have the highest burnout and turnover rates, which is partially motivated by poor employee engagement practices. As such, hospitals and pharmaceutical facilitiesremain some of the more frequent clients for performance improvement consultations.

Case Study Scenario

In this case study, I am to play the role of a consultant for a pharmaceutics directors, who has been in charge for 6 months. For the past two years, some of the department stores for her service have been very low, which forced her to seek advice on performance improvement. The purpose of this case study is to help the director devise a plan of action in order to improve morale and employee engagement.

The First Improvement Consulting Phases  Initial Contact and Contracting

As it was agreed, I am supposed to meet with the director in order to discuss the situation and outline a potential performance improvement contract to be signed between the consulting company and the pharmaceutical enterprise. At this stage, my task would be to establish rapport with the client and present myself as an experienced specialist in order to gain the customers confidence and trust. After that, it would be possible to proceed with the contracting phase, during which the customer would be explained the goals, deliverables, outcomes, responsibilities, and procedures required to achieve a lasting improvement in performance (Fried & Fottler, 2015). The contract must be signed and agreed upon before it would be possible to proceed with the next phases.

How to Build Rapport and Credibility?

Building rapport and credibility during the first meeting is a very important part of a successful customer-consultant relationship (Fried & Fottler, 2015). It relies on visual and personal appearances as well as professionalism and understanding of the problem. To account for visual appearances, I would remain cordial, but at the same time formal and polite. When discussing the problem, I would build rapport by sharing some of my past experiences in the field as well as representing my knowledge of similar situations in other pharmaceutical companies. At the same time, I will allow the customer to explain the situation from their point of view before offering potential solutions and alternatives (Fried & Fottler, 2015).

The Easy and Difficult Parts of the Consulting Contract

The data collection and diagnosis part of the active contract would likely be the easiest to fulfill. Hospitals and pharmaceutical facilities are very centralized organizations, meaning that it would be easy to perform data collection as all employees would be obligated by their superiors to participate in surveys. The protocol is standardized, and there are numerous survey templates fit to assess the situation. The only difficulty with this part is to assess which survey template would be the most appropriate for the situation. In addition, a custom survey could be created in order to present the situation within this particular company accurately.

The hardest part of any employee engagement improvement contract is measuring the effectiveness of performed measures (Fried & Fottler, 2015). While measuring production values is relatively simple, other factors are not as easy to assess using quantitative means. One of the most obvious indicators of progress would be diminished burnout and turnover rates.

How to Measure Progress

The primary tool for measuring personal data will be a survey. Employees would be asked to measure their engagement, burnout rate, and other important factors that have the potential of affecting productivity and effectiveness. Improvements in the production of pharmaceuticals would be measured traditionally: by comparing the output, the number of employee-related accidents, equipment damage, and defects to data available for the past two years. Long-term engagement will be measured by comparing turnover rates for the following year with data for the two past years. In combination, these tools and measurements should allow perceiving progress with a relatively high accuracy (Fried & Fottler, 2015).

Closing Meeting

The meeting will be closed after all the important details and concerns are addressed, and the contract is signed. I will ensure that the meeting does not drag on longer than it should. Closing the meeting on a positive note is very important, as it would lay down the foundation for a successful customer-consultant relationship and ensure mutual understanding and rapport with the client in the long term.

Reference

Fried, B., &Fottler, M. D. (2015). Human resources in healthcare: Managing for success(2nd ed.).Chicago, IL: Health Administration Press.

Introduction

Tobacco smoking is the major cause of morbidity and avoidable death worldwide.1 Globally, there are over a billion smokers and approximately 80% are in low-and-middle-income countries.2 More than 6 million of the deaths resulted from direct tobacco consumption while estimated 900,000 mortality records were due to exposure of nonsmokers to secondhand smoke.2 It is estimated that by 2030, the death toll could rise to over 8 million yearly.3

Non-infectious diseases account for about 80% of preventable deaths in Nigeria and most other developing nations and the lone major preventable risk factor these diseases is tobacco smoking.4 Training pharmacy students to educate patients about lifestyle-modification strategies such as smoking cessation might reduce the burdens of chronic diseases.5

Traditional training for healthcare students focuses on treating diseases with little attention towards preventing disease occurrence .6,7 Based on the need to change the landscape of healthcare students training, various stakeholders now recommend curriculum changes to include courses about public health ranging from health promotion, wellness, and disease prevention.8-10

The much-needed roles of pharmacists in providing smoking cessation advice and services have been well-documented in many literatures11-13, being one of the most accessible healthcare providers. The International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) published a policy statement that promotes pharmacist’s roles in reducing tobacco consumption. This policy statements further reiterated that pharmacists should provide smoking cessation services to anyone who wants to quit tobacco consumption or to anyone who suffers from smoking-related diseases.14

Owing to the fact that the origin of knowledge that contribute to one’s career are usually acquired while undertaking a degree, it is therefore essential that mapping knowledge and attitude of future pharmacists would be an important marker of their “level of awareness” about smoking cessation. It may also be hypothesized that experience with providing smoking cessation services and counselling practice should increase the knowledge and skill base of pharmacy students and that pharmacists would have greater understanding, awareness and more positive attitudes toward their role in pharmacy-based smoking cessation services.

Currently, there is paucity of data/information on whether pharmacy schools in Nigeria train future pharmacists on smoking cessation or not. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing knowledge and attitude of pharmacy students in the University of Ibadan, Nigeria regarding smoking cessation.

Methods

Study design and settings

This study was a cross-sectional survey using self-administered questionnaire among undergraduates of the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan between August and December 2019. Eligible participants were registered undergraduate pharmacy students (first year to fifth year) for 2018/2019 academic session and consented to partake in the study. Students that were absent and non-consenting were excluded from the study.

Sample Size Determination

Based on the population of 360 registered students obtained from the faculty management, the confidence level was set at 95% and the alpha error at 5%, a sample size of 189 was obtained using Yamane’s formula.15 Additionally, to cater for the possibility of low response rate which is not uncommon among students, an attrition rate of 60% that will allow for a large sample size of 315 was agreed to by the researchers.

Sampling and data collection procedure

From first year to fifth year in the faculty of pharmacy, a compulsory course was identified. The study respondents were consecutively approached shortly after the mandatory course. The researcher informed them on the aims and objectives of the study. The questionnaire was then self-administered to all consented pharmacy students and retrieved within 20–25 minutes of completion of the questionnaire. Study participation was voluntary and the students were informed of the possibility of withdrawing from the study anytime. Response anonymity and confidentiality were reiterated to the respondents. Measures were put in place to prevent multiple filling of the questionnaire by the respondents.

Pretest and content validation

Content validity of the questionnaire was conducted by two pharmacists in academia from the department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Administration, University of Ibadan, to ascertain the inclusiveness of question-items vis-à-vis the study objectives, as well as ensuring appropriateness and specificity of questions or statements. The questionnaire was then administered to eight students from the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ibadan to be sure of ease of comprehension of questions or statements in the questionnaire. These students were not included in the actual study and the feedback from the students led to some modifications in the questionnaire.

Data Collection Instrument

A semi-structured questionnaire was developed by the researchers following comprehensive review of relevant studies16,17, as well as employing researchers experience. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part A captured socio-demographic (participants) characteristics, Part B comprised questions on smoking status and habit, Part C comprised knowledge and attitude statements. The questionnaire consisted of 17 knowledge statements and 12 attitude statements.

Knowledge and Attitude Index

For each knowledge statements, a correct response was assigned a score of “1,” and an incorrect response, I don’t know and neither agree nor disagree response were scored as “0.” The overall knowledge score was attained by adding the scores for all knowledge responses. Then, an “overall knowledge percent score” was calculated by multiplying the total knowledge score for each participant by 100 and diving by 17.

For each attitude question, a correct response was assigned a score of “1,” and an incorrect response, I don’t know and neither agree nor disagree responses were scored as “0.” The total attitude score was obtained by adding the scores for all attitude responses. Then, an “overall attitude percent score” was calculated by multiplying the total attitude score for each participant by 100 and diving by 9.

Data Analysis

The administered questionnaires were sorted, crosschecked and coded serially at the end of each day of the study. Data were sorted, coded and analysed using SPSS (version 23). The data were summarized using descriptive statistics with frequency and percentage. In this study, the overall score by our respondents in the knowledge and attitude domains was converted into percentage to ensure uniformity in the scores.

In the knowledge domain, a total score  60 % was considered as “good” knowledge, while score < 60 % signified “poor” knowledge. Thus, a percent score  60 % indicates a raw score of >10 out of the 17 questions that evaluated the general knowledge of smoking and smoking cessation among pharmacy students. While for the attitude domain, a total score of  80 % was considered as “good” attitude, while score < 80 % signified “poor” attitude. Thus, a percent score  80 % indicates a raw score of >7 out of 9 questions on attitude. Bloom’s cut-off point criteria, as well as review of other studies were employed in determining the binary categorization.18,19

Results

Demographics characteristics and smoking cessation related descriptive

Table 1 shows out of the 315 copies of questionnaire administered to the pharmacy students, 277 completely filled questionnaires were returned given a response rate of 81.5 %. One hundred and fifty (54.2%) were males. The mean age was 21.55 (±3.12), with majority 168 (60.0%) aged above 20 years. Most of the participants 263 (94.9%) have not attended any specific smoking cessation training and 180 (65.0%) are willing to attend smoking cessation training. Majority 265 (95.7%) were nonsmokers and 70 (25.3%) of the participants claimed that pharmacy school provided knowledge and skills on smoking cessation.

Students’ knowledge on smoking and smoking cessation

Three-quarters of the students were aware tobacco smoking is an addiction 207 (74.7%), while 33 (11.9%) knew nicotine does not cause cancer. In all, 74 (26.7%) had score  60 % indicating “good” knowledge of smoking and smoking cessation among pharmacy students. Table 2

Pharmacy students’ attitudes toward smoking and smoking cessation

Two hundred and three (73.2%) agreed that “It is pharmacists’ responsibility to help their patients quit smoking.” Majority 226 (81.6%) agreed that “Pharmacy students need more training on how to counsel patients on smoking cessation.” In all, 152 (54.9%) had a score ≥ 80 indicating “good” attitude toward smoking cessation. Table 3

Awareness of smoking cessation products among pharmacy students

Less than one-tenth 27 (9.7%) of the respondents had learnt about available options to smoking cessation, while nicotine gum 13 (48.1%) was the most identified products among the students. See Table 4.

Discussion

After an extensive review of the literature, it was observed that a survey of pharmacy students related to the knowledge and attitude regarding smoking cessation has not been conducted in Nigeria. Our study revealed relatively low smoking rate, positive attitudes towards smoking cessation and a poor knowledge of smoking cessation among pharmacy students. Compared to a study among University of Lagos pharmacy students20, our study revealed lower smoking prevalence. However, the smoking prevalence in our study was higher than the prevalence reported among medical students of University of Ibadan.21

Poor knowledge of smoking and smoking cessation was reported in more than three-quarters of our respondents. Furthermore, a knowledge gap on the awareness of smoking cessation products was documented among the pharmacy students and majority of the students reported that smoking cessation training content of their curriculum is not satisfactory. The gap in awareness and knowledge might signify the need for creating awareness as well as advocating training among pharmacy students on smoking cessation. This finding is similar to a study conducted in a university community, where awareness level of smoking cessation products was low22, and another study reported in Japan among pharmacy students where only one pharmacy school teaches smoking cessation.23 Various study in the literature had reported the inadequate knowledge of smoking cessation and tobacco dependence treatment among medical students.24-28 A possible explanation for the low awareness of the products might be deficient pharmacy school curriculum on smoking cessation products, non-availability of the products in the pharmacies and cost implication of the product in Nigeria. Studies conducted in Germany, Italy and England among medical students showed that the knowledge of smoking epidemiology was also unsatisfactory.26,28

The literature encourages the inculcation of tobacco cessation in the curricula of undergraduate future health professionals.29 Studies have also shown that healthcare professionals who do not receive formal training on smoking cessation are less likely to have positive impacts on quitting rates than those who are formally trained.30,31 Tobacco cessation counselling and services are an essential public health service rendered by pharmacists globally. To deliver these services effectively and with much-needed impacts, incorporation into the pharmacy curriculum is advocated.32

The overall positive attitudes to smoking cessation and practice were observed among the pharmacy students. Majority advocated for more training on how to counsel patient on smoking cessation and most believes that pharmacists should not smoke and set good examples for their patient. Although, majority of the student shows anti-smoking attitude, about half of the students agreed that medical advice has little effect on smoking cessation. This can be compared to similar study carried out in Argentina, where 30.9% agreed that medical advice has little effect on smoking cessation.16

There is possibility of response bias from respondents either due to over- or under-reporting of the information provided. In addition to this, the study was conducted in one pharmacy school, therefore, there is a need for cautiousness in generalising outcomes to the whole pharmacy students in Nigeria.

Conclusion

There is a deficit in smoking cessation knowledge among our respondents. However, pharmacy students’ show positive attitude toward smoking cessation. Therefore, there is a need for inclusion of smoking cessation strategies and procedures in pharmacy school curriculum, so as to equip the future healthcare providers and improve the quality of public health especially smokers in Nigeria.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The project based on “PHARMACY CRITICS” is being developed for the purpose of storing the information of the medicine where it maintains all the data related to pharmacy. It maintains all the Supplier and Customer information who supplies medicine to the pharmacy and those who purchase medicine from the pharmacy.

We developed this system Pharmacy Critics to make the work easier for the pharmacy people by storing the data digitally. The user can maintain all the purchased and sold of medicine details. It also maintains the Reports for the particulars.

This will avoid user to maintain the data manually where it cannot store huge data and it leads to loss of data. This can be easily used by the software people and is more user friendly software.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Pharmacy management has kept paper record in filing cabinets. Managing a very large pharmacy with records on papers will be tedious and difficult to keep track of inventories with regards to the drugs in the store, expiry date, quantity of drugs available based on the categories and their functions. The pharmacist has to order drugs to replenish the already diminishing stock. In addition, ordering of drugs is being carried out manually. Significant amount of time is allocated for writing the order as the pharmacist needs to go through the stock balance and make rough estimate of the amount to order based on Figures. Drugs are not supposed to be used after they have expired. This project work will prompt the pharmacist about drugs that are close to expiry, preventing those drugs from being sold and also providing solution to the earlier stated problems.

EXISTING SYSTEM

The data is being stored manually across many files where it leads to loss of data and the updating of data cannot be performed easily. Often the data is mismanaged and data inconsistency may occur. The data is also not secured and is difficult to maintain. It also leads to some human errors. Consumes lot of space in maintaining records.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

As long as there have been societies, there have been specialists and physician whose sole purpose was to prepare and administer medicinal treatments. The earliest healers engaged in what is now called Pharmacognosy, which is the study and application of plants and herbs for healing. Evidence that early man used pharmacognosy to treatillness is indisputable, with archaeological discoveries attesting to the fact pre-dating even the development of farming or animal husbandry.

The beginnings of pharmacy are ancient. When the first person expressed juice from a succulent leaf to apply to a wound, this art was being practiced. In the Greek legend, Asclepius, the god of the healing art, delegated to Hygeia the duty of compounding his remedies. She was his apothecary or pharmacist. The physician-priests of Egypt were divided into two classes: those who visited the sick and those who remained in the temple and prepared remedies for the patients (Homan, 2008).

The pharmacy profession can be traced back at least as far as the Sumerian population, living in modern day Iraq from around 4000 BC, they used medicinal plants such as liquor ice, mustard, myrrh, and opium. There were separate people who worked to prepare medicines, as a separate role from diagnosis and treatment which was carried out by medics. These precursors to pharmacists also combined their role with that of a priest. The Sumerians wrote the earliest surviving prescriptions from at least 2700 B.C. so nearly 5000 years ago (Griggs, 1999).

The Ancient Egyptians had specific preparers of medicine, known as Pastophor. Pharmacy was viewed as a high status branch of medicine, and again, like the Sumerians, these pharmacists were also priests who worked and practiced in the temples (Anderson, 2005).

The National Health Service made prescription medicine available to all. Until the introduction, in the 1950s, and subsequent hefty increasing of prescription charges, proprietary medicines were no longer seen as a cheap alternative to seeing the doctor.

Ibuprofen was first synthesized by a team at the Boots Pure Drug Company in December.

Introduction of Adverse Drug Reaction ‘yellow card’ scheme in response to the thalidomide tragedy of 1961

The modern drugstore varies significantly from its ancient counterparts. While the proprietors of pharmacies in the far distant past were often making numerous medical decisions – diagnosing and treating patients without the consultation of physicians – pharmacists in the modern drugstore are tasked instead with the responsibility of evaluating the appropriateness and managing the dispensation of pharmaceuticals prescribed to patients under a doctor’s care. Among the most important of pharmacist jobs is assuring that the patient has not been prescribed two drugs which will have an adverse interaction. An in-depth study of pharmacology is required to make such evaluations and in all states such positions are highly regulated and require testing before the issuance of a pharmacist’s license.

CONCLUSION

Owing to the vastness of the information to be stored and the diverse tasks of PHARMACY CRITICS involves, maintaining the Database becomes enormous. A well designed project can go a long way in the efficient management of all the information. The PHARMACY CRITICS application has been implemented to store the pharmacy information and user friendly Interfaces. The implementation of the project using the concept of singly linked list and files and linear search. Change is the only constant thing in this world .A Heart full attempt is made to the software to be bug free as we know “To err is Human”, there may be some bugs.

The scope of this project is limited to the activities of a pharmaceutical store which includes will improving health outcomes, reduce hospital and long term care admissions, enhance access and care in the Estate and surrounding communities and ensuring best use of resources, the use of a computer based management system for improving the efficiency of a pharmacy is needed and it is an essential part of any modern continuously evolving society. The system will not be able to handle drug prescription, drug to drug interaction. The system will not be able to handle contraindication and polypharmacy in a prescription; this implies that these services will be manually completed by the pharmacist.

REFERENCES

TEXT REFERENCE

1. Roger S. Pressman : Software Engineering – A Practitioners approach, 7th Edition, Mc-Graw Hill Education, 2012
2. Algorithms in C: Fundamentals, Data Structures, Sorting, Searching, parts 1-4, 3e.
3. The complete reference – C++ & C 4th edition [Herbert Schildl] 2000,2003
4. Beginning of C 4th Edition – Ivor Horton[2007]
5. Let us C – Yashwant Kanetkar 3rd edition 1999
6. C Under DOS Test – Riku Parikh, Anup Jalan, Suham Desai 1st edition 1993
7. Programming in ANSI C 4th edition – E Balagurusamy

WEB REFERENCE

1. https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/mt590198(v=sql.1).aspx
2. https://www.scribd.com
3. https://www.greeksforgeeks.org
4. https://www.studytonight.com
5. https://www.tutorialspoint.com
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

The introduction of vaccination to the world has been considered as one of the most advanced progress in the Pharmacy industry. From measles, smallpox to rubella, vaccination has been recognized to not only cure but also to eradicate a lot of diseases. The outstanding successes of vaccinations have made such a great impact on the world’s healthcare that many developed countries have required scheduled vaccinations for children. Despite the effective uses of vaccines in many parts of the world, there have been many arguments stating that the choices of vaccination should not interfere, or rather, the use of vaccines should not be mandatorily required

With the growth of science in the pharmacy industry, many studies have been conducted so far proving the ingredients in vaccines are safe for children. However, the arguments around the safety of ingredients in vaccines have been one of the most controversial issues regarding this topic. According to the CDC (n.d), most found ingredients in vaccines include Aluminum, Thimerosal, which are used for vaccines preservation or to stimulate their effectiveness. What many people may not be aware of are those ingredients are indeed dangerous and may affect people’s health negatively. Aluminum, being a toxic metal, has been revealed to be accumulated in bones and brain for a premature baby with just 10 micrograms of consumption and might even reach a noxious level for the patients with impaired kidney function (Pond 2011). Thimerosal, the compound usually found in the ingredients for preserving vaccines, with mercury is the main element, is extremely dangerous as mercury is one of the most poisonous elements on earth (WHO 2011). Imus (2018) states, in more than 80 studies, human health is reported to be tremendously affected when exposed to mercury, including difficulties such as autism or vision loss.

In another argument, many people have claimed that our world today has become healthier with fewer diseases thanks to the introduction of vaccines, with approximately ten million deaths were prevented from 2010 to 2015 (WHO, n.d). While it can be seen clearly that such disease like smallpox or polio has been eradicated by vaccines (CDC, n.d), we are now facing with such new matters related to healthcare. According to Fisher (2017), reports from the CDC, the USA, showed that American children have been immunized four more times nowadays than the previous generations as the government schedules more compulsory vaccinations for children with the aim for better disease prevention. However, figures have shown otherwise as Fisher (2017) also states that the proportion of children with autism increased by 3%, asthma by 8% compared to the 1980s with unprecedented growing numbers of children with seizures, depression, and many other life-threatening illnesses, according to reports. Hence, as a result of more mandatory vaccines, the number of outbreak diseases shows no sign of declining.

Lastly, with the development of modern society, the obstacle of religious practices are opined to should have been erased when it comes to vaccinations, many argued. Although this might seem rational in the modern world concerning the healthcare aspect, religious beliefs are always considered the major barrier for vaccination refusal as it belongs to the personal choice of belief and rights, something that not everyone could fully understand. Merekiene et al. (2012) reveal in their study that the Orthodox community in the Netherlands opposes vaccination as they believe human health sent by God should not be interfered with by mankind, while the Amish communities suppose that vaccinations weaken the immune system. According to McKee and Bohannon (2016), a report evaluates the violation of vaccinations to the religion most generally comes from the vaccines’ components as some vaccines are produced from animal-derived gelatin, human fetus, resulting in the biggest concerns. Mckee and Bohannon (2016) also state that the rate of vaccination exemptions in schools regarding religions has risen significantly from 2000 to 2011. All things considered, the compulsory requirement of vaccines towards religions is completely unethical as people should not be forced into something beyond their beliefs.

Introduction

Introduction to System

In Our System we can provide the online Platform to deal with people who are pharmacy management owner or vendor. In this system we can provide web application which is user by doctors or any hospital person so we have make one quotation system for the user and customer also so here we can put our product in our system and customer can buy that product from our system and as well as he/she can order or submit the quotation threw our system. The practice of pharmacy involves the general implementation of medical orders which entails the evaluation and the interpretation of the medical orders, the administration of drugs, dispensation of prescribed drugs from qualified medical practitioners, the review of prescribed drug regimen, and the correct storage of drugs. The American Pharmacists Association has described pharmacy as having a mission which is the responsibility of ensuring the use of medication in the right way and manner, and enjoying the services of drugs to ensure the achievement of optimized results in therapeutic applications, In addition, the birth of modern pharmacy has brought with it some positive effects in the society; like the increase in life expectancy globally from 45 years to 50 years, which some argue is as a result of the number of breakthroughs recorded in pharmacy over the last century. These breakthroughs such as: the discovery of new compounds in battling existing ailments and the invention of methods and devices to accurately dispense drugs have been welcomed with open arms by the society More so, the hospital pharmacy is usually located in hospitals (government-owned or private) and provides in-house pharmaceutical care to patients. Hospital pharmacists are those that function within a hospital pharmacy system and are tasked with the dispensing of prescriptions, the purchase of medicines, and the testing of these medicines. In the hospital pharmacy, access to medical records make it easy to influence the selection of drugs based on allergies or previous problems encountered. Subsequently, the power to control the process of going into the acquisition of drugs and other pharmaceutical devices, help in ensuring the supply of premium quality drugs. Furthermore, Hospital pharmacies which are owned by the government have little or no problems with financing projects due to backing from the government. Also, the community pharmacies may not have the permission to dispense certain drugs which may be due to the nature of such drugs and the prices of drugs are not as subsidized as those in hospital pharmacies, The proposed system aims to connect and serve as an intermediary between hospital pharmacies and drug manufacturers, through a platform that allows the order of drugs with the click of a button, and simultaneously keeps track of what drugs have been ordered and in what quantity.

Economic Feasibility

Economic feasibility is very important in development of the software for any company.Because it gives an idea , whether the project going to be developed can be completed at a cost affordable by the team.

The availability of the required hardware and software used to develop our project makes it economically feasible.

Operational Feasibility

The following factors suffice for considering the given project as Technically Feasible.

AS the system is going to be developed at the place where it is going to be implemented, the track of the operations related to the software is constantly monitored by them and sufficient support is available.

Tools and Technology Used

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard markup language for documents designed to be displayed in a web browser. It can be assisted by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScript.

Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage and render the documents into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document.

HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects such as interactive forms may be embedded into the rendered page. HTML provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets. Tags such as directly introduce content into the page. Other tags such as surround and provide information about document text and may include other tags as sub-elements. Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to interpret the content of the page.

jQuery is a JavaScript library designed to simplify HTML DOM tree traversal and manipulation, as well as event handling, CSS animation, and Ajax. It is free, open-source software using the permissive MIT License. As of May 2019, jQuery is used by 73% of the 10 million most popular websites. Web analysis indicates that it is the most widely deployed JavaScript library by a large margin, having 3 to 4 times more usage than any other JavaScript library.

jQuery’s syntax is designed to make it easier to navigate a document, select DOM elements, create animations, handle events, and develop Ajax applications. jQuery also provides capabilities for developers to create plug-ins on top of the JavaScript library. This enables developers to create abstractions for low-level interaction and animation, advanced effects and high-level, themeable widgets. The modular approach to the jQuery library allows the creation of powerful dynamic web pages and Web applications.

My SQL

MySQL is written in C and C++. Its SQL parser is written in yacc, but it uses a home-brewed lexical analyzer. MySQL works on many system platforms, including AIX, BSDi, FreeBSD, HP-UX, eComStation, i5/OS, IRIX, Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows, NetBSD, Novell NetWare, OpenBSD, OpenSolaris, OS/2 Warp, QNX, Oracle Solaris, Symbian, SunOS, SCO OpenServer, SCO UnixWare, Sanos and Tru64. A port of MySQL to OpenVMS also exists.

The MySQL server software itself and the client libraries use dual-licensing distribution. They are offered under GPL version 2, beginning from 28 June 2000 (which in 2009 has been extended with a FLOSS License Exception) or to use a proprietary license.

Support can be obtained from the official manual. Free support additionally is available in different IRC channels and forums. Oracle offers paid support via its MySQL Enterprise products. They differ in the scope of services and in price. Additionally, a number of third party organisations exist to provide support and services, including MariaDB and Percona.

MySQL has received positive reviews, and reviewers noticed it ‘performs extremely well in the average case’ and that the ‘developer interfaces are there, and the documentation (not to mention feedback in the real world via Web sites and the like) is very, very good’. It has also been tested to be a ‘fast, stable and true multi-user, multi-threaded sql database server’.

.NET Framework

.NET Framework (pronounced as ‘dot net’) is a software framework developed by Microsoft that runs primarily on Microsoft Windows. It includes a large class library named as Framework Class Library (FCL) and provides language interoperability (each language can use code written in other languages) across several programming languages. Programs written for .NET Framework execute in a software environment (in contrast to a hardware environment) named the Common Language Runtime (CLR). The CLR is an application virtual machine that provides services such as security, memory management, and exception handling. As such, computer code written using .NET Framework is called ‘managed code’. FCL and CLR together constitute the .NET Framework.

FCL provides user interface, data access, database connectivity, cryptography, web application development, numeric algorithms, and network communications. Programmers produce software by combining their source code with .NET Framework and other libraries. The framework is intended to be used by most new applications created for the Windows platform. Microsoft also produces an integrated development environment largely for .NET software called Visual Studio.

Future Enhancement

In the future pharmacy manager can generate prescription as labels and we can put that prescription details in product also. The whole project will be made available as an web app for far more ease of use and mobility.Increasing facilities of this software.Medicine Purchase Request & Order to manage the purchase requests and order requests received for the medicines.Physical stock verification & adjustment is responsible to verify the physical stock and the decision, regarding adjustment (if required) can take place.Destruction of Expired Items is again vital to have the information of expired items that need to be destructed so that the process can be held timely.Return of items nearing Expiry is a record of items nearing the expiry date, so this way they can be returned on time

Conclusion

Pharmacy management system is actually a software which handle the essential data and save the data and actually about the database of a pharmacy and its management. This software helps in effectively management of the pharmaceutical store or shop. It provides the statistics about medicine or drugs which are in stocks which data can also be updated and edited. It works as per the requirement of the user and have options accordingly. It allow user to enter manufacturing as well as the expiry date of medicine placing in stock and for sales transaction. This software also has ability to print reports and receipts etc.

References

1. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20050015291A1/en?q=online &q=student&q=activity&q=managment&q=system&q=employe&clustered=true
2. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20040267595A1/en?q=online &q=student&q=activity,information,details&q=managment&q=system&q=marks+&page=1&clustered=true
3. https://patents.google.com/patent/US6470171B1/en?q=~patent%2f US20030044762A1&clustered=true
4. https://everything.explained.today/Entity%E2%80%93 relationship_model
5. https://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit04/primer04_01 .phtml
6. The Diagrams of Architecture
7. Visual Basic NET
8. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary
9. Pharmacy management
10. Library Learning

ABSTRACT

The tremendous increase in accessibility to internet in recent years has changed the global scenario of many fields by technological advancements. One of such development in e-pharmacy service is now being replaced the traditional way of prescribing and dispensing of medicines through online ordering and mail delivery via internet on electronic prescription network. In 1997 the WHO called on its member states to tighten controls on the sale of medical products through internet and intact concerned that this may bypass national drug authorities there by liberating medical products onto the market which are unsafe, unapproved, fraudulent or in-effective.

In India, e-pharmacy came under the purview of the drugs and cosmetics act 1940 and the information technology act 2000 doesn’t distinguish between online and offline pharmacies. So specific amendments are required to this act to bring e-pharmacies within the scope of drug and cosmetics act. The current study is to analyse the advantages and drawbacks of E-pharmacy services. The laws governing pharmacies and their regulations and the future perspective of the trend of online pharmacy services in modern India.

INTRODUCTION

The 21st century has witnessed the drastic changes in globalization with continuous process of development with advancements in science and technology. In context of developments in cyber technology, the massive growth rate can be seen in online business and services in the market termed as e-commerce.

e-commerce is a business model where in the goods and services are done through transmission of data and funds from consumer to producer or the service provider over an electronic network through internet. This made easy for the consumers to directly place an order of their choice on website and avail the products on their doorstep from the producers. Globally a modern trend has been raised, termed as e-pharmacy/ online pharmacy which enables the patients to buy the medicines/drugs of his choice online in his fingertips. This trend is similar to the online shopping of other materials such as clothes, grocery and electronics etc. This is mainly because the % of population using internet have been increased dramatically since2010. Reports suggest that recently in India, the reliance jio scheme added more number of smart phone users. This advancements in technology made easy access to the drugs through internet even for a very common man. The popularity of e-pharmacies is because of 24*7 access, transparency, convenience, time saving & money saving and there are few challenging factors like cost, quality, availability, services, legality, low e-tailing penetration & high pharmacies/ drug store penetration etc will decide the success of e-pharmacies.

Types of online pharmacies

The online pharmacies basically can be classified as two:

1. Legitimate internet pharmacy; the websites providing high quality pharmacy services after verification of standards.
2. Illegitimate internet pharmacy; these are not verified and may not comply with national international professional standards and regulations.

Role of prescription

Online pharmacies will promote drug abuse, misuse, self-medication etc. The self-medication practice is encouraged by the online sale of drugs. It is dangerous and even potentially life-threatening when any medication is taken without medical supervision, certain categories such as Schedule X and Schedule H should be sold only on prescription. So, the prescription plays an important role in purchasing drugs online. The prescription copy should be retained by the licensed pharmacist for 2years after dispensing the drug.

e-prescription networking

The necessary elements in improving patients care according to early visionaries of EHR (electronic health records) inclusion are note documentation, direct order entry and decision support capability. Computerised physician order entry (COPE) system including electronic-prescribing (e-prescribing) are an integral part of EHR. COPE has the major impact on work-flow of physicians & nurses compared to paper- based methods, the e-prescribing system got high adaptation rates and acceptance due to its positive impact on reduction of medication errors & ADE’s, and thus the e-prescription is being implemented in online pharmacy sector for its ease of use of medications. The approved e-prescription is uploaded online to the supplier who verify and supplies the right medicine to the patient’s door steps. This methodology is now being incorporated at most in e-pharmacy services as a part and made easy for patient, prescriber and supplier too.

LOCAL PHARMACIES VS ONLINE PHARMACIES

The price is a major factor in which the cost of medicines in online pharmacies is less compared to local conventional pharmacies since there is no particular production unit and physical store for medications storage and dispensing and the sites will have a large network of retailers to draw medicines from.

Its more convenient for consumers when the online pharmacies work on basis of submission of prescription in a convenient business hour and dispense medicines to the doorsteps than the local pharmacies where there is a need to rush to pharmacies during working hours.

The online pharmacies are large chains works 24*7, and have an access to wide range of medication supplies where in local pharmacies are small independent business plans which may be restricted in quality of drugs they procure.

The responsibility of pharmacist is to dispense the right medicine and counsel the patient about side effects and dosage. This can be achieved in local pharmacies but not in online pharmacies since there is no possibility of an interaction between patient and pharmacist. The benefits of using online pharmacy over local pharmacy reflects the advantages found in online pharmacy. They include convenience, access to medical information, cost efficacy, wide range of availability, ability to avail medicines in a same day. The disadvantages include lack of physical interaction between pharmacists and patient and medication misuse by patients as well as illegal websites.

LEGISLATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS

• ·Drugs and cosmetics act,1940: As per section 18 (c) of drugs and cosmetics (D&C) act only a licensed retailer is allowed for the sales of drugs on the basis of prescription of a doctor. Section 27 of D&C act has provisions for penalty in the form of imprisonment and monetary fine for manufacture & sale without license. Section 10 prohibits import of drug that is substandard, misbranded, adulterated or spurious requires a license for import. D&C act,1940 and D&C rules,1945, recommends specific guidelines for the sale of schedule H and schedule X can be sold only on prescription by registered medical practitioner (RMP). The prescription should be a duplicate copy which is to be retained by pharmacist for 2years.
• The pharmacy act,1948: Section 42 and Sub-section 1 of Indian pharmacy act,1948, quotes “no person other than a registered pharmacist shall compound, prepare, mix, or dispense any medicine on the prescription of RMP” and who ever contravenes the provisions shall be punishable. Drugs and magic remedies act,1954: This act mentions a list of ailments for which no advertising is permitted. The act prohibits false and misleading advertisements that may end up making wrong claims. In India it is been increasingly exposed to advertise for prescription drugs despite legal prohibitions.
• Indian medical council act,1956: Regulation 5.3 of medical council of India (MCI) stipulates that both pharmacists and doctors should work together. But, because of e-pharmacies this relationship is lost. Regulation 7.14 of MCI, does not allow RMP to disclose the patient information in the exercise of his/her profession. According to regulation 6.4 of MCI, giving or receiving rebates or commissions are prohibited. But, e-pharmacies may provide rebates and commissions to doctors to provide prescriptions on basis of online information filled by patient.
• Narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances act,1985: This act provides a strict guideline for un-monitored and un-controlled sale of narcotic drugs listed under the act. This is enforced with due regard of minimising the misuse of habit forming drugs.
• Information technology act,2000: This act governs few legal issues pertaining to online dealings but it is silent on the aspect of e-pharmacy. This act deals with data protection or privacy in India under Section 43A of IT act, 2000 and IT rules,2011. In 2013 the privacy bill is proposed which focuses on protection of sensitive personal data of persons. There is an ambiguity in Indian law whether a pharmacy is allowed to take money prior to delivery of medicines but, medicines certain provisions mandate the money to b collected only after physical handover to the customer.
• Pharmacy practice regulations,2015: The regulation declared by pharmacy council of India in January 2015, states that electronic prescription must be valid for dispensing medicines. This also defines the prescription as a written or electronic direction from a registered medical practitioner or other licensed dentist, veterinarian, etc. to a pharmacist to compound and dispense a specific type of drug to a patient. Based on the regulations the scanned copy of prescription can be considered as valid prescription, but for the purchase of medicines from e-pharmacies has still been questioned.

BENEFITS OF e-PHARMACIES

1. Privacy/Anonymity: it is convenient to order medicines from online drug stores privately as well as to get free delivery. Consumer feels comfortable purchasing online or over the phone rather than in person. In order to prevent the use of consumer’s personal information for any unauthorised purposes, make sure the pharmacy has appropriate privacy policies.
2. Convenience: the online pharmacies provides greater convenience as they are one stop shops for ample of products. The access to product information at these sites is way easier than conventional walk-in pharmacies. They provide the convenient service and supply to the consumer when he/ she find it physically difficult to make it to the pharmacy, have a busy schedule live in remote rural area etc. Hence, it is easy to submit prescription and avail the medicines at their convenient time schedule.
3. Medical information: few online pharmacies provide the essential information regarding medications and diseases as well as links to medical resources.
4. Lower cost: several studies conducted by research institutes have shown that shopping drugs online helps consumer to save as much as one-third cost.
5. Avails greater cost: the online stores provides the drugs ample enough to cater to the consumers living far from the pharmacy and this provides an option to compare the prices before placing an order.
6. Drug approval: most of the legal online pharmacies have the process of drug approval. They require a prescription to supply medications. They offer a drug only after filling up a questionnaire and this questionnaire is reviewed by a doctor before dispatching.
7. Patient safety: an estimated 1.5million ADE’s occur annually in US. The avoidable errors such as selection of incorrect or unavailable drug, dosage form / dose; duplication of therapy, omission of information and misinterpretation of the order due to illegible handwriting. These all problems can be overcome by e-prescribing pattern which is equipped with point of care decision support that notifies provider of potential prescription errors.

DRAWBACKS OF e-PHARMACIES

1. Unauthorised or un-licensed pharmacies: purchasing drugs from these drug stores can increase chances of buying counterfeit, substandard or adulterated products. Few international pharmacies are licensed particularly to import and export medications in a free trade zone area but may not be within the domestic jurisdiction. They require proper inspection over safe dispensing practices and the licensed pharmacists.
2. Lack of physical evaluation: the meaningful interaction with physician, pharmacist and the patient is minimised because of online pharmacies not having any processes of medical supervision or physical evaluation. The lack of licensed health professional may lead to unauthorised decision-making process.
3. Inadequate safeguard of health: online pharmacies fails to require a prescription and you could take the medication inappropriate for you. This can disturb your health conditions. Some illegal online stores deal in counterfeit, substandard or contaminated drugs that can lead to dangerous drug interactions.
4. Lack of personal and financial security: every pharmacy websites should publish their privacy policy, one which promises not to share any personal and financial information with third parties. The online financial transactions must be secured through adequate support of encryption technology.
5. Illegal websites: it is important for any pharmacy website to publish their contact information to enquire about the medication information or other issues. It is important to have proper contact details and helps consumers to raise the question, complaint or the concern about drugs and their cost.
6. Selling of potent drugs: a very few sites have the pattern of obtaining an order by an online questionnaire to those medications which should be dispensed under prescription. Some times other restricted drugs such as Accutane, Thalomidare which are not controlled substances but dangerous if taken without medical supervision.
7. Sudden change in price: few sites post low-ball prices to attract the customers and raise them more abruptly. This may confuse the consumer and it is necessary to make sure the prices listed in sites are up to date and accurate.

MEASURES TO OVERCOME PROBLEMS

The responsibility of governing bodies across the country is to improve the safer use of online pharmacy websites to achieve proper usage, few of the key factors should be considered:

• Designing a website or a body to check the legality of e-pharmacy
• Make specific guidelines for both consumers and sellers for safer use of sites.
• Bring some essential policies for legal operation of e-pharmacies and blacklist the illegal sites providing services.
• The role of central and state government should be well defined for the drug regulation.
• All the sites selling medications online, should be licensed and registered from a regulating body.
• Watch should be kept on dispensing of potent, banned drugs which don’t come under specific categories under jurisdiction.
• A strict adherence to laws is required to ensure efficient and smooth running of e-pharmacies with greater compliance.

REFERENCES

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