Category: Personality Development

The nature of counseling is an intricate combination of personal character and values and theoretical research to create a comprehensive approach to the responsibilities of the profession. This system takes time to develop as the student expands and effectively puts into practice the knowledge of counseling theory. To devise a personal counseling method, a variety of doctrines on human nature must be assessed to find concepts comparable to one’s principles. After an introspective review of personal beliefs, the most appropriate counseling theories are based on self-actualization, independence, and acceptance that come through exploration of the inner perceptions and experiences.

Nature of People

My personal belief is that people are inherently self-centered, and all actions benefit oneself in some way. This does not necessarily imply greed or a deceitful agenda. Human beings live in a society of constant interaction with each other, but the instinct to survive allows people to thrive through mental and emotional selfishness.

Transactional Analysis developed by Eric Berne is a theory that builds upon the Freudian personality states. At the final adult ego state, a person can comprehend and perceive situations that vary from observations (McLeod, 2014). The analysis used in therapy seeks to establish an outcome or state of mind that the patient aims to achieve. Further, using their adult ego and self-introspection, the patient seeks to empower themselves. It should also be noted that TA mostly focuses on human interactions rather than the internal dynamics of a person (Zadeh, Jenkins, & Pepler, 2010).

The Individual in Families and Other Systems

Even though each person is striving to develop and flourish via their own mental and emotional selfishness, the concept of family or the family itself that surrounds the person has a significant impact on them. Family systems theory points out that all parts of a system (a family) are connected, and interactions should be taken into consideration to understand a particular context of a situation a patient is experiencing.

Family systems can influence people both negatively and positively; for example, Karakurt and Silver (2013) notice that sexual abuse in a family or incest is perceived as a betrayal of family roles and ties. A secure relationship helps infants and children adjust their behavior later in life and defines future self-perception as worthy or unworthy of love and support. The system can interact differently; if it encourages and provides support to a person after a traumatic event, there is a higher chance that this social support will mediate the development of PTSD. Negative reactions from a family interaction can result in lower self-esteem, feeling of betrayal, depression, and other adverse effects on mental health.

The attachment theory seems to be the closest to my beliefs; it describes how the relationships between an infant and a caregiver can facilitate or worsen the healthy development of the former. Experiences with the caregiver are then internalized and used as a base for internal working models, which influence the further interpretation of adult relationships (Karakurt & Silver, 2013). Every person experiences the influence of their family interactions (or lack thereof) on their future adult relationships.

Multicultural Considerations

Seminal anthropological and linguistics theory can be used to explain how language and culture influence, moderate, and define multicultural interactions. Intercultural communication is different from monocultural one because, in it, persons with different cultural and linguistic backgrounds partake in the act of sociality (Okech, Pimpleton, Vanatta, & Champe, 2015). Problems might emerge (and sometimes they do) when the language of communication is not the first language of all persons who take part in communication; social interactions and expectations related to them might differ considerably among persons with different cultural backgrounds.

Different cultural values and culture-based rules that apply to communication can lead to misunderstandings or even conflicts during multicultural communication. In my opinion, all negative factors that relate to intercultural misunderstandings, such as ethnocentrism, racism, discrimination, stereotypes, etc. are the major reasons why conflicts emerge. The inability to perceive another culture as an equal one, the unwillingness to accept different values that contradict the ones the person has, and prejudiced views of cultures, ethnicities, and languages all negatively affect the process of change on a personal and national level.

One should remember that context and environment can also regulate unfolding communication, making it more or less prone to conflict. Social hierarchy and societal roles can either hinder or encourage the process of change, indicating whether individuals’ different beliefs will collide or adjust to each other during communication. A hidden message expressed in the form of a gesture or a specially used word might go unnoticed by the recipient if they are not familiar with cultural specifics that the other individual has used to transmit the message. Therefore, not only culture but also language are the factors that define the efficiency of multicultural communication.

Wellness and Prevention

There are different ways to maintain wellness (physical and mental one) in a person. As I have noticed, many individuals focus on acquiring a good job or career that will make their life meaningful, improving ties with their family or friends, staying productive, and useful not only to themselves but to the society (the community) as well. Additionally, some also pay attention to the interpersonal boundaries and build relationships in such a way that they make their life more interesting and enjoyable but do not overwhelm them or demand too serious investments, which can potentially drain their inner resources for interaction and communication.

Counseling strategies for prevention of mental health issues can be the following: lifestyle interventions (exercise, giving up smoking and drinking, diets (healthy eating)) and stress management (cognitive-behavior stress management) to address any irrational thought patterns and replace them with rational ones (Min, Chang, & Lee, 2013). Relaxation exercise or meditation-based techniques can also be useful interventions to prevent the emergence or re-emergence of such habits like smoking and drinking that help individuals cope with stress (although in an unhealthy way).

Preventive consultations can also facilitate an individual’s willingness to achieve a set goal related to their mental health (e.g. stop drinking or end abusive relationships). During the preventive consultation, patients speak with the counselor about their desired goals, use a timetable to understand what time will be needed to achieve them, and discuss with their counselor possible challenges and barriers that can emerge. With the help of this strategy, the counselor will be able to evaluate an individual’s motivation to achieve the goal and assist them in overcoming any barriers that might challenge the process during its implementation.

The Nature of Problems

Problems and ineffective functioning can be caused by internal and external factors, such as, for example, conflicts with family or friends, illnesses, internal conflicts, inability to accept one’s emotions, traumatic experiences, etc. Serious psychological and physical traumas can lead to mental health illnesses such as depression and anxiety that develop from a person’s traumatic experience (loss of a loved one, life-threatening illness, other encounters that lead to awareness of human mortality).

Such experiences make an individual question their existence (as well as the existence of others), evoke fear of living in them, lead to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and worsen their quality of life (that can be already challenged by illness). It appears that the existential theory that examines four different dimensions of the life of an individual is suitable to address the problems and difficulties that form in a person after a traumatic event.

Evaluation of the physical dimensions fosters a counselor’s understanding of the patient’s relationships with the world in a physical sense (Corbett & Milton, 2011). When trauma is examined via social dimension, the counselor can see what cultural and behavioral responses the individual has developed to react to the trauma or cope with it. Trauma can shatter an individual’s psychological dimension, leading to a feeling of an existential loss.

As to the spiritual dimension, traumas can lead both to adverse (loss of meaning, crisis) and positive impacts (appreciation of life’s joys and experiences). The existential therapy implies the individual will have to confront the losses they suffered, express and understand the feelings they have concerning the trauma, and collect some information about themselves and their worldview from their emotions. I believe that existential therapy is capable of addressing and working through all challenges that a traumatic event triggers in a person.

The Process of Change

During the counseling process, the person’s perception of their self, emotions, context, environment, and the situation change, thus resulting in acceptance or ability to cope with an event that previously led to severe inner discrepancies in a person’s worldview or self-perception. The counselor’s role is to express compassion and understanding to the person but remember that the person’s process of problem-solving should be partly independent of the counselor.

At the same time, the counselor is responsible for guiding the counseling process correctly and being flexible to ensure that the person’s needs are met. The therapeutic relationship should be built on mutual respect and attention; the counselor needs to be attentive to emotions the person expresses to address them in time, showing the client that they are heard. Furthermore, the counselor’s questions can help the client view their problem from a different perspective, thus facilitating change.

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) defines emotional disturbances as discrepancies that are caused by irrational beliefs such as demands, self- or world-downing, etc. that can also be accompanied by low frustration tolerance (Turner & Barker, 2012).

Psychological health is defined by rational beliefs (self- or world-acceptance, preferences, etc.) and high-frustration tolerance. Irrational beliefs can result in dysfunctional behavior and emotional distress, thus leading to higher anxiety and arousal levels in an individual. If REBT is used during the counseling process, it helps the person understand how and why irrational beliefs and other convictions shape their view of an event in a particular way. The significance of REBT is in its ability to identify an event that leads to dysfunctional behavior and irrational beliefs; oftentimes, clients can be unaware of the exact influence of this event on their mental and physical well-being.

Theory in Practice

The technique I find extremely helpful and efficient is actively used in nursing nowadays; the patient-centered approach implies that the care and treatment a medical professional provides also take patient’s personal needs, demands, fears, and goals into consideration. A patient is not a subject that is to be treated; it is a person that requires understanding and attention, struggles with fears and challenges, and wants to be respected and understood.

It appears that a similar approach in counseling is necessary because a counselor’s responsibility is to help not the subject but a personal experience change. The client should not be reduced to their diagnosis because their illness does not define them as a person. The therapist should avoid taking a paternalized attitude to the patient because the patient is an active participant in the therapy and not a passive recipient.

Rogers’ person- or client-centered therapy perfectly aligns with my view of the counseling process. Rogers also points out the uniqueness of each individual and argues that during therapy, each person needs a unique approach as well because we are all different as individuals (Moreira, 2012). It is also important for the therapist (or the counselor) to trust into client’s ability to pursue their aims and not interfere with the process in such a way that might lead to the disempowerment of the client. Being empathic and trying to understand the client’s point is crucial for patient-centered therapy. Without these strategies, the counselor will be unable to comprehend the client’s intentions or emotional associations, thus making the process of change inefficient.

References

Karakurt, G., & Silver, K. E. (2013). Therapy for childhood sexual abuse survivors using attachment and family systems theory orientations. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 42(1), 79-91. Web.

McLeod, J. (2014). Transactional analysis psychotherapy with a woman suffering from multiple sclerosis: A systematic case study. Transactional Analysis Journal, 43(3), 212-223. Web.

Min, J., Chang, U., & Lee, C. (2013). Mental health promotion and illness prevention: A challenge for psychiatrists. Psychiatry Investigation, 10(4), 307-316. Web.

Moreira, V. (2012). From person-centered to humanistic-phenomenological psychotherapy. Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies, 11(1), 48-63. Web.

Okech, J., Pimpleton, A., Vannatta, R., & Champe, J. (2015). Intercultural communication: An application to group work. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 40(3), 268-293. Web.

Turner, M., & Barker, J. (2012). Examining the efficacy of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) on irrational beliefs and anxiety in elite youth cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25(1), 131-147. Web.

Zadeh, Z. Y., Jenkins, J., & Pepler, D. (2010). A transactional analysis of maternal negativity and child externalizing behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34(3), 218-228. Web.

Introduction

This paper describes the life of a retired engineer, Keens Brown. He is 64 years old and lives in Hawaii. This essay describes his personal development story, with the goal of comprehending his different life stages and the influences that define his social and psychological reality. Using a systems perspective, this paper concentrates on highlighting Brown’s biological nature, psychological profile, and social and cultural upbringing.

These assessments are integral to the development of specific recommendations to improve his welfare. Proposals to enhance his life are based on different psychological and social theories that appear in the last section of this paper. The first area of analysis is the subject’s biological nature, described below.

Biological Nature

Mr. Brown’s parents lived in America but were originally from East Africa. They immigrated to the US in 1950. In 1953 Mr. Brown was born. He grew up in a nuclear family and was the last-born in a family of seven children. The retired engineer had two elder brothers and three sisters. Three of his siblings passed on. Two of them were his brothers, while one was a sister. Today, he is the only surviving male in his family. His dad died of a heart attack at 70 years old, and his mother passed on from cancer complications when she was 83 years old. Mr. Brown does not suffer any known illnesses and has never been diagnosed with any life-threatening condition. However, in 2016, his doctor diagnosed him with arthritis.

At 64 years old, Mr. Brown weighs 200lbs and is 5 feet 9 inches in height. As a young man, he often participated in different kinds of sports, but football was his main passion. He maintained his athleticism even in old age because he used to run for about three miles every day before his doctor advised him not to do so because of the arthritis diagnosis. Today, he prefers to walk a couple of miles a day to keep fit. Usually, he does so when going to buy groceries or when attending local town hall meetings.

Social and Cultural Development

Despite being the youngest child in his home, Keens often felt the pressure of being a leader of his sisters and their families because he was brought up in a patriarchal setting where sons often have such responsibility and are mandated to take care of their younger siblings. He finds this responsibility taxing to his psychological well-being because few family members seem to be “cooperating” with him. For example, his eldest brother died two years ago, and his sons have been fighting over his property. Mr. Brown has been unable to solve the issue because the feuding children perceive him as an “old person” who cannot tell them what they should do.

Mr. Brown is twice divorced and has eight children. He currently stays with his wife in a rural location off the shores of Hawaii. In 2009, he lost one of his sons in an armed robbery incident. The murder took a mental toll on him because he always says that he never thought he would lose one of his sons in such a manner. In fact, in frequent discussions with his friends, he often says that he never wanted to die before anyone of his children.

Although the incident made him concerned about the safety of his family, he does not enjoy a good relationship with any of his children because of strained marital relationships between him and their mothers (his ex-wives). Often, he engages in family tussles with his former partners about different social and family issues – a process that has cost him his relationship with his children because they commonly side with their mothers. Mr. Brown has often attempted to circumnavigate the issue by trying to forge a relationship with his children, but rarely does he get the reciprocity of concern he yearns for.

On a typical day, Mr. Brown does not engage in many activities. He often likes to socialize with his age mates in small social groups, discussing politics and policy issues affecting the society. Sometimes, he likes to visit local schools and volunteer to help with building and construction activities at an advisory level. He finds these social events good for his mental health because they give him something to look forward to doing each day.

Psychological Development

Mr. Brown was born in a low-income family in Harlem, New York. His father was a plumber, and his mother worked as a secretary for a local school. Part of his social life was in India, where he studied his Diploma in engineering. He stayed in the Asian country for three years before he flew back to the US to pursue a degree in the same field. Growing up in America during the 1950s and 1960s, he experienced racism from his schoolmates and friends. The situation was compounded by the fact that he schooled in a predominantly white institution. His colleagues often made fun of his nose and color of skin.

Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman (2013) say people who experience such kinds of racism are often vulnerable to serious psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, stress, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Nonetheless, Mr. Brown was resilient in his push to make a fruitful life for his family because he did not allow such negative experiences to affect his adult years. He has been able to forge unique friendships with people of all races and even married one woman who was half-Asian and half-white.

His ability to transcend years of abuse and mistreatment from racist people in his early childhood days manifests as a case of tenacity on his part because he could have allowed these experiences to affect how he developed future relationships. However, this did not happen. Nonetheless, his resilience in his adult years masks the effects that such acts of racism had on his self-esteem as a child because, on numerous occasions, he often asked his parents if there was “something wrong” with his appearance. Instead of his parents consoling him, they were unsympathetic to his plight and told him to “man up” because the world was an unfair place. This treatment affected how Mr. Brown socialized as a teenager because he was often shy and coy around his peers.

Several researchers have highlighted the relationship between parental behavior and psychological development. For example, Iram and Najam (2014) say the two elements share a close relationship with negative psychological outcomes such as poor social development and emotional unresponsiveness. At the same time, studies have shown that parental abuses are associated with negative developmental outcomes (Iram & Najam, 2014).

Such was the case of Mr. Brown because, during his adolescent days, he was a juvenile after being convicted of three incidences of arson. He was also a troublesome student at school after the administration suspended him two times for selling marijuana. In fact, on one occasion, the disciplinary board expelled him from school, forcing his parents to look for another institution when he was in junior high school. Collectively, he studied in three different high schools because of disciplinary issues at various institutions. As an adult, Mr. Brown has been unwilling to trust strangers and often keeps to himself. He only has a few friends who have been a constant figure in his life. Similarly, he likes to hang around two of his grandchildren, who enjoy his company over the summer holidays.

Recent research studies have established a link between the lack of trust and parental abuse (Iram & Najam, 2014). They demonstrate that children who were abused by their parents often tend to develop trust issues, especially when interacting with strangers. Mr. Brown suffers from this problem. Therefore, using Zastrow and Kirst-Ashman’s (2013) analogy, his childhood could have had a significant implication on his adult behavior.

Mr. Brown’s trust problems also fit into Erickson’s first stage of psychosocial development, which is the trust vs. mistrust stage. Within this segment of growth, psychologists assume that children depend entirely on their parent’s protection and guidance (Scheck, 2014). At this stage, children look up to their parents for food, warmth, and comfort. If the parents can provide such needs adequately, proponents of this view say children develop an attachment to them and thrive on a sense of security provided by their caregivers (Scheck, 2014). However, if the parents fail to provide this protection, the children become detached and develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity (Scheck, 2014).

Mr. Brown’s trust issues could have developed this way. Additionally, if his behaviors are analyzed within the context of Erickson’s theory, his early childhood days seem to have had a significant impact on his psychosocial development (Scheck, 2014). Besides the mistrust vs. trust dichotomy espoused in this review, other stages of Erikson’s theory include autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generosity vs. self-absorption, and integrity vs. despair (Scheck, 2014).

The above analysis shares close dynamics with Freud’s theory of personality development, which presupposes that a person’s childhood is the most important aspect of their development (Kline, 2013). Notably, Freud emphasized the need to focus on early childhood as an integral part of human psychology and social development (Kline, 2013). His theory postulates that people start developing a personality when they are about five years old (Kline, 2013). At this age, Mr. Brown had started to develop emotional scars of bullying and parental abuse both at home and at school.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development also shares the same idea of psychological growth as Freud’s theory does because it argues that a person’s childhood experience is the most important one in understanding people’s personalities (Scheck, 2014). The theory also argues that each stage of a person’s development often brings new challenges and, depending on how people react to them, such events would easily shape their character (Scheck, 2014).

Recommendations For Improving The Overall Developmental Well-Being Of The Subject

Since Mr. Brown lives with his wife in Florida and is estranged from his children, more effort needs to be made to strengthen his social support network. Doing so should primarily involve rekindling his relationship with his children. It would improve his mental health because he often gets depressed about his inability to forge a good relationship with his family members. As mentioned in this paper, part of the problem has been his inability to develop cordial relationships with his two ex-wives.

Rebuilding a close association with his children could mean that he also mends his relationships with both of them. This approach would help him solve the animosity that exists between his children and him. Additionally, having strong social support through his children would improve Mr. Brown’s happiness because it would eliminate any regrets about not having a good relationship with his kin later in his elderly years. Furthermore, having the support of his children would provide him with additional care at an advanced age.

Different theories have established the link between a strong social support system and good health. For example, the stress and coping support theory stipulate that people who have a strong family support system are able to cope better with their life stresses (Lakey & Orehek, 2012). These benefits are realizable because the support system would allow the beneficiaries to develop adaptive appraisal and coping techniques.

The relation regulation theory also supports the recommendation proposed in this paper because researchers have extensively applied it in numerous works of literature to explain the importance of the elderly to have strong and supportive social systems (Lakey & Orehek, 2012). The theory presupposes that beneficiaries of the strong social support system would benefit from it because it would allow them to regulate their emotions well.

Such outcomes are best achieved through ordinary conversations and shared activities between the elderly and their family members (Lakey & Orehek, 2012). As the theory’s name indicates, these interactions are relational in the sense that the contents of the interactions are purely based on personal preference. Based on the merits of this theory, developing close family connections between Mr. Brown and his children would improve his mental health and ultimately enhance his well-being.

Mr. Brown also needs to take care of his physical health by eating a balanced diet and maintaining his minimal exercise regimen. This part of his development plan would play a crucial role in helping him to live a longer and more fulfilling life. It is pertinent to emphasize this fact because he has already started showing signs of aging, as seen from the arthritis diagnosis. Therefore, he needs to take care of his body to improve his physical well-being the same way as he should improve his social networks to enhance his mental health.

Conclusion

Based on the life story of Mr. Brown, resilience emerges as a key theme in the analysis because the retired engineer is able to transcend different types of problems that have characterized his personal growth to live a promising life. Indeed, his upbringing is dotted with several cases of abuse and mistreatment from his parents and schoolmates, but he was able to transcend all these issues and build an illustrious career in engineering.

Concisely, although these experiences made him vulnerable to different mental and psychological problems, he did not allow them to affect him. This is why he lives a relatively normal life in his elderly years in Hawaii. However, he has made a mistake in alienating himself from his children and needs to work on it. The relation regulatory theory and the stress and coping support theory support this recommendation.

References

Iram, S. F., & Najam, N. (2014). Parental psychological abuse toward children and mental health problems in adolescence. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 30(2), 256–260.

Kline, P. (2013). Fact and fantasy in Freudian theory (RLE: Freud). London, UK: Routledge.

Lakey, B., & Orehek, E. (2012). Relational regulation theory: A new approach to explain the link between perceived support and mental health. Psychological Review, 118(1), 482–495.

Scheck, S. (2014). The stages of psychosocial development according to Erik H. Erikson. New York, NY: GRIN Publishing.

Zastrow, C., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (Eds.). (2013). Understand human behavior in the social environment (10th ed.). London, UK: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

All people differ in their way of thinking, character, temperament, emotionality, behavior, and point of view. These features form the personality of an individual and often complicate communication and understanding between human beings since it is difficult to comprehend how another person thinks. Studying personality development and its types helps to get along with difficult people, solve problems of misunderstanding, and be successful. The paper is aimed at scrutinizing the phenomenon of personality development, the tools for assessing personality, and also its theory, types, and impact.

Personality Development: The Impact of Genetics (Nature) and External Influences/Development (Nurture)

One of the main issues of personality development is how much genetics and the environment of bringing an individual up influence the personality. Scientific work shows that partly the answer depends on a kind of studied personality aspects (Lecci, 2015). For example, neuroticism, to a certain extent, is impacted by the genetic element, while creativity and openness to new things are formed by environmental effects. Temperament, as one of the characteristics of personality, is genetically predisposed from birth. The properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental features. Their physiological basis is the genetically determined characteristics of the central nervous system (Lecci, 2015). Thereby, the influence of the environment on temperament is minimal; a person can only control a reaction and behavior in various situations.

Genetics also determines, to some extent, the level of intelligence and several personality traits, such as self-confidence, anxiety, friendliness, and consciousness (Lecci, 2015). On the other hand, the formation of character is strongly influenced by the environment in which the person is brought up. The methods of parenting, cultural values, education, and the circle of communicating define the person’s way of expressing thoughts, one’s behavior, cultural and religious views, and attitude to other people (Lecci, 2015). However, there is a tendency not to oppose genetics and the environment, since both the nature of an individual and his or her upbringing environment make a significant contribution to personality development. Psychology of personality explains that it is important to consider the circumstances in which nature and upbringing influence personality formation.

Using the Personality Theory as a Vehicle for Career Advancement

Numerous attempts to systematize knowledge of personality have led to the creation of a personality theory, which uses psychology tools to make theoretical models allowing a better understanding of development, thinking, and behavior processes. We do not always treat people as necessary because we do not know what exactly they want. Misunderstandings leading to distrust, disrespect, and conflicts appear due to differences in our personality types. According to Lerner (2013), four specimens of personality can be located; these are the Playful, the Peaceful, the Powerful, and the Premises.

Playfuls are enthusiastic extroverts and innovators in business; in communication, they need approval and attention. Powerfuls are productive, hardworking, and persistent people who wish loyalty and respect. Precises are organized perfect workers who do not make mistakes and want space and quiet. Peacefuls are easy-going and patient individuals avoiding conflicts and looking for harmony (Lerner, 2013). Knowing these personality types can help to make an impressive career advancement – to hire prospective employees, distribute responsibilities, and get along with a boss and colleagues.

Understanding personality theory gives a huge advantage not only in career development but also in choosing a future profession. It can help a person reduce the area of the job search, identify strengths and weaknesses, and opt for the right environment. For example, individuals with leadership qualities may occupy managing positions. Creativity and flexibility help succeed in challenging assignments, while the analytical mindset organizes and structures a company’s work. Sociability and eloquence may give new acquaintances and promotion (Stahl, 2017). It is necessary to analyze personal qualities and competently implement them in professional development.

Four Techniques for Identifying and Analyzing Personality

There are several different measures that are used to assess personality. These tools include interviews, inventories for producing reports concerning personal progress, a variety of tests, as well as measurements based on the Likert scale and the use of checklists (Lecci, 2015). Structured interviews (SCID tests) are the questions that an interviewer asks subjects to get a diagnostic tool matching the DSM’s unique structure. Some of these interviews are to evaluate personal character traits, and others determine the type of personality disorder. Objective tests are personality assessment tools that consist of many scales, are estimated on a computer, and assess personality disorder and psychopathology (Lecci, 2015). The most famous and most effective of these tests are Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 based on true-false questions, the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III incorporating personality scales, the Personality Assessment Inventory containing 344 items, and others (Lecci, 2015).

Among the most famous projective tests, the ones that get most mentioning are the Rorschach test based on image perception, the Thematic Apperception Test for defining one’s cognitive issues, and the sentence completion exercise (Lecci, 2015). The Rorschach Inkblot Method consists of 10 gray, black, and color cards with inkblots. Subjects should say what an inkblot reminds them and explain their answer. The Thematic Apperception Test includes a series of pictures portraying ambiguous situations, which should be discussed by subjects. The purpose is to determine personal deviations in the perception of the displayed images. Rating scales, as well as other test types such as checklists typically come in the form of questions to check or to indicate the degree of agreement to an item. Widely applied rating scales are the Psychopathy Checklist, which is expected to define the extent of a participant’s empathy and the presence of erratic behavior, and the Positive Affect/Negative Affect Schedule (Lecci, 2015). These personality assessment tools are widespread in many fields of society and are used to determine personality types, detect psychological disorders, and employ staff. Computer programs and effective statistical methods make it possible to obtain reliable results of personality verification.

Personality Developmental Journey

Personality development occurs throughout people’s lives, but the psychological characteristics change intensely in childhood and adolescence (Lecci, 2015). Although some aspects of personality are inherent in an individual from birth (for example, temperament), the environment and upbringing are paramount in personality development. My developmental journey confirms this statement: a person receives moral and ethical components forming the character in family and immediate environment. The behavior of parents directly affects the way children communicate with peers and socialize. Initial assumptions about personality development clarify my experience of misunderstandings – the disagreements were the result of ignorance of personality types. Currently, I know how to use the gained knowledge in communication and career properly.

Conclusion

In the scientific field, personality represents a theoretical construct of behaving, thinking, and feeling patterns created to help people understand individual differences. Personal development reflects all changes in the characteristics of an individual as a result of internal processes and external influences. Each person has a unique set of qualities – character, temperament, mentality, emotionality, and way of thinking and perceiving information – that determine one’s personality. The theory of personality analyzes and systematizes the data to understand the behavior of people and the possibility of applying the acquired knowledge in practice.

References

Lecci, L. B. (2015). Personality. Web.

Lerner, H. (2013). Become successful by understanding people’s personalities.Forbes. Web.

Stahl, A. (2017). 3 Ways knowing your personality type can help you with your career.Forbes. Web.

This section is an introduction into the life of Donald Winnicott. This involves the circumstances under which he was born, his receiving of an education, and how he eventually ended up in medical school. There is also an exploration of his role in the pediatric studies, and the professional with whom he interacted with in his daily work.

Accomplishments

This is an evaluation of the achievements of Donald Winnicott in his work as a psycho-analytical expert, and how his findings have enabled the advancement of the psychiatry filed, as well as a better understanding of the personality development.

Winnicott’s theories

This is an exploratory study of such theories the theory of objectivity, the theory of aggression, true and false self, and transition space theory, among others.

Winnicott’s contribution to the area of personality development: an investigation into the role that Winnicott’s theories have played in enabling a better understanding of personalities, as well as to aid counselors and therapists to better understand their patients.

The life history of Donald Winnicott

Born Donald Woods Winnicott in April 7 1896, Winnicott was the only son, and a last child of his merchant father, who had also served as a Plymouth mayor. Coming from a middle class family in Plymouth, England Winnicott first started training as a medical doctor, where he specialized as a pediatrician (Hazell, 1996). During this time, the First World War was in progress Winnicott served as a medical probationer. Upon completing his studies, he was posted at a children’s hospital in Paddington Green, London in 1923. (Winnicott, 1960).

The same year, he wed and also initiated a personality analysis with James Strachey, who happened to have been Freud’s English translator. Four years later, he joined psycho-analytical society of England, eventually qualifying in 1935, as a child analyst (Winnicott, 1969). Through the years, Winnicott made numerous analyses related to child psychology, with the help of such child analysts as Melanie Klein and Joan Riviere. Winnicott shared with the Melanie Klein the belief that psychic health was indeed of paramount importance during the first year of the life of a child (Winnicott 1969). However, this same view was in sharp contrast to that shared by Freud’s daughter, Anna had moved to London in 1938, following the persecution of the Nazis in Austria. She was also a qualified child psychology.

Owing to these two factions of child psychologists, the psycho-analytical society of Britain was at this time faced with an imminent collapse. However, they were later to reach a compromise when the Second World War came to an end in 1945. This was made possible by way of the establishment of a middle group. It is this third group that Winnicott later identified with (Winnicott, 1996).

Winnicott, through his numerous interactions with the children, reflected on the pivotal role that mothers play in the lives of their children. It then dawned on Winnicott that therapy and management was crucial, if at all he was to correctly interpret the findings of his numerous studies. In 1952, Winnicott wed Clare Britton, and this was his second marriage. She was a social worker for psychiatrists. It is also worth noting here that Winnicott has immensely collaborated in the years of war with his would-be bride. With the war having ended, Winnicott was made in charge of at the psychoanalysis institute’s department of children. He was to hold this job for the next 25 years (Winnicott, 1960).

In addition to the new role, Winnicott also served as the president of the psycho-analytical society of Britain for a whole two terms. Further, he served as a board member to both the WHO and UNESCO study groups. In addition, Winnicott gave enormous lectures on his profession, besides the numerous publications that he was able to write. Winnicott was also into private practice. All in all, Winnicott only left his post at the children’s hospital in Paddington Green in the 1960s. Health wise, Winnicott suffered a series of heart attacks, and the last one took its toll in 1971. Winnicott was eventually cremated in London (Hazell, 1996).

Winnicott’s accomplishments and theories

Donald Winnicott has helped publish a series of books, in addition to the more than 200 papers that he has also written and published. In these, Winnicott was able to integrate what he observed from children he studied; those with psychoanalytic disorders. In the process, Winnicott was also able to develop and formulate concepts that were later to find use in the areas of infant treatment, the study of society, psychoanalysis and the treatment of the family (Winnicott, 1993).

Specializing in pediatrics, Winnicott was able to attend to over 60,000 infants, as well as offering consultation services to parents, and other children. Winnicott was very attentive to context and details as well, and his experience was that even the slightest deflection in behavior, does indeed have a profound effect to the interactive system as a whole. Leopoldo Fugencio (2006) has attempted to illustrate how Winnicott offered to reject the basic concepts of Sigmund Freud in as far as the field of meta-psychology is concerned. These concepts include that of the instinct, libido and apparatus of the psychical (Holmes, 1993).

To achieve this, Winnicott differs with Freud, who has described meta-psychology as a branch of psychoanalysis that if almost purely speculative. To this end, Winnicott has succeeded in replacing the main concepts relating to the theory of meta-psychology (Winnicott, 1969). In addition, his theory bears no correlation to phenomenon, thus ruling out the place of speculation in the area. As such, these findings have tended to favor Winnicott as a campaigner of theories that are based on facts. While working with the evacuated children in Oxfordshire, Donald Winnicott received assistance from his wife Clare (Winnicott, 1993).

Despite the attempt by the government and Winnicott, almost 8,000 children got killed in Britain alone (Holman, 1993). The urban evacuated children mainly came from the working class and in more cases, they would feel unwelcome in the homes of the wealthy middle class families, and into which they were expected to find refuge. Consequently, a majority of the children were usually afflicted by psychological problems.

This was exacerbated by the fact that some of their parents had gotten killed too. In light of this, group homes were establish in the whole country to take care of these children, who were suffering from a prolonged separation with their parents (Holmes, 1993). In total, more than six million children were evacuated from various cities in England, as well as from the countryside, in what is commonly referred to as the war years. This was a difficult moments for families all over, as the fathers were in the war while the mothers worked in a bid to provide for their families.

In the process, it was the children who suffered the most, as they were in not receiving the deserved psychological needs and safety from their parents. The fact that these were the years of the war did not make matters any easier, and anxiety was a common thing to these children (Winnicott, 1996). Clare Winnicott also played a major role by influencing her husband to engage into the profession of social work. In light of this, Winnicott was later on to give numerous lectures for free on the field of psychoanalysis. In addition, he also delivered many speeches in conferences meant for social workers, as well as the regular publishing of these workers, journals (Winnicott, 1960).

With the war having ended, Winnicott almost ceased treating children who were suffering from psycho-analytical disorder. Instead, he embarked on a consultative endeavor to attend to the children’s parents, as well as their caregivers (Kahr, 1996). As a trained psychoanalyst, Winnicott helped to develop the Psycho-Analytic institute of Britain’s middle group. This was later to enable him curve out a niche for himself, thereby distinguishing himself from both Anna Freud and Klein. Anna was more focused on the ego, while Klein concentrated on fantasies of the unconscious.

By identifying himself with a middle group, Winnicott was able to focus on the separation of an individual’s dependence and their wellbeing as well. In the process, Winnicott unearthed the hazards that involved when a failure does occur in an individual’s environment (Winnicott, 1960). According to Winnicott, the idea of deriving theories enabled him to illuminate the world of a patient. In one of his many studies that involved an exploration of antisocial character, Winnicott, by focusing on a patient’s symptoms as communication, found out that such acts as say, stealing, reflects a sign of hope by indicating that a patient was unconsciously aware of the love they had from their parents, and were now determined to get it all back (Winnicott, 1969).

To Winnicott, psycho-analysis can be viewed at as an interactive form of play. At the same time, he believed that an individual ought to have a permanent isolation. It is through his endeavor that he was able to open the possibilities of being able to address the early failure in a child’s development. As such, Winnicott was also able to uncover the importance of therapy in the treatment psychoanalytical patients. His work has therefore made it possible today to teat some of the most psychosocially disturbed patients today (Holmes, 1993).

According to Winnicott, there is a transition space between the inner and outer world of a child. His main focus however, was on the space between the two worlds, or what he called the transition space. This space, Winnicott discovered, is very important, as it helps a child to play and also turn creative. According to Winnicott, the transition period is one that occurs when a child is undergoing a transforming, from a subjective omnipotent point of view, to that of an objective reality (Winnicott, 1960).

The subjective omnipotent stage was theorized by Winnicott as a symbiotic relationship between the child and its mother. Here, the child sees itself as a center of existence. In addition, it gets all its attention from the mother, as evidenced by a crying child.

As such, the responses of the mother to the wishes of the child is seen by Winnicott as an attempt by the mother to fulfill these. On the other hand, the stage of an objective reality in the life of a child occurs at such a point as when the mother of a child begins to unconsciously recede from the life of a child (Winnicott, 1969). From this point on, it dawns on the child that they are not as important as they thought, and that in fact, they are more reliant on the mother that it had occurred to them. Eventually, a transition does occur, in the life of a child, leading to development.

Another theory that Winnicott explored is that of the development of an ego. To him, ego comes as a result of threats that abounds in an individuals life, and that are out to frustrate the development and existence of a being. This, according to Winnicott, is afforded to the child through what he calls the good-enough mother (Winnicott, 1960). The lack of good enough maternal care has the potential of leading to the non-existence of a child. As such, this acts as a handicap o the idea of the continuity of living. Such an individual then, reacts to the impingements that are usually offered by the environment (Winnicott, 1960).

Winnicott’s theory of child aggression holds that aggression is a natural to the development of a child. In fact, aggression is like a test to the development of a child. That is why the kicking and screaming of a child ought to be seen as normal. Otherwise, the lack of aggression during childhood may as well lead to repressed personalities in a child.

The theory of aggression is also related to Winnicott’s theory of objects, in that a child will normally relate to the objects that surrounds them. The child will then play with such objects, and at times will normally destroy them. Such play and exploration lead to the development of a child. Sometimes, a child will also view the mother as the objects, and in such cases, she might as well be viewed at as a venting point for the aggression of the child. When a mother is able to maintain calm, then the child will be able to overcome their aggression as well (Winnicott, 1993).

Winnicott also views the practice of a patient attending therapy, as a holding environment, and in which a patient is able to make up for their neglected needs in as far as their egos are concerned. Thus, therapy normally enables the true identity of an individual to emerge, thereby drawing a clear line between false self and true self. However, Winnicott asserts that for this to happen, there must be a lot of patience from the therapist. Such patience is what will eventually lead to the patient finding the answers to true joy and understanding (Winnicott, 1969).

With respect to themselves objects relations theory, Winnicott has provided that the quality of the care that a child receives from the mother is what will eventually determine whether or not a child develops into a healthy false self, or otherwise For this to happen, there must be the presence of a good-enough mother. In the initial stages, the mother or anybody else who takes care of the child has to support the fused illusion held by the child. Over time however, the carer has to allow for disillusionment, at such a time as when the child is in a position to come into terms with its personality. For such a separation to occur, then play comes into effect, and is usually supported by the use of transition objects (Winnicott, 1960).

According to Winnicott, the psychological beginning of an infant usually occurs in an undisturbed and isolated state. As such, the children, though they make spontaneous movement, nevertheless are able to discover this environment without as much as having to lose their sense of individuality (Holmes, 1993). In a case whereby the environment tends to be faulty to the adaptability of a child, then such a child may react to such an environment, and hence the issue of impingement.

As such, there is a loss of self, and the remedy can only be realized as and when there is a withdrawal, thereby leading to the return of the child to isolation. Winnicott also noted that a disabled person could as well be likened to such a situation. In this case, just like in the case of an infant, the family members of the disabled person can opt to adapt to the needs of the person, or otherwise fail to (Winnicott, 1960).

Winnicott also came up with the concept of a true and false self. When an infant benefits from a positive adaptation of their needs, then a true self will result. On the other hand, a false self comes about when there has been an impingement on the environment, thus forcing an infant to comply with it (Winnicott, 1960).

The relation of Donald Winnicott’s theories to personality developmental

The concept of identifying a true or false self has a wide application in the area of rehabilitation. In this context, the rehabilitation center offers a patient a presence of good-enough setting. This acts as a holding environment, and in which the patient receives adaptations that have been so suited to meet his/her needs. In order to achieve the desired conducive holding environment, the patient is normally offered empathy and warmth (Kahr, 1996).

Through the analysis of the aggression theory, therapists are also able to help patients handle issues of rage and anger. Through his numerous studies of mentally disturbed children and their mothers, Winnicott was able to realize that sometimes, mothers hate their children. By extension, some of today’s therapists have been known to hate their patients as well, and this has the potential of rendering serious blows to the rehabilitation efforts (Winnicott, 1969). As Winnicott noted (Winnicott 1993), objective love results after first the experiencing of a hating of the same object. Through this observation, counselors and therapists are also realizing that is important to learn and practice objective hating. This it has been proven is the avenue to the understanding of the feelings of a client (Winnicott, 1953).

Conclusion

Ultimately, it can be seen that Donald Winnicott, through his numerous working with mentally disturbed children, was able to come up with theories such as the aggression theory, the theory of objectivity, and the true and false self theory (Winnicott, 1969). In addition, he was also able to pass on his knowledge of psychoanalytical issues to social workers, besides helping them publish their work. The theories of Donald Winnicott have found valuable application in the study of personalities today, and are thus being widely practiced by counselors and therapists (Winnicott, 1993). Although Winnicott was sometimes controversial, in his approaches to the field of psychoanalysis, his work is revered by many, and he has left a mark in as far as the understanding of personality development is concerned.

References

Hazell, J. (1996) H. J. S. Guntrip: A Psychoanalytical Biography. London: Free Association Books.

Holmes, J. (1993) John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. London: Routledge.

Kahr, B. (1996). D.W. Winnicott: A Biographical Portrait. London: Karnac Books. of Psychoanalysis, 34, 89-97.

Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena, International Journal.

Winnicott, D. (1960). The theory of the parent-child relationship. International journal of Psychoanalysis. 41:585-595.

Winnicott, D.W. (1969).The use of an object. International journal of psychoanalysis, 50: 711-716.

Winnicott, D.W. (1993) Talking to Parents. Workingham & Cambridge, Mass: Addison-Wesley.

Winnicott, D.W. (1996) Thinking about children. London: Karnac Books, Perseus Press.

When defining human behavior, it is not easy to define what normal or abnormal development is. Different approaches can be used to define normal or abnormal development. These include use of statistics, socially accepted standards, a person’s feelings, or even biological injuries.

Use of personality theories is one way of exploring normal and abnormal development (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1974). This is where different theories are used to define whether a certain aspect of human development is normal or abnormal. In this case, three different personality theories will be used to define normal and abnormal development.

The psychoanalytic theory of personality covers both normal and abnormal development. According to this theory, there are inner forces influencing one’s behavior. According to the theory, this is because the mind consists of two parts. The conscious mind that consists of things we are aware of, and the unconscious part that houses thoughts, urges, and memories outside of our awareness.

These mind spheres control human psychological development. Sometimes abnormal behavior may be a manifestation of actions of the unconscious mind. Normal and abnormal developments are both influenced by the conscious or unconscious parts of the mind. Psychoanalysis is the process used to bring to the surface the unconscious activities of the brain. Through this process, the contents of the unconscious mind are brought to the conscious part.

Another theory that defines development is Adlerian theory. This theory states that social aspects can define an individual’s behavior. The social aspects in this case include lifestyle, birth order, equality, parental education, among others (Gallagher, 2002). According to this theory, feelings of capability, encouragement, and appreciation encourage normal and positive development. On the contrary, feelings of discouragement and incapability may result in abnormal development.

This theory has been applied in child development. Encouraging and motivating children when they are growing fosters normal development. This theory further states that human beings reciprocate the attributes of the social context in which they develop. In addition, seeking to fulfill certain desires in life can influence one’s development. This theory advocates that humans be viewed from a holistic point of view.

Jung, a renowned psychologist, developed the analytical theory. According to this theory, the human mind is divided into conscious and unconscious parts. The unconscious part is further divided into sub layers. One of these is the personal unconscious. This part is responsible for storing a person’s memories and experiences that cannot be accessed by the conscious part. These memories are known as complexes, and they influence development.

The other layer is the collective unconscious. This layer contains developmental predispositions that are inherited from one’s ancestors (Pervin, 1996). These are responsible for common behaviors among people with shared ancestry. The developer of this theory uses archetypes to define human behavior. One of these is the persona archetype or the personal traits that we are ready to show to the world.

There is also the shadow archetype or the part of ourselves we try to hide from others. According to the analytic theory, all these aspects contribute to normal development when they function properly. When any of these archetypes does not function properly, the result is abnormal development.

In conclusion, these three theories define an individual’s development. According to the specifics of each theory, this development can be either normal or abnormal.

References

Gallagher, K. (2002). Does Child Temperament Moderate the Influence of Parenting on Adjustment? Developmental Review, 22, 623–643.

Laplanche, J. & Pontalis, B. (1974). The Language of Psycho-Analysis. New York, NY: W. Norton & Company.

Pervin, L.A. (1996). The Science of Personality. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Plan-Do-Study-Act Model for My Growth

Personal growth and development are very critical in the workplace environment. I understand that the external environment keeps changing, and the only way of achieving success is to master this change and respond to it effectively by redefining the internal environment. Within an organizational context, I understand that it is my responsibility to adapt to the changes in the external environment. Using Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) model, I am capable of defining and assessing my own growth and identifying the determinant of organizational structure and drivers of change. To develop my own PDSA model, a number of steps will have to be followed, as shown in the figure below.

As shown in the figure above, the first step is to come up with a plan. The plan must focus on my current organizational structure. I have to identify my position within the firm and how that position relates to other positions held by my colleagues. I must then determine drivers of change in the external environment with regard to my position. This will help me determine areas where change is needed in my current or future position. The second step is to do something about the plan. It involves implementing the set plan. In this case, the second stage will involve addressing the issues identified in the plan to determine if I can change my skills, capabilities, and attitude to reflect the changes in the external environment. The aim is to ensure that current skills match with the existing and emerging expectations in the workplace. It is at this evaluation stage that I will be keen to identify the weaknesses that need to be addressed to help improve my efficiency. The final step is to act upon the issues identified in the assessment in order to align my skills and attitude with workplace expectations.

Benefits of Diversity and Development of Personal and Leadership Strategies

Diversity in the workplace is very important because it helps employees to address one another’s weaknesses in an organizational setting. It is common to find that the weaknesses of one individual are perfectly addressed by the strengths of another employee. In such an environment, achieving success may not be a big challenge because of the diversity in skills, experience, and social background. However, it is sometimes worrying that the differences caused by such a diversified workplace environment are the genesis of misunderstandings. From a personal perspective, the strategy I intend to use to address the issue of diversity in the workplace is to be open-minded and willing to listen to others before making judgments. I intend to avoid stereotyping and promise to treat every colleague as a unique person with unique strengths, weaknesses, skills, and experience. I also intend to engage other colleagues, especially those from different social backgrounds, to help me understand them better and to learn from them. Although I value my culture, I believe that when one is in a diversified environment, learning about another culture is the best way of embracing a diversified workplace.

Leaders must come up with strategies of dealing with the issue of diversity that may arise in the workplace. One of the best ways of addressing such problems from a leadership perspective is to organize regular get-together parties where employees get to interact and understand one another. When assigning tasks to employees or forming a team to address a given project, a deliberate attempt should be made to ensure that diversity is reflected in such a group. The more people get to interact and understand each other, the more the social gap between them is narrowed. They get to appreciate that although there might be some personal or socio-cultural differences, they share a common vision of making their organization a success. That should be a strong motivation to make them forget about their differences. Sometimes the differences in cultural practices are often abused in the workplace, making it difficult to achieve success in creating harmony needed to make an organization move forward. The leaders may be forced to come up with policies that prohibit discriminatory activities in the workplace. Gender, race, religion, skin color, or any other demographic factor should never be used to set differences within an organization. Instead, it should be considered a positive force that makes people encourage one another to achieve a common goal.

Individual and Group Decision-Making Performance

In a highly diversified environment, one of the biggest problems is often the decision-making process. As an individual, it is easy to make decisions. I often weigh the pros and cons before making a decision. It may not take long as my conscience often guides me in such processes. As long as the intent is positive, making a decision as an individual is easy. However, when one is part of a team, decision-making is often complex because views of people often differ. Not everyone within an organization will have noble intent. It is also possible that in a diversified environment, people will have a varying angle of viewing nobility, making it difficult to choose the best approach. When it becomes challenging to make a quick and effective decision as a group, achieving good performance is almost impossible.

Communication becomes a critical tool when trying to make decisions within a group. Every member of the group must be ready to listen to the opinion of others. They must also be ready to share their own opinions with others so that common ground can be found. Leaders must offer guidance during such decision-making processes. In most of the cases where people have contradicting opinion, then a compromise must be found. This is common in cases where employees are demanding for pay increase against the wish of the top management or owners of a company. The parties must agree to communicate amongst themselves and to come up with a solution that is acceptable to everyone. Making decisions as a group also requires a sense of trust amongst group members. One of the leading causes of breakdown in communication is suspicion. If a section of the group lacks trust towards another group or an individual, then it may not be possible to reach a common position. The mistrust may force parties involved to opt to engage third parties to help them find a solution. In an organizational setting, such decisions may be time-consuming. It may limit the capacity of such a group to achieve the desired success.

PDSA Model Displaying My Goals and How I Measure My Progress

It is clear to me that in modern society, change is a force that cannot be ignored. As such, I intend to embrace it and align my skills with the changing demands. I have to develop goals and come up with a method I can use to measure my progress towards these goals. The PDSA model below will be critical in enabling me to set periodical goals and measure my performance towards achieving these goals.

As shown in the figure above, the first step is the planning stage. At this stage, it is stated that I want to learn how to embrace change and be able to adapt to emerging technologies. To achieve the above set goals, I intend to further my education and focus more on managing change in the workplace. I will need to learn about new approaches to change management and how to determine when an organization should adapt to a new strategy in its operations. To measure my performance, I will determine my personal willingness to embrace change.

Currently, I am relatively slow when it comes to embracing new methods. I prefer using approaches that are known to me. The approach I will use is to test my skills in new technologies. For instance, I want to know more about how I can use Facebook and Twitter to communicate with colleagues and clients. Finally, I will identify personal weaknesses based on the expectations in the workplace. The last stage is to act upon the identified weaknesses. I intend to ensure that in every cycle of this continuous personal growth and development, I come up with something new that will transform my performance in the workplace.

The term “personality” refers to a sum of character traits in a person. Therefore, personality development implies that the personality traits evolve from the childhood basis to the full development of individual differences in a character of a grown-up. This case study investigates the personality development illustrated by an example of Michelle Obama, First Lady of the United States of America. She was chosen due to her prominent personality features, outstanding life experience and the fact that she is a worthy role model for modern society; consequently, such development can be an interesting example to consider.

Michelle LaVaughn Obama, née Robinson, was born on January 17, 1964, in Calumet Park Illinois, to a family of a water plant worker and a housewife. She is now able to trace the history of her family back to a Friendfield Plantation in Georgetown, S.C. where her great-great-grandfather worked as a slave, while later his descendants moved North and settled in Illinois. However Mrs. Obama has learned of her ancestry only during a presidential campaign of her husband, and this knowledge has had a great impact on her (Murray, 2008, p. 1).

She graduated from school in1981 as a salutatory student and later studied sociology at Princeton University, from which she graduated BoA cum laude. In 1988, she also graduated from Harvard University as Juris Doctor and began her law practice in Harvard Legal Aid Bureau. Later she also worked in various non-profit organizations but reduced her job responsibilities to help her husband, Barak Obama, whom she married in 1992, with his presidential campaign. The couple raises two daughters, and Michelle considers her family the main life priority. Mrs. Obama is regarded as a fashion icon and a trend-setter (Michelle Obama Biography, n.d., par. 1-21).

For further exploration of Michelle Obama’s personality development, it is important to mention the models, according to which an individual’s personality development can be explained. These models include psychoanalytic and neo-analytic theories, psychosocial theories, trait, evolutionary, genetic/biological approaches, cognitive, behavioral, and social learning theories, and humanistic theories. For the beginning of the analysis, it would be appropriate to use the psychoanalytic / neo-analytic model, as it is one of the most basic and rather comprehensive theories, which can be considered as both advantage and disadvantage because it does not leave much possibility for other explanations.

According to those theories, based on teachings of Sigmund Freud, the parts of psyche, called “id”, “ego” and “superego” are balanced within each individual, but while Freud himself thought ego to be a weak structure, his successors, the neo-analytics, claimed that ego, containing the functions of learning, memory, and cognitive skills is a part that is the strongest from birth. A development, in this case, takes place in solving the so-called “basic conflicts”, which may serve to temper the character, or result in personality problems if such conflicts were not solved.

For Michelle Obama, an example of such conflict would have been an illness that her father suffered, the multiple sclerosis, which, however, did not stop him from pursuing his goals in life and teaching his daughter the same values (Fraser Robinson III ~ Michelle Obama’s Father, par. 1-16). This probably was also the reason Michelle is often a participant of charity and non-profit organizations – because of her need to help people and treat them with kindness.

The psychosocial theory was first introduced by psychologist Erik Erikson; it suggests that eight stages of development during one’s life, at which the person learns to accept different virtues, such as hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care and wisdom. If one of the stages is missing, the value of its virtue may be lost. This theory encompasses the whole life’s development, but the order of the stages is often argued, and it is not always possible to trace the trajectory of a person’s life. According to this theory, Michelle Obama has successfully passed the stages of life involving purpose, competence (her studies), love and fidelity (her family) and at her adulthood she may be learning again how to care and make her life count, in which she definitely succeeds, both in terms of social and family life.

The trait theory, together with evolutionary and biological theories, presumes that a few fundamental units define the individual’s behavior and that these traits are defined by genetics (McLeod, 2014, par. 22-30). Therefore, further development is defined by these innate factors. These theories place emphasis on conducting psychometric tests (McLeod, par. 24), which can give a high level of precision in defining a character, some critics mention, that “traits are often poor predictors of behavior. While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, he or she may not always behave that way in every situation … trait theories do not address how or why individual differences in personality develop or emerge” (Cherry, 2015, par. 16).

For using this theory, it may be important to investigate the family of Michelle Obama, to understand better, what kind of person she is, and how her legacy could influence her personality development. As it may be seen from her family tree, her ancestors were mostly hard-working people, who were proud of what they did and upheld traditional values; they believed that it was important to educate their children and give them a better life, which was one of the reasons the family moved to the north (Murray, 2008, p.2-4). It is clear that Michelle Obama inherited their dutifulness, perfectionism, independence, but also warmth and liveliness. This is how she became who she is now – a First Lady, a renowned philanthropist, and a trend-setter.

The humanistic or existential approach claims another important focus for a psychologist:

Factors that are specifically human, such as choice, responsibility, freedom, and how humans create meaning in their lives. Human behavior is not seen as determined in some mechanistic way, either by inner psychological forces, schedules of external reinforcement, or genetic endowments, but rather as a result of what we choose and how we create meaning from among those choices. (Beneckson, n.d., par. 42)

It means that understanding oneself and thriving to improve one’s personality may lead to healthy development or the so-called “self-actualization.” Existentialists may also add:

It requires active intention to create authenticity … Man is thrown into the world against his will, and must learn how to coexist with nature, and the awareness of his own death … To be healthy, humans must choose a course of action that leads to … the productive orientation. This is defined as working, loving, and reasoning so that work is a creative self-expression and not merely an end in itself. (Beneckson, n.d., par. 47)

This approach allows to take a different look at human’s psyche, disregarding the doctrines of Freudian, biological and behaviorist theories, however, it is often criticized for being too anthropocentric and idealistic.

For Mrs. Obama, the personal development in terms of humanistic theory may be illustrated with her life experiences, such as life within her family and a brother, which taught her how to listen to other people and get along with them. Later she also developed her working skills after she graduated, and her self-actualization lied in the field of law practice until she made a decision to help her husband. Michelle claimed that her family was her highest priority, and her choice was to work along with her husband and give her love to him and their children, all the while being able to satisfy her own need in self-actualization. The balance between these factors allows a person to find a psychological calm and harmony.

To conclude this research, it would be fair to assume, that although various approaches can be used to better understand an individual’s personality development, all of them can be useful for different scenarios. For example, it may be difficult to use the genetic method, when little or nothing is known about a person’s origins and his or her family. An existential approach should also be used with caution, as this is the least conservative and the newest method in psychology, which means some of its ideas may not have enough proof.

Nevertheless, every method has the right of existence however for a comprehensive and thorough understanding a deep and complex structure, that is the human personality, it may be advisable to unite some of the approaches. It would allow to gather more information, and the cross comparison of the results may highlight the features that previously were not noticed. It is highly important for a psychologist to follow the good practice but also to be versatile and flexible with the use of various tools to achieve better results in assessment and research.

Reference List

Beneckson, R. E. (n.d.) Personality Theory. A Brief Survey of the Field Today and Some Possible Future Directions. Web.

Cherry, K. (2015), Trait Theory of Personality. The Trait Approach to Personality. Web.

Fraser Robinson III ~ Michelle Obama’s Father. (n.d.). Web.

McLeod, S. (2014). Theories of personality. Web.

Michelle Obama Biography. (n.d.). Web.

Murray, S. (2008). A Family Tree Rooted In American Soil. The Washington Post. Web.

Introduction: Purpose, Goals, and Methods

Taking a retrospect at one’s own development is a good way to analyze the current behavioral patterns and define the issues that may possibly jeopardize building relationships with the people around. In the given research, I am going to take a look at my won cognitive development through the lens of various cognitive development theories (CDTs) and check the effects of various internal and external factors on my life. Thus, I will learn not only to apply the theories that I have learned to practice but also to define the aspects that I will have to work on later.

In Search for My Own Self: From Early Childhood to These Days

The journey starts in early childhood

Naturally, browsing through my early childhood memories is quite complicated, seeing how I remember quite little about the given stage of my life. However, there were some choice moments that I clearly remember as the pivoting points of my development. For example, I can still recall some of the games that my mother used to play with me to develop my ability to think logically and be able to communicate.

Piaget’s theory at its best

Perhaps, one of the best ways to demonstrate a child’s development of cognitive and analytical skills, Piaget’s theory can be easily applied to my childhood memories. As an infant, I played with a teddy bear. Being a single parent, my mother had to leave me in daycare, yet I protested against being alone. To calm me down, my mother suggested that I draw a portrait of my teddy bear, which I did. Therefore, my ability to cognize the world through object permanence (tactile functions) transformed into symbolic thinking (transfer of the tactile experience into visual one).

Erikson: at the sixth stage

My childhood development can also be seen through the prism of Erikson’s stages of cognitive development. An alternative to Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, it also has the right to exist, which my childhood experience has confirmed. I developed trust in my mother at the stage of infancy. It should be noted that the link between trust and breastfeeding, which Erikson provided, seems quite inconsistent, since in my case, mother-child relationships were very strong, even though my mother gave up breastfeeding when I was six weeks and started using bottle feeding. Like other children, I started fighting for my autonomy when I was around three; with little experience of raising children, my mother did not encourage my attempts at being independent properly and scolded me down when I failed, which resulted in enhancing my shame and doubt.

Vygotsky: the world around me

My childhood impressions, however, can also be analyzed from the point of view provided by Vygotsky. For instance, in my early childhood, I refused to share my toys with my playmates. The given phenomenon, in fact, can be explained with the help of Vygotsky’s theory. Noticing my greediness, my mother started giving me examples of generosity. For example, she tried to have me around when lending money, books, etc., to her friends and giving her things to charity. Thus, my mother performed the function of a scaffold, teaching me the basic principles of sharing.

Psychodynamic theory: new discoveries

Motivated both consciously and unconsciously, in accordance with the principles of psychodynamic theory, I learned new skills from interacting with the environment around me and the emotions that I had in the process. Sometimes these experiences were useful, like the pride that I felt after being praised for reading a very long word without mistakes at school. However, some of the emotions blocked my enthusiasm as a learner for quite along. For example, even now, I shiver a bit when I need to strike a match because of the burn that I got at five when playing with my mother’s lighter when she could not see me.

Growing pains: teenage angst

Much like any other teenager, I had to face a number of problems in order to accept the new patterns of relationships and to learn new communication skills. Apart from the way in which society works, I also had to learn how to be accepted and, at the same time, remain an individual. To describe the stages that I had to pass in the course of this transformation, Sternberg’s theory should be used.

Sternberg’s theory: from conventional to creative intelligence

I must admit that, as a child, I did not socialize with the rest of the children much; as a result, growing into a teenager, I was socially awkward most of the time. What I knew about people and society, I learned mostly from books and soon discovered that there was a huge gap between novels and reality. At this point, my development could be viewed through the lens of Sternberg’s theory.

Practical sub theory in action: acquiring communication skills

In the fifth grade, I started working on my communication skills. The process of skills acquisition was rather complicated, even though I had some experience in communication. In accordance with Sternberg’s theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999, p. 677), I had to learn the basics of conventional communication principles before choosing the communication patterns that suited me best.

Experimental sub theory in action: training communication skills

After learning new skills, I tried them on the people around me in an attempt at winning them over. In some cases, my attempts were successful – I managed to find a sidekick when I enrolled in an art class. However, in a number of instances, these attempts led nowhere, which made me work harder on my social skills.

Gender issues and Chodorow’s theory: defining the differences

However, intelligence development and the skill of thinking outside of the box were not the only issues that I had to learn in the process of growing up. As I had stressed previously, at the age of 11, my knowledge of the social and physiological differences between boys and girls made me flock with girls of my age. However, at the age of 14, I started feeling that building relationships with boys are also an important part of my cognitive experience.

I remember dating boys at 15–17 and being romantically involved; however, it was all a part of growing up and cognizing the world and people around me, which was the key reason why these relationships never went anywhere. Perhaps, being relatively short, these experiences did not lead me to succumb to “women’s universal subordination that is based on a social, rather than a biological, explanation” (Ryle, 2012, p. 135), as Chodorow put it.

The world, through the lens of a young adult

Triarchic theory is still powerful: new experiences

After I gave birth to my daughter, I discovered a whole new world of new experiences. Not all of them were positive – some included such problems as fighting fears when my daughter got sick, etc. However, by learning to be a mother, I realized that I have a plethora of both practical and artistic skills to learn. Therefore, Sternberg’s theory of learning to handle new tasks is still powerful. For example, while I used to be quite awkward when teaching my daughter to talk, I now feel experienced enough to develop sets of exercises for her creative learning.

Horney and Freud’s legacy: gender theories

As I have stressed above, I have been having issues in communication with the opposite sex. The given issues must have been stemming from my childhood experience. Being a child of a single mother, I could not observe the interactions between a man and a woman and, therefore, had to discover the specifics of gender relationships on my own. As Freud specifies, the so-called scripts, i.e., patterns of relationships, are learned in late childhood (Ryle, 2012, p. 135); in my case, these scripts did not include a male counterpart, which was the key stumbling block in my relationships with my male friends. As a result, I seem to have developed what Horney defined as a masculinity complex, which makes my gender relationships even more complicated (Paris, 2003, p. 22).

Divorce and the associated threats: Jung

I have to admit that at some point in my development, I had to face a serious crisis. In contrast to my expectations, my family life left much to be desired in terms of relationships with my husband. The problems that I encountered could be traced back to my Electra complex, as Jung (Borovečki-Jakovljev & Matacic, ‎2005, p. 351) defined it. Being raised by a single parent, I had little to no examples of interactions between a husband and a wife, which meant that I had to create my own interactional patterns.

Conclusion: Personal Development in Retrospect

Evaluating my experience, I must admit that I have a number of issues to confront. While my development did not differ much from the development of other children, such factors as being raised by a single parent and failing at claiming my independence in early childhood have affected my character and, therefore, shape my current behavioral patterns.

What needs to be addressed

As Jung’s theory allowed defining, I will have to work on learning to build relationships with men. Without a particular pattern learned from early childhood, the given task is extremely complicated. However, the situation that I face at present also has a positive side to it – I do not have the inherently wrong male-female relationship pattern based on the example set by my parents.

Future developmental prospects

Despite the fact that I already have a number of behavioral patterns cemented in my brain, changes in the environment that I live in, particularly new influences and interactions with new people mat possibly change the way I build relationships with people around me. By using the theories listed above to analyze my behavioral patterns, I will be capable of shaping my attitude towards other people and be open to new experiences.

Reference List

Borovečki-Jakovljev, S. & Matacic, S.‎ (2005). The Oedipus complex in contemporary psychoanalysis. Collegium Antropologicum 29(1), pp. 351–360.

Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(6), pp. 676-713.

Paris, B. J. (2003). Horney & humanistic psychoanalysis. In Frager, R. & Fadiman, J. (Eds.), Personality and personal growth (pp. 1–29). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Ryle, R. (2012). How do we learn Gender? Questioning Gender (pp. 119–165). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Francis Galton, a 13^th century Frenchman, first coined the words “nature” and “nurture” in 1874 to argue his case about the overbearing influence of genetics and environmental surroundings on individual development and growth (McDevitt et al. 535).

The debate has gained steam, and it is today discussed in high-level forums as researchers, psychologists and other theorists seek to obtain answers to the various characteristics exhibited by the human race. It is against this background that this paper aims to evaluate some of the underlying issues in the “nature” versus “nurture” debate and how they affect personality development.

Modern personality theories diverge in their suppositions about the constitution and etiology of the interplay between nature and nurture characteristics on the one hand and the effect such characteristics have on personality development on the other. However, there seems to be a general consensus that the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that are unique to us is a construct of both our genetic configuration and our environment (McDevitt et al. 537).

Psychologists argue that personality development arises from the continuous interface between temperament, character and the surrounding environment (Lupu para. 4). Temperament, according to the author, is the set of genetic characteristics that overtly determines an individual’s approach to the world, thus nature determines the formation of personality.

Additionally, genes innate to the individual control the development of the brain and the nervous system, which in turn indirectly control personality development and behavior (McDevitt 545). From the nurture perspective, it is known that interaction between an individual and the surrounding environment also influences personality development. As such, it can be argued that genetics and environment work in collaboration to determine personality.

Although it seems a difficult task to draw a fine line between personal characteristics believed to be primarily the result of nature and personal characteristics believed to be the result of nurture, it can be said without a doubt that my hot-bloodied nature is a result of genetics, while my outgoing nature is a result of environment. This stand has been taken, in part, due to the observed behavioral temperament within my family as well as childhood experiences.

My father and my brother, for instance, also exhibit hot-bloodied characteristics, and this observation reinforces my belief that my hot-bloodied nature is as a result of genetics. In childhood experiences, it can be argued that being raised in an army barrack setup afforded the necessary platform to intermingle and relate with many other children, whose mothers and fathers were also working for the army, as was my dad.

In other words, the environment afforded the needed platform to sharpen my socialization skills. This can be exhibited in my outgoing nature.

Moving on, it is indeed true that environmental factors influence natural characteristics and genetic factors also influence the nurtured characteristics. In my case, it can be insinuated that my hot-bloodied nature has over the years being influenced by nurtured characteristics. For instance, the predetermined condition inherited from my father has over the years being influenced by environmental factors such as socialization, schooling, and other situational factors.

Through socialization and schooling, issues of aggressiveness and anger largely associated with my hot-bloodied nature have been kept under control within acceptable environmental context as dictated by society. In consequence, it can be argued that genetics only institutes the confines of one’s personality characteristics that can be developed, while “nurture” factors influence the actual development within the confines (Lupu para. 5).

The discussed outgoing characteristic has over the time being influenced by nature. Literature reveals that the decisive cause of behaviour may more likely be the evolutionary process, which inarguably initiates some genes to be preferred due to particular environmental demands, or which initiates the capacity to learn behaviour to become an adaptive characteristic (Kalat 65). This implies that some genes innate to individuals direct them to engage in various forms of behaviour within the environmental context.

Some anatomical variations, which are natural or biological in disposition, also affect nurtured characteristics. The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), for instance, has been found to largely influence the ability of an individual to either develop an outgoing or introverted predisposition (Kalat 67).

ARAS is part of the brain stem, implying that it is heavily influenced by genetics. In this perspective, my outgoing nature may one day be altered if my ARAS – part of the natural elements – gets physically or organically injured. Still, some chemical imbalances and altered neurotransmitters, which are genetically predisposed, may indeed impair one’s nurtured characteristics.

If my dopamine (D₂) receptors become altered, for instance, my personality is more likely to change from an outgoing nature to pleasure-seeking personality, including engaging in severe alcoholism, drug, abuse, and consistent gambling (Kalat 67). This disclosure demonstrates how nature influences nurtured characteristics.

Works Cited

Lupu, A. Our Personality – Is it Genetically Inherited or Determined by the Environmental Factors? 2006. Web.

Kalat, J. W. Biological Psychology. Stamford, C. T.: Cengage Learning. 2007.

McDevitt, T. M., Jobes, R. D., Cochran, K. F., & Shehan, E. P. Is it nature or nurture? Beliefs about Child Development held by College Students in Psychology Courses. College Student Journal 44.2 (2010): 533-550. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database.

Humans develop throughout their lives, from infancy to adulthood and into old age. According to Erik Erikson’s theory, this process of psychosocial development is split into eight stages, each presenting a personal crisis that needs to be resolved (Grison, Heatherton, & Gazzaniga, 2017). Depending on the resolution of these crises, one develops the skills and attitudes needed for further growth (Grison et al., 2017). Using myself as an example, this paper will illustrate how three of these stages can affect and continue to affect a person’s development.

In Erikson’s eight stages of psychological development, the first crisis an infant must resolve is that of trust versus mistrust. I grew up with both my parents; however, since my father was often absent for long periods, I had little contact with him and limited opportunity for bonding. While he was away, my mother had to combine both the household roles of the housekeeper and the bread-winner.

Because of this, she was tired and exhausted most of the time. That meant that though she tried to spend time with me, she rarely had the energy to fully engage and nurture me. Although I was not mistreated or neglected, I never got the opportunity to view the world as a safe and caring place as a result of this lack of attention,. Therefore, I moved to the next stage of development with feelings of mistrust.

I spent my early childhood, and, therefore, the second stage of development, overseas. Adapting to a different culture is always challenging, and in my case, the differences might have adversely affected my development. The host culture had a negative view of nudity, and seeing anyone’s body is considered extremely disrespectful. As such, I had to be fully clothed nearly constantly. This prevented me from becoming comfortable with my body and caused me to see it as something shameful.

My mistrust exacerbated these circumstances, as, despite my mother’s efforts to teach me about it, I could not trust her sufficiently to believe and accept her lessons. Because of this, I grew up with intense feelings of shame and doubt, not only about my body but my thoughts and decisions, as well. These feelings persisted for years afterward, heavily affecting the subsequent stages of my development.

I am currently going through the fifth stage, forming an identity. Although my parents are supportive in pushing me towards my goals and aspirations, I am struggling with finding my place. I’ve had to fill the roles of a student, a daughter, and a mentor. However, trying to excel at all of them is overwhelming and has left me with little time to explore who I am. Because of this, I am confused about my greater role and identity and still trying to determine how these elements combine to form a cohesive whole. The attitudes imparted by each of these roles sometimes conflict with one another, making me uncertain how to relate to others and society at large.

Conclusion

A person’s psychosocial development in the early stages, which primarily depends on his or her caregivers, can have a significant effect on the future stages. As illustrated by my example, challenges faced in infancy and early childhood can lead to uncertainty later in life. Mistrust and doubt developed as a person is growing up can linger for years and cause a difficult identity crisis in adolescence.

Reference

Grison, S., Heatherton, T. F., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (2017). Psychology in your life (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, inc.