Category: Personal Identity

In ‘Why Place Matters’ by Wilfred M. McClay and Ted V. McAlister, the two authors express the importance of physical place within society. With the advancement of technology and the increase of globalization, the idea of physical place is becoming insignificant in our world today. As a result of rapid technological advances, society feels as though you do not need a physical place to be settled in, because of the way that expeditious technology has made it convenient for commerce, communication, and for transportation of all sorts. Although society may feel as though place is irrelevant, when we as individuals lack the foundation that comes from physical place, we run many risks. Our sense of identity as individual beings, our knowledge of good citizenship, and the realization of our actual selves are at risk. I believe that physical place is necessary for individuals for their sense of identity, stability, and to exercise exceptional citizenship qualities.

Being able to identify with a specific place evokes a sense of identity as well as a sense of belonging. In ‘Moving Around Without Losing Your Roots’ by Gianpiero Petriglieri, the author asserts the importance of ‘home’ for the establishment of our identity. He quotes: “No one wants to follow a stranger. Without some sense of home, nomadic professionals don’t become global leaders. They only turn into professional nomads” (Petriglieri, 217). The author shares an instance in his personal life where he was having a conversation with another man who was also observing his children at the pool. Petriglieri was asked where he was from, and that triggered something inside of him. He then realized that he did not have a stable place to identify himself with. As a result, he was perceived as a foreigner, not only to himself, but to the man he was having a conversation with as well. Although, Petriglieri and I have differing opinions on the definition of ‘home’, we both agree that a stable home is essential for our identities and our sense of belonging. Physical place is needed for the grounding of our individual identities, otherwise we become foreign to ourselves and to those that we come in contact with.

Physical places stabilize, establish, and assist with the recollection of memories that we have made throughout our lives. In my personal life, I can distinctly remember the first house that I moved into from Long Beach to Moreno Valley when I was three years of age. Part of my early childhood was developed in that house. I attended preschool and elementary school while living in that house. Due to that fact, I formed many friendships with people who became some of the very first friends that I have ever made in my life. I am the youngest of six children and all but one of my siblings are at least seven years or more older than me. In that house, all but one of my siblings were living in with me at the time, and I will always cherish and remember that because now I only live with one of my siblings. My siblings and I would always get together on Friday nights, eat food, and watch our favorite movies or shows. I was also sharing a room with my second oldest sister at the time, who has since moved out of the house. Even as a young adult, I still reminisce about the memories that were made in that house. Having a physical place to establish, stabilize and ingrain memories within you is fundamental.

Exceptional citizenship qualities can only be exercised within a physical place. In ‘Infinite Reality’ by Jim Blascovich and Jeremy Bailenson, it is disclosed that our brains cannot differentiate between experiences in reality and experiences in the virtual world. If our brains fail to understand the difference between actuality and fallacy, we lack an understanding of how to conduct ourselves in society. I, in my personal life, know of people who are so consumed by virtual reality that they do not know how to interact with people in their real life. They have become socially awkward as a result of their deep connection with the virtual world. The advancement of technology has made it possible for consumers to experience the virtual world in a more realistic way. Due to this fact, those who are spending an immense amount of time in these virtual realities often lose sight of the citizenship that they possess in the place that they actually live in. Virtual reality has become an actual reality for some, causing them to behave as though they are a citizen of their virtual reality instead of a citizen of an actual place. Without physical places, you cannot express the social skills that are imperative to being a good citizen. Physical places are the foundation for the development of good citizenship.

Tangible places are fundamental for our individual identities, our stability, and for the development of our social skills as citizens. Unfortunately, with the improvement of technology and globalization, the idea of physical place in our society today is becoming irrelevant. If place is deemed unnecessary by our society, our individual identities, our stability, and our ability to express good citizenship qualities are at risk. Without physical place, we lack the ability to be able to identify ourselves. We need a stable, physical place to ground us. Those establishments that we have made within those stable, physical places trigger lasting memories within our minds. As far as citizenship is concerned, how can one exercise good citizenship qualities if they are so consumed by the virtual reality that technology has enabled to become so real, to the point where they identify themselves more with who they are in the virtual world rather than who they are in real life? These qualities develop our social skills and are detrimental to our performance as citizens. A sense of place is the foundation for our identities as individuals, our stability and establishment, as well as our citizenship qualities.

Self-Efficacy is a person’s belief that they can accomplish a difficult task or challenge. My self-efficacy can lead to growth mindset if I believe that I can accomplish a difficult task or challenge. I can accomplish a difficult task by practicing or studying hard. I can also use positive self-talk to keep me focused on positive thinking instead of negative thinking.

Self-talk is the practice of a person talking to oneself aloud or mentally. Self-talk can be positive or negative. When I talk to myself I usually do it before I do something big, like a play or a sporting event. I also make sure it’s positive self-talk because it will keep me focused on the positive instead of the negative.

Self-knowledge is the understanding of one’s self-motives. My self-knowledge is that I am respectful, kind, and trustworthy. I am great at soccer and baseball. The subjects I’m good at is ELA, Math, and science. These are some of my self-knowledge examples.

Self-concept is an idea of the self-constructed from the beliefs a person holds about himself or herself. I believe that everyone should have equal rights no matter what their skin color is. Another one of beliefs is that cancer should not exist. These have helped me be the person I am today because I would support all of the human race and people. The other one has helped me because cancer is continuing to infect and kill people. Half of the population has died from cancer.

Self-worth is the view that individuals have on themselves and perceptions of their own worth as a person. My self-worth is that if people have a good outlook on themselves fortunate things will happen. I view my self as good because I have a good outlook on my life and other peoples lives. I have developed a good outlook on myself because I think positively about life and other peoples lives. It is important to have a good outlook on life because you will succeed and good things will happen to you.

Personal Identity is the conscious awareness of one’s self. Being aware of all components of your makeup is essential to developing growth mindset. My physical characteristics are that I have brown hair, brown eyes, dark skin, and has glasses. My character traits are that I’m respectful, protective, happy, kind, and a fast learner. My generic traits are that I have Russian genes, I have American parents, I was raised in the US, and that I’m a US citizen. These are just some of the examples of my personal identity.

The relationship between the self and reality has ultimately been reshaped by the great influx of change through the development of the internet and the use of social media in current contemporary culture. The negative aspects of social media for instance on Instagram have replaced genuine verbal and human acceptance with likes and comments that have resulted in superficial validation. With around 95 million photos uploaded every day and 32 percent of all internet users on Instagram, the validation primarily stems from the positivity of the comments of a particular post and the amount of likes the post receives. Acceptance is no longer dependent on true human interactions but rather on the number of likes and positive comments a post may or may not receive. If the post fails to meet the expectations of the individual with the number of likes and positive comments, validation is at stake and can cause significant damage to self-esteem by causing the person to question why they have failed to achieve public respect. The identity of a person in society is no longer dependent on the true emotions or values and characteristics of an individual that make a true self but rather on the superficiality of followers and their approval. The unrestrained gratification of accumulating likes however can also have the opposite effect by continually expanding on ego. An individual for instance may display a wonderful life online to compensate for the lack of self-esteem and may merely rely on the likes on a picture to determine their importance. The change from authentic human interactions to online satisfaction and fulfillment in society has caused a great dissociation to develop between the true person and the person portrayed on Instagram which has unfortunately grown into an epidemic across society in many individuals. The dissociation of the self and true reality has ultimately made identity increasingly difficult to find in contemporary culture due to the negative effects of social media and the instant influx of likes and comments on Instagram. The difficulty of finding identity has essentially caused a weakness in the sense of self and ultimately exposes the underlying truth in a society that although individuals are more connected than ever, humanity is increasingly isolated as a whole.

The shift from authentic human interactions to online satisfaction in society has caused a division to develop between the true person and the person portrayed on Instagram. Instagram specifically has developed an overwhelmingly vast culture of presenting the greatest moments of one’s life rather than presenting normal actions such as going to work or walking to school. Instagram users typically only post photos when on vacation or on an exciting experience. In the book Ethics, Friendship, and Social Media: A Philosophical Exploration by Diane Jeske the book explores the current Instagram culture and the psychological effects of the presentation of a perfect life, and the vast differences between the interaction of real genuine friendships to followers on Instagram. The author Diane Jeske first analyzes the separation between the person portrayed on social media and reality and how individuals primarily focus on posting the best versions of themselves on Instagram. “We have a great deal of control over how we present ourselves on social media. Most of us present the ‘greatest hits’ of our lives… the great-looking vacations, the happy (or happy-looking) times with our families, drinks with friends, the new car” (Jeske 9). The act of presenting a perfect life on Instagram by posting the best moments and leaving out all the imperfections allows an individual to present their ideal version of themselves and create two different realities.The altering of one’s reality online by forming two versions, however, negatively affects the psychology of an individual by severely causing one to develop dissociation. The dissociation primarily comes from that individuals tend to gravitate toward their personalities online rather than their identity in real life. Individuals favor the person online due to the fact that their identity online is far more improved compared to real life. Because of the favoritism toward their life online, individuals also set time to continually improve their Instagram pages by attracting increasingly more followers at the expense of developing themselves. The effect of forming a perfect identity by having two versions of an individual essentially causes the person to slowly lose themselves in the cost of forming the perfect version online. Individuals prize the approval of likes and the attention brought by the false reality far more than the overall development of Identity. The reality created online and the lack of self-development essentially causes the growth of a person to gradually decline. The book Ethics, Friendship, and Social Media: A Philosophical Exploration continues to demonstrate the relationship between the self and reality by revealing the differences between real friendships and superficial followers online. “One obvious good consequence of friendship… is a pleasure: friendship can and often does bring us great joy…they can alleviate the pains of loneliness, depression, failure, and anxiety” (Jeske 9). The real and physical interaction between friends according to the book actually aids in mental hurdles such as loneliness and depression. The use of Instagram however replaces these mental aids with the superficial approval of likes and comments. Although at the time the acceptance by society from a mere like or comment is rewarding, the individual tends to feel empty and unsatisfied due to the superficiality of Instagram culture. The relationships with real people and friends however according to the book also provide a healthy atmosphere of self-development and growth. “This trust and openness create an atmosphere of understanding and acceptance where friends can be themselves…Thus, friends can move us toward self-knowledge and self-improvement…” (Jeske 10). The difference between relationships online and genuine interactions with friends is primarily shown by the contrasting atmospheres the two relationships create. While online a like and a positive comment show a sign of acceptance and approval, real interactions between people ultimately extend far deeper than a like, and the depth of the interaction builds an individual. The interactions allow individuals to develop in response to the trust and authenticity created in the environment of a real-life friendship. By allowing an individual to be themselves around companions the individual is able to grow and improve as a person. Friendships on Instagram on the other hand do not create an atmosphere of authenticity and are not primarily about spending time or enjoying the personalities of others. The book Ethics, Friendship, and Social Media: A Philosophical Exploration the book suggests that social media is not well suited for developing a person. “But social media is not well-suited to building, reinforcing, or maintaining trust, openness, or private space, or, at least, the most commonly used aspects of social media are not well-suited to doing so” (Jeske 11). The friendships online in fact do not promote the accepting and understanding atmosphere created by real-life friendships and in fact, have the opposite effect on Instagram users by causing individuals to consistently improve their pages on Instagram rather than developing their humanity and personality. The portrayal of a different and perfect individual online only continues to separate from the true person and over time the alternate personality on social media essentially causes the individual to slowly lose their identity at the cost of forming the perfect version online. The individual doesn’t spend time on growing or improving themselves but rather focuses on growing followers and receiving positive comments and increasingly more likes. Once an individual receives the superficial approval of a like, the individual increasingly wants more and is never satisfied by the acceptance received online which essentially promotes a cycle of wanting constant approval rather than developing a true identity in society. The differences between the person online and in real life form a disassociation between the self and true reality. The self of an individual is no longer associated with the true identity that is developed by real human interactions but rather by the life portrayed on social media and the approval of superficial followers.

The negative effects of social media directly contribute to the difficulty of forming an identity. The constant comparison to other people forms a cycle of self-criticism that leads to the eventual feeling of inadequacy and loneliness. The phenomenon of completely altering one’s identity online by a mere action on a smartphone is significantly altering the development of one’s self-esteem and has contributed to the weakened sense of self in society. In the journal study The Development of Self-Esteem by Ulrich Orth the study focused on finding a correlation between self-esteem and age progression. The study developed the research by asking individuals ranging from the ages of 16 to 95 years old a set of questions regarding personal identity and self-worth. The individuals were then scored and the study concluded that the development of self-esteem was essential in the teenage years of an individual due to the fact that self-esteem had a steady positive slope increasing all the way to the peak of 51 years of age (Orth 2). The use of Instagram and social media however poses a significant danger to these essential developmental years of self-esteem in the teenage years due to the elements of comparison and inadequacy. In the book The Dark Side of Social Media by Pavica Sheldon the book displays many studies revolving around the mental health effects social media has particularly on adolescent individuals. The book describes the Social Comparison Theory which is greatly ingrained in the overall culture of users on Instagram. “According to Social Comparison Theory, we either compare ourselves to those who are like us or better than us. Upward comparison is comparison to others we perceive to be socially better than ourselves, which often causes negative effects…when online feedback is not available (nobody comments on one’s status update or new photo album)…can also lead to depression” (Sheldon 15). The constant comparison online establishes a cycle of constant criticism. An individual for example may post a photo at a similar time as someone else and may receive fewer likes and positive comments than the other individual. The effects of the comparison between the number of likes and comments significantly alter the moods of individuals and according to the book cause many negative mental effects. “Passive forms of using social media such as browsing other pages actually causes depressed moods. Looking through other people’s photos significantly contributes to resentment, envy, and eventually loneliness” (Sheldon 19). The constant comparison greatly weakens the self-esteem of an individual and significantly disrupts the development of a strong sense of self and identity. In the book Place and Identity: Home As Performance by Joanna Richardson the strong sense of self and identity that is lacking in contemporary culture is defined as being the true form of belonging in society.

Belonging is the innate human desire to be part of something larger than us. Because this yearning is so primal, we often try to acquire it by fitting in and by seeking approval, which is not only a hollow substitute for belonging, but often a barrier to it. Because true belonging only happens when we present our authentic, imperfect selves to the world, our sense of belonging can never be greater than our level of self-acceptance. (Richardson 34-35)

The relationship between the culture of Instagram and the feeling of belonging is greatly supported by the book. Individuals crave the feeling of approval above all else but rarely feel the satisfaction of the approval because of the lack of depth and genuine acceptance. The feeling of true belonging is only achieved through the expression of the authentic and imperfect self but Instagram, however, is promoting the very opposite. The hollow approval of followers is constantly growing from the constant improvement of Instagram pages. The culture of Instagram promotes the lack of authenticity by constantly rewarding users with likes and followers allowing users to feel a sense of belonging. The human nature of belonging causes extreme actions such as completely altering reality to assimilate with the mass of individuals. While lacking depth and authenticity, the likes and followers promote a small feeling of belonging and fill the urge for a short period of time until the user feels as though they must post another picture. The lack of complete satisfaction in users continues to be a positive element for the Instagram platform by causing users to constantly come back and either looks at other pages to compare each other or to continue to post pictures for the sake of maintaining a level of approval online. The journal study Exploring the relationship between frequency of Instagram use, exposure to idealized images, and psychological well-being in women researched the negative effects of Instagram on the psychology in the minds of specific women. In the study, 129 women between eighteen and thirty-five were tested on the frequency of Instagram use and negative mental side effects. “Women completed a series of questionnaires related to mental health outcomes and self-perceptions. Results showed that the frequency of Instagram use is correlated with depressive symptoms, self-esteem…and body dissatisfaction…” (Sherlock 4). With the constant comparison structure of the Instagram platform and the constant cycle of seeking approval from followers, the users constantly feel incomplete and inadequate compared to others. Although Instagram users feel the brutal feelings of self-doubt as though their lives are not sufficient, the gratification of accumulating likes continues the cycle of individuals returning to the platform and at times serves to compensate for the lack of self-esteem by relying on the likes on a picture to determine their importance. Society is increasingly disconnected from their identity and the people around them. The effects of the Instagram culture in society promote the lack of authenticity in the platform and services to create short-lived satisfaction and approval. The separation of real life and the personality on Instagram causes users to escape reality but eventually develops a dissociation between the identity of the individual due to the addictive features on the Instagram platform such as the appreciation shown through positive comments and likes. Society is increasingly disconnected from reality and individuals are not only detached from their own identities but also detached from everyone around them. Although Instagram has allowed many individuals to connect like never before, the negative aspects of reality versus online personalities have caused people to be more disconnected than ever.

The negative effects of social media directly contribute to the difficulty of forming an identity. The constant comparison to other people forms a cycle of self-criticism that leads to the feeling of inadequacy. While others purposefully alter their reality by forming a perfect life online, others consume this form of media and immediately begin to compare their lives to others. The constant comparison weakens the self-esteem of individuals and disrupts the development of a strong identity and has essentially caused a weakness in the sense of self that not only has formed a disconnection within individuals but has formed an isolation in humanity.

Introduction

Parfit argues that personal identity and psychological continuity cannot both be what matters in survival because the former cannot admit a degree, whereas the latter can. Parfit takes a reductionist view of personal identity reasoning that what is of importance is facts concerning brains, bodies, and physical and mental events; we should not be concerned with another sense of identity that cannot necessarily be explained by physical brain activity.

I argue that psychological continuity and personal identity are not mutually exclusive, as Parfit might suggest. In fact, both are necessary for survival. Personal identity relies on psychological continuity and connectedness but it is also something else in itself, and it is Parfit`s failure to acknowledge this that renders his argument unsuccessful.

This essay will first look into Parfit’s argument and his thought experiment presented in his essay Personal Identity, then discuss the successful aspects to his argument such as its ability to withstand criticisms such as the multiple occupancy view. I will then address the key issues to Parfit’s argument. Most prominently, I will reason that his approach is too reductive and fails to account for an essential pre-theoretic notion that we hold regarding our personal identity – that we intuitively define ourselves to be more than just the psychological connectedness and continuity of memory and characteristics.

Parfit on Identity

Parfit uses a causal theory, pioneered by Locke, to argue that psychological continuity, even when unaccompanied by personal identity, contains all that matters to us about our own survival. Note, the Psychological Criterion has given by Parfit:

1. There is psychological continuity if and only if there are overlapping chains of strong connectedness. X today is one and the same person as Y at some past time 9 if and only if
2. X is psychologically continuous with Y,
3. this continuity has the right kind of cause, and
4. it has not taken a branching form.
5. Personal identity over time just consists of the holding of facts like (2) to (4).

On a surface level, the matter of continuity of memory makes logical sense and fits in well with our pre-theoretic notions of self: I am the same person as my younger self, not because I am physically identical, but because there are overlapping chains of memory. Even if I and earlier me don’t share any specific memories, there’s a chain by which old me had a set of memories, then a day later lost some and gained some, and so on going forward to the present.

For Parfit, the question of personal identity when it comes to survival is a non-issue because all that makes up a person is psychological continuity and connectedness. Parfit reasons that identity is a relation that does not admit a degree: you either are or are not yourself. Whereas a relationship of mental continuity and connectedness is not quite so formal. Instead, it allows degree and variety and we can imagine cases in which it is present to a degree so slight that survival is questionable. This seems more an adjustable approach to such complex topics.

The Problem of Fission

My body is fatally injured, as are the brains of my two brothers. My brain is divided, and each half is successfully transplanted into the body of one of my brothers. Each of the resulting people believes that he is me, seems to remember living my life, has my character, and is in every other way psychologically continuous with me. And he has a body that is very like mine.

Let the person who has the left hemisphere of my brain be Lefty. Let the person who has the right hemisphere be Righty. There are only three possibilities in a fission case: (a) I do not survive. (b) I survive as either Lefty or Righty. (c) I survive as both. Since there are overlapping chains of strong psychological connectedness between me (on the one hand) and both Lefty and Righty (on the other), the Criterion of Psychological Continuity predicts that I am both Lefty and Righty.

Parfit proposes that it makes sense to think of someone surviving after having his or her brain transplanted into a new body because the resulting person has [the original person`s] character and apparent memories Parfit thinks that we must say that the person survives as two persons, we should separate survival and an overarching sense of personal identity since the two resulting persons are clearly not identical.

This is problematic, it seems completely counterintuitive for us to suggest one person can survive as two distinct persons. David Lewis tackles this with his view of multiple occupancies. According to Lewis, before the brain transplant, both Lefty and Righty occupy the same body. After the transplant, they occupy different bodies. So, before the transplant, what I take to be myself is in fact two different persons – Lefty and Righty – who coincide.

Despite seeming to overcome the issue of one person’s survival as two different people, this can be criticized. There is a consequence of this view which also seems counterintuitive and unresolved: In cases of fission, before the fission happens, when someone uses the first person I, it`s not clear whether they pick out any unique person. For instance, in the transplant example, before the operation, when I use the word I, it`s not clear whether I thereby pick out Lefty or Righty. This remains unexplained and therefore renders this approach unhelpful in our response to Parfit.

Perhaps a better way to deal with Parfit`s thought experiment is by revising the original criterion. We can say: a person X at t1 is identical to a person Y at t2 if; (i) there is an overlapping chain of strong psychological connectedness between X and Y, and; (ii) There is no other person Z at t2 such that there is an overlapping chain of strong psychological connectedness between X and Z. So, according to the Revised Criterion, I am neither identical to Lefty nor Righty I do in fact die after the transplant.

The Problem of Identity

Having analyzed the thought experiment, I will now deeper discuss the more prevalent issues Parfit`s reasoning raises. The first is – if there is no overarching identity to a person, to what degree can we say we survive or not? Despite praising psychological continuity for its ability to admit a degree, there is no specification of degree that is put in place by Parfit to say how much psychological continuity is necessary for your survival as the same person.

This brings us to the question of quasi-memories: the phenomenon where we believe memory to be our own but really it is fabricated from other experiences. Certain cases of source amnesia involve a subject who comes to believe, on the basis of hearing a story for example, that he or she has actually experienced the events of the story. Thus, it is possible to remember experiences that actually happened to another person. Similarly, it is common for character traits to rub off onto others with whom one has close contact. Imagine two friends, A, and B, such that both of these scenarios obtain. B has at least one of A`s traits and at least one of A`s memories. Parfit`s conditions lead to the unintuitive result that A will have survived as B. Parfit needs to supplement his account by saying to what degree of psychological connectedness must be obtained in order to count as survival, or his theory predicts that one can survive as another person without dying.

And yet, we are still left with a key question for Parfit: who, if anyone, is A? Take the fission example, is person A simply a combination of phycological and physical events that hold a certain level of continuity? Is person A a mix of both lefty and righty, even when they go on to live distinct and separate lives? If so, who was A to begin with, were they always two people in one? (the multiple occupancy view).

Parfit believes this question is unimportant: Certain important questions [regarding survival, memory, and responsibility] do presuppose a question about personal identity. But they can be freed of this presupposition. And when they are, the question about identity has no importance.

Parfit avoids the question of what exactly is personal identity. His response to this matter is not satisfactory and suggests things that go against our pre-theoretic notions of how we would define ourselves as surviving. Would we say that we, personally, survive as those shared character traits or memories in our family or close friends? Most commonly, people would say no. We would attribute something more to ourselves, that is to say, our personal identity, that would distinguish us as surviving as our individual selves compared to surviving as memory or trait. Parfit`s fatal flaw is in his avoidance of this fact, rendering his approach far too reductive for such a complex discussion of self and personal identity.

This research explores how men and women self-evaluate their IQ, in modern-day society. Six participants in the UK completed a questionnaire, which determined how they self-evaluated their IQ, compared to the national average. Past research has shown men self-evaluate themselves to have a higher than average IQ, compared to women who self-evaluate themselves to have a lower than average IQ. Studies have shown men and women are constrained to stereotypes and this reflects on how they self-evaluate their IQ. This is also based on how they view themselves in society. Changes in society and the stereotypes on how men and women are perceived may have an impact on how they now self-measure their IQ and understanding of their intelligence.

Introduction

The main theory that supports this research is The Hubris and Humility Effect (HHE; Storek & Furnham, 2012), which explores the potential determinants of gender differences in self-estimated intelligence. (e.g. Beloff, 1992; Furnham, 2001, Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2003) and the domain masculine intelligence type will, which …..

This research will explore the determinants of gender differences that occur with the self-measurement with IQ, ‘domain masculine’ intelligence type (DMIQ) by introducing gender role identity, self-concept, and meaning of intelligence.

Research by both Gardener and Bennett has confirmed that Western society favors men as being more intelligent than women. Traditional research reveals women may perceive themselves as being less intelligent than men perceive themselves to promote relations with the opposite sex. Hogans 1978 study

This research will focus on the self-measurement of IQ. A substantial amount of research has established a positive correlation between self-estimated intelligence (SEI) and objectively measured intelligence (r ≈ 0.30; Freund & Kasten, 2012; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004; Zajenkowski, Stolarski, Maciantowicz, Malesza, & Witowska, 2016). These researches have provided some insight into why there appear to be varying results between male and female participants who self-estimate their IQ. Before examining the self-measurement of IQ between males and females, we must understand how and why genders have different measurements of their IQ. – not sure

Past researchers have discovered that Intelligence, as it is traditionally conceived, demonstrates that men are more intelligent than women(Bennett and Gardenr). Furnham (2000) proposed that people view intelligence as male-normative, mathematical–logical, and spatial intelligence are areas where men are believed to excel. Gardner explores intelligence between men and women and found that when measuring intelligence in the form of interpersonal intelligence which focuses on, emotional awareness, sensitivity, and social intelligence, this is more favorable to women being conceived as more intelligent, compared to traditional intelligence which focuses on logic, analyzing and decision making and when measured men have been conceived as more intelligent.

The Self-estimation of intelligence has been studied by researchers, who have been able to confirm women tend to give themselves lower IQ results than men, based on the above analogy of traditional intelligence.

Gardner (3394) analyses through his research, that there are different types of intelligence and everybody is smart in some way. Critics of Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory argued that the majority of proposed multiple intelligences are not intelligence but instead talents, particular cognitive qualities, forms of accomplishment, or traits (cf. Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Eysenck, 1994; Gottfredson, 1997a, 2004a,b; Klein, 1997; Lohman, 2001; Mathews et al., 2000; Scarr, 1985; Sternberg, 1985, 1991; Visser et al., 2006a, 2006b; Waterhouse, 2006; White, 2005). [1: Frames of Mind (1983) Gardner]

Whereas Robert Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory postulates three fundamental aspects of intelligence – analytic, creative, and practical. People hold inflated and overly favorable self-views and ability beliefs. As a result, their performance estimations are subjected to systematic estimation errors (e.g. Kruger & Dunning, 1999; Harrison & Shaffer, 1994; Krueger & Mueller, 2002; Lichtenstein & Fischhoff, 1977).

Research on self-concept has also helped support and provide a better understanding of why men and women differ in their IQ results. An agreement among researchers is that masculinity and femininity are culturally determined cognitive concepts used by individuals to classify themselves (Bem, 1974, 1981; Lippa, 2001)[footnoteRef:2] [2: Gender, g, Gender Identity Concepts, and Self-Constructs as Predictors of the Self-Estimated IQ JOSEPHINE STOREK ADRIAN FURNHAM University College London]

Historically, it has been accepted that no sex differences in general intelligence exist, as evidenced by the standardized intelligence test norms (Ackerman, 2006; Terman & Merrill, 1937; Wechsler, 1944)

Self-concept is a multidimensional concept that explains how individuals perceive the impact of their behavior on their environments as well as how they are perceived by others (Marsh, 1990). Self-concept clarity represents the structural aspect of the self or the extent to which self-beliefs are clearly and confidently defined, internally consistent, and stable (Campbell et al., 1996). – Michael J. Carter1 and Sara Bruene Past studies have shown that how a person views themselves in society has a positive or negative effect on how they self-evaluate themselves and their IQ. A review of the literature on self and identity reveals that self-concept clarity is a commonly addressed and thoroughly investigated internal process. – Michael J. Carter1 and Sara Bruene

Gender stereotypes are dynamic by representing the changing attributes of women and men, and these beliefs about groups’ past, present, and future follow groups’ trajectories of actual role change (Diekman & Eagly, 2000) According to social role theory, gender stereotypes stem from beliefs about the role occupancies of men and women

Consistent with the principle of dynamic stereotypes (Diekman & Eagly, 2000), perceived changes in the characteristics of the sexes follow from many women or men entering new roles with different demands.

Finally, Rudman and Phelan (2010) demonstrated that priming women with traditional (e.g. male pilot and female flight attendant) as well as non-traditional (e.g. female pilot and male flight attendant) gender roles increases gender stereotyping and decreases interest in masculine occupations. Similar to stereotype threat, gender role beliefs influenced performance on a spatial ability test.

Evidence shows that intelligence (gender) beliefs influence self-evaluations and can in turn act as self-fulfilling prophecies that directly impact performance and encourage the institutionalization of those beliefs (cf. Ackerman & Wolman, 2007; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Arteche, 2008; Furnham & Thomas, 2004; Dweck, 1999). The observed gender differences in self-estimated abilities are stable and consistent across cultures (e.g. von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2009).

This research is going to explore if the change in society within the roles men and women now play in society will change the results of their self-measurement of IQ.

Similar research to this study, includes JOSEPHINE STOREK ADRIAN FURNHAM I. Their research aimed to demonstrate, the Hubris-Humility Effect that shows men believe they are more intelligent than women Stepwise regressions indicated that gender and gender roles were the strongest predictors of DMIQ. have found that gender differences were strongest on the mathematical–logical and spatial intelligences, followed by over-all (g) and then verbal intelligences; with men significantly overestimating, and women significantly underestimating, their abilities relative to each other. This consistent gender difference has been referred to as the Hubris-Humility Effect of gender role or orientation, rather than sex per se, that accounts for the HHE

• Hypothesis. It is expected that due to equal roles and…. The results should reflect that both men and women measure their IQ similarly.
• Method. Data was collected from 6 participants made up of 3 males and 3 females. All participants were selected by the researcher who were from the researcher’s social circle of friends. All participants were required to be over 18 years old. The mean age of the participants.
• Materials. A questionnaire was used to assess the participant’s results. One question was used. The participants were required to give a score based on the national average of 100 provided to them.
• Procedure. The participants were briefed about the purpose of the study and gave written consent to participate.

Results

Study data were analyzed using the Stata statistical software program. Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and ranges for the study variables. In first examining participants’ level of self-concept clarity, we see that the mean is 36.47 (SD ¼ 9.16), indicating that the average is (approximately) at the midpoint of the scale. The average degree of self-concept clarity for participants in this study is

The means in Table 1 also show that the degree to which participants identified as role identities was higher than the midpoint of the scale. On average, participants felt they w. The results do not support the hypothesis that the change in gender stereotypes in modern society confirmed significant differences between men (M = 120.17, SD = 8.01) and women (M = 106.67, SD = 9.34) in DMIQ. The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = –13.50, 95% CI [–17.77, –9.24]) was large (η2 = .28; Hedge’s Adjustment d = 1.54). Hypothesis 1 was therefore confirmed.

Independent samples t-tests were computed to examine whether gender differences occurred on the WPT and GKT. Results are presented in Table 2. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were confirmed.

Discussion

This study has examined the relationship between perceived identity change and self-concept clarity by addressing perceived identity change as a multidimensional construct. The results generally support the notion that different dimensions of perceived identity change impact the self in unique ways. We have seen conclusively that one dimension of perceived identity change, the magnitude (or severity) of such change, relates to a lower degree of self-concept clarity.

The results presented here also provide empirical support for the theoretical expectation that person identities are more stable entities within the self, compared with role identities. The results show that self-concept clarity is affected more when individuals experience changes in personal identities than when they experience changes in role identities (though the same relationship was not found regarding the relationship between person and social identities). In furthering the understanding of how person, role, and social identities operate as discrete types of identities, this study has answered the call from identity scholar

Despite the roles of both men and women now being equal, there needs to be other research maybe focusing on biological perspectives or evolution that provides a better understanding as to why women still measure themselves with a lower IQ than men do.

This research explores how men and women self-evaluate their IQ, in modern-day society. Six participants in the UK completed a questionnaire, which determined how they self-evaluated their IQ, compared to the national average. Past research has shown men self-evaluate themselves to have a higher than average IQ, compared to women who self-evaluate themselves to have a lower than average IQ. Studies have shown men and women are constrained to stereotypes and this reflects on how they self-evaluate their IQ. This is also based on how they view themselves in society. Changes in society and the stereotypes on how men and women are perceived may have an impact on how they now self-measure their IQ and understanding of their intelligence.

Introduction

The main theory that supports this research is The Hubris and Humility Effect (HHE; Storek & Furnham, 2012), which explores the potential determinants of gender differences in self-estimated intelligence. (e.g. Beloff, 1992; Furnham, 2001, Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2003) and the domain masculine intelligence type will, which …..

This research will explore the determinants of gender differences that occur with the self-measurement with IQ, ‘domain masculine’ intelligence type (DMIQ) by introducing gender role identity, self-concept, and meaning of intelligence.

Research by both Gardener and Bennett has confirmed that Western society favors men as being more intelligent than women. Traditional research reveals women may perceive themselves as being less intelligent than men perceive themselves to promote relations with the opposite sex. Hogans 1978 study

This research will focus on the self-measurement of IQ. A substantial amount of research has established a positive correlation between self-estimated intelligence (SEI) and objectively measured intelligence (r ≈ 0.30; Freund & Kasten, 2012; Gignac, Stough, & Loukomitis, 2004; Zajenkowski, Stolarski, Maciantowicz, Malesza, & Witowska, 2016). These researches have provided some insight into why there appear to be varying results between male and female participants who self-estimate their IQ. Before examining the self-measurement of IQ between males and females, we must understand how and why genders have different measurements of their IQ. – not sure

Past researchers have discovered that Intelligence, as it is traditionally conceived, demonstrates that men are more intelligent than women(Bennett and Gardenr). Furnham (2000) proposed that people view intelligence as male-normative, mathematical–logical, and spatial intelligence are areas where men are believed to excel. Gardner explores intelligence between men and women and found that when measuring intelligence in the form of interpersonal intelligence which focuses on, emotional awareness, sensitivity, and social intelligence, this is more favorable to women being conceived as more intelligent, compared to traditional intelligence which focuses on logic, analyzing and decision making and when measured men have been conceived as more intelligent.

The Self-estimation of intelligence has been studied by researchers, who have been able to confirm women tend to give themselves lower IQ results than men, based on the above analogy of traditional intelligence.

Gardner (3394) analyses through his research, that there are different types of intelligence and everybody is smart in some way. Critics of Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory argued that the majority of proposed multiple intelligences are not intelligence but instead talents, particular cognitive qualities, forms of accomplishment, or traits (cf. Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Eysenck, 1994; Gottfredson, 1997a, 2004a,b; Klein, 1997; Lohman, 2001; Mathews et al., 2000; Scarr, 1985; Sternberg, 1985, 1991; Visser et al., 2006a, 2006b; Waterhouse, 2006; White, 2005). [1: Frames of Mind (1983) Gardner]

Whereas Robert Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory postulates three fundamental aspects of intelligence – analytic, creative, and practical. People hold inflated and overly favorable self-views and ability beliefs. As a result, their performance estimations are subjected to systematic estimation errors (e.g. Kruger & Dunning, 1999; Harrison & Shaffer, 1994; Krueger & Mueller, 2002; Lichtenstein & Fischhoff, 1977).

Research on self-concept has also helped support and provide a better understanding of why men and women differ in their IQ results. An agreement among researchers is that masculinity and femininity are culturally determined cognitive concepts used by individuals to classify themselves (Bem, 1974, 1981; Lippa, 2001)[footnoteRef:2] [2: Gender, g, Gender Identity Concepts, and Self-Constructs as Predictors of the Self-Estimated IQ JOSEPHINE STOREK ADRIAN FURNHAM University College London]

Historically, it has been accepted that no sex differences in general intelligence exist, as evidenced by the standardized intelligence test norms (Ackerman, 2006; Terman & Merrill, 1937; Wechsler, 1944)

Self-concept is a multidimensional concept that explains how individuals perceive the impact of their behavior on their environments as well as how they are perceived by others (Marsh, 1990). Self-concept clarity represents the structural aspect of the self or the extent to which self-beliefs are clearly and confidently defined, internally consistent, and stable (Campbell et al., 1996). – Michael J. Carter1 and Sara Bruene Past studies have shown that how a person views themselves in society has a positive or negative effect on how they self-evaluate themselves and their IQ. A review of the literature on self and identity reveals that self-concept clarity is a commonly addressed and thoroughly investigated internal process. – Michael J. Carter1 and Sara Bruene

Gender stereotypes are dynamic by representing the changing attributes of women and men, and these beliefs about groups’ past, present, and future follow groups’ trajectories of actual role change (Diekman & Eagly, 2000) According to social role theory, gender stereotypes stem from beliefs about the role occupancies of men and women

Consistent with the principle of dynamic stereotypes (Diekman & Eagly, 2000), perceived changes in the characteristics of the sexes follow from many women or men entering new roles with different demands.

Finally, Rudman and Phelan (2010) demonstrated that priming women with traditional (e.g. male pilot and female flight attendant) as well as non-traditional (e.g. female pilot and male flight attendant) gender roles increases gender stereotyping and decreases interest in masculine occupations. Similar to stereotype threat, gender role beliefs influenced performance on a spatial ability test.

Evidence shows that intelligence (gender) beliefs influence self-evaluations and can in turn act as self-fulfilling prophecies that directly impact performance and encourage the institutionalization of those beliefs (cf. Ackerman & Wolman, 2007; Beyer & Bowden, 1997; Chamorro-Premuzic & Arteche, 2008; Furnham & Thomas, 2004; Dweck, 1999). The observed gender differences in self-estimated abilities are stable and consistent across cultures (e.g. von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2009).

This research is going to explore if the change in society within the roles men and women now play in society will change the results of their self-measurement of IQ.

Similar research to this study, includes JOSEPHINE STOREK ADRIAN FURNHAM I. Their research aimed to demonstrate, the Hubris-Humility Effect that shows men believe they are more intelligent than women Stepwise regressions indicated that gender and gender roles were the strongest predictors of DMIQ. have found that gender differences were strongest on the mathematical–logical and spatial intelligences, followed by over-all (g) and then verbal intelligences; with men significantly overestimating, and women significantly underestimating, their abilities relative to each other. This consistent gender difference has been referred to as the Hubris-Humility Effect of gender role or orientation, rather than sex per se, that accounts for the HHE

• Hypothesis. It is expected that due to equal roles and…. The results should reflect that both men and women measure their IQ similarly.
• Method. Data was collected from 6 participants made up of 3 males and 3 females. All participants were selected by the researcher who were from the researcher’s social circle of friends. All participants were required to be over 18 years old. The mean age of the participants.
• Materials. A questionnaire was used to assess the participant’s results. One question was used. The participants were required to give a score based on the national average of 100 provided to them.
• Procedure. The participants were briefed about the purpose of the study and gave written consent to participate.

Results

Study data were analyzed using the Stata statistical software program. Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and ranges for the study variables. In first examining participants’ level of self-concept clarity, we see that the mean is 36.47 (SD ¼ 9.16), indicating that the average is (approximately) at the midpoint of the scale. The average degree of self-concept clarity for participants in this study is

The means in Table 1 also show that the degree to which participants identified as role identities was higher than the midpoint of the scale. On average, participants felt they w. The results do not support the hypothesis that the change in gender stereotypes in modern society confirmed significant differences between men (M = 120.17, SD = 8.01) and women (M = 106.67, SD = 9.34) in DMIQ. The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = –13.50, 95% CI [–17.77, –9.24]) was large (η2 = .28; Hedge’s Adjustment d = 1.54). Hypothesis 1 was therefore confirmed.

Independent samples t-tests were computed to examine whether gender differences occurred on the WPT and GKT. Results are presented in Table 2. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were confirmed.

Discussion

This study has examined the relationship between perceived identity change and self-concept clarity by addressing perceived identity change as a multidimensional construct. The results generally support the notion that different dimensions of perceived identity change impact the self in unique ways. We have seen conclusively that one dimension of perceived identity change, the magnitude (or severity) of such change, relates to a lower degree of self-concept clarity.

The results presented here also provide empirical support for the theoretical expectation that person identities are more stable entities within the self, compared with role identities. The results show that self-concept clarity is affected more when individuals experience changes in personal identities than when they experience changes in role identities (though the same relationship was not found regarding the relationship between person and social identities). In furthering the understanding of how person, role, and social identities operate as discrete types of identities, this study has answered the call from identity scholar

Despite the roles of both men and women now being equal, there needs to be other research maybe focusing on biological perspectives or evolution that provides a better understanding as to why women still measure themselves with a lower IQ than men do.

In today’s world, the use of cell phones is a fashion trend for young people to identify themselves, their skills, and future opportunities. Foley, Holzman, and Wearing (2007) aim to confirm the improvement of the quality of human experiences in public spaces through the application of cell phones. The relationship between mobile phones and consumptive leisure will be discussed as a possibility to reinforce personal freedoms and identities.

Cell Phones and Consumptive Leisure

The authors use in-depth interviews with adolescent girls and review recent literature findings to identify the peculiarities of preferred leisured lifestyles and the conditions under which their freedoms are achieved. They investigate mobile phones as a means for the development of a sense of self-confidence. Their main finding is that modern devices impart young people’s sense of autonomy because they provide access to public space for young ladies (Foley et al., 2007).

Conspicuous consumption (the use of mobile phones) determines the establishment of personal identity. Young people can move away from their families, decrease the level of parental control, and share their experiences with peers. The idea of freedom gains new meaning with the emergence of new technologies. At the moment of writing the article, the authors are concerned that cell phones positively contribute to the creation of new images and identities as a part of their leisure activities.

Conclusion

After reading the article, one should admit the benefits of mobile phones as available conspicuous leisure consumption. When young women decide to share their thoughts with peers via mobile phones, they take their first step outside their families and try to understand the essence of freedom and the worth of identity in the modern world. In general, the authors achieve their goals in this study and introduce strong evidence to support the connection between the chosen concepts.

References

Foley, C., Holzman, C., & Wearing, S. (2007). Moving beyond conspicuous leisure consumption: Adolescent women, mobile phones and public space. Leisure Studies, 26(2), 179-192.

The topic of personal identity has been presenting a matter of interest for numerous philosophers throughout the whole history of humanity. An English philosopher, John Locke, advanced his opinion om this regard. Unlike others, who believe that personal identity is based on the substance of the soul and body, he focuses on consciousness or memory. His approach implies moral responsibility, which can be acquired by a subject. The main strength of his theory is the fact that it stimulates people to evaluate their actions. However, Locke claims that people will be punished for their crimes only in case they could remember them, which is definitely the weakness of his concept.

A Scottish philosopher David Hume offers another opinion in this regard and states that personal identity is fiction. He wrote: “I never can catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe anything but the perception” (as cited in Fieser para. 22). Therefore, an individual cannot describe himself or herself without the titles for events in their life, which were designed by other people. In this regard, his position may be similar to anatta to some extent, which implies the fact that a permanent soul and self do not exist.

The topic of personal identity is inextricably linked with the perception of the brain and soul. It has been changing throughout the entire history of humanity. Philosophers used to relate them as independent aspects, though the contemporary view implies the connection between them. In other words, from the perspective of modern philosophers, soul and mind present a unity.

As for my perception of self, I do not adhere to the concept of free will at all. I strongly believe that all the actions and occasions have their purposes and consequences. In this regard, my opinion may be close to determinism to some extent. However, from my point of view, future events cannot and should not be predicted, and they should be accepted for granted.

Reference

Fieser, J. “David Hume (1711-1776)”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web.

The possibility of teletransporation is a topic that concerns not only science fiction but also raises important philosophical issues of personal identity. Supposing teletransport becomes possible, it is not clear enough whether a person who disappeared in one place and appeared in another will be the same. Thus, it should be determined what factors influence the fact that a person is still self during some time. Philosophers at different times raised questions about the relationship between soul, body, and identity.

According to the Body Theory (brute-physical view), personality is determined by a bodily criterion, and people are their bodies, which define identity. In turn, Descartes believed in the existence of an immaterial soul or mind, which causally interacts with a material body (“Personal Identity,” 2019). With this, for personal identity, nothing is needed except the personality itself. Locke also considered the question of souls that could live in a human body. Moreover, according to his views, one soul can live in several bodies in different lives, which resembles the concept of reincarnation, but at the same time, a person is not the same. Identity, in this case, depends on the consciousness’ continuity, and, for example, people who have lost their memory lose their personality. Parfit, who raised the teletrasportation paradox issue, believed that any factors for determining identity are not enough, and character features and memory come to the fore.

Thus, even though I find Locke’s opinion to be the most convincing, each of these views may speak in favor of using a teletransporter. However, with the brute-physical view, it depends on whether human cells are transferred or duplicates created. In the second case, following this approach’s views is likely to be not the same person. However, following Descartes, if transported people define their identity in the same way, they will remain the same. Following Locke and Parfit, the identical character qualities and memory will also testify to the same identity. I believe that experience and attitude to it determines personal identity and I would advocate the use of a transporter.

Reference

Personal identity. (2019). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Web.

The process of shaping a personal identity is rather complex and often convoluted since it is defined by multiple forces, some of which may turn out to be quite contradictory. The exploration of a personal identity becomes even more difficult for immigrants, who have been affected by sudden changes in their environment and the influences that often appear to be too intrusive ad dominant. However, due to openness to new ideas and the ability to retain my cultural values, I have managed to shape my personal identity in a unique way that included both the core values of my native community and those of the cultures that have influenced me profoundly.

On the surface, the portrait that I have painted of myself over the entirety of my life is quite basic. Regarding my ethnic roots, I have always viewed myself as a member of the Latino/Hispanic community, which implies following the relevant major traditions and philosophy. For example, motherhood and the related roles, including those of nurturing and educating, have always been a priority for me. However, I have managed to overcome the gender-conforming standards that the specified roles suggested by exploring career opportunities that the related qualities provided. Namely, I have found my calling as an educator for PreK children, to whom I provide support, guidance, and the necessary instructions.

Connecting my experiences and current self-perception, I will have to mention two key people who have influenced me profoundly. These were my mother and my grandmother, who introduced me to the idea of self-determination, helped me to embrace my womanhood and encouraged my education and, later on, my professional development. At the same time, they have been supporting me as a mother, thus helping me with my self-actualization tremendously. They have taught me to overcome the limitations set for me by gender roles, prejudices, and cultural misconceptions, while choosing the available opportunities wisely to grow as a person and a professional. As a result, none of the roles that I have assumed, including that one of a mother and a teacher, have ever restricted me in the options for personal development and communication.

Although religion has never been the focus of my spiritual development due to the impact of the Socialist philosophy of my country of origin, several key Catholic values such as the importance of human life have defined my career and personal evolution. Speaking of the cultural values that have defined my identity as an educator, a parent, and a learner, I must mention the value of human life and respect for others, which have been ingrained in me since childhood due to the family values and the cultural principles. Being appreciative of every opinion and valuing human life as the ultimate treasure is what has affected the development of my identity, both as a teacher and a parent. Specifically, I have been approaching the issue of early childhood development with especial care, making sure that the needs of every child are met and that none is deprived of an essential learning resource.

Although the concept of a cultural identity is quite pliable, and I expect mine to be enriched with new elements in the future, my current perception of self has been shaped largely by the idea of valuing human life, as well as my Latino/Hispanic heritage. The multiple influences that I have experienced throughout my personal journey have contributed to the creation of a unique concept of self that I hope to improve and enrich with new ideas in the future. Overall, my current life as a mother and an educator is entirely fulfilling, yet I am always open to new opportunities.