Category: Performance

Introduction

Performance is defined as a contested concept. Goffman (1959) describes performance as “reference to all the activity of an individual that occur during a period marked by his continuous presence before a particular set of observers”. This activity has some influence on the observers.

Performance could also refer to aesthetic performance or art practice also known as performing arts. “This is used to describe a performance by someone or an artist” (Schmitt, 2010, p.367). This may also describe in other terms a whole show or a particular genre also known as performance art.

Other occurrences well suited to performance definition but outside the aesthetic bracket would include sports for example where we describe an athlete’s performance. Similarly while focusing on the management arena we may talk about organizational performance indicators or further still basing on science and technology we can perform an experiment and take measurement of certain parameters.

Performance as a term will therefore broadly encompass a range of human behaviour of a particular kind. This behaviour will either be extra daily, aesthetic or cultural. Broadening the classification results in two kinds of performances under everyday performance or aesthetic, cultural or extra daily performance.

The extra daily , aesthetic and cultural performance may typically cover the likes of operas, films, circus, theatre, ceremonies, rituals, specific events such as weddings, trials; any behaviour outside of the daily behaviour. It is significant to note that aesthetic, cultural or extra daily performances are not mutually exclusive.

Bateson and Goffman attempted to define the everyday performance through the frame theory. It can be understood from their approach that various aspects of social life are framed and participants act appropriately within each of these frames.

While defining relationships among living organisms Bateson made an attempt to categorize seriousness and play through what he termed metacommunicative mechanism. These mechanisms are meant to define how specific actions are to be understood in every day performance. Bateson concludes that every metacommunicative message describes a frame. Goffman was the initiator of the frame idea.

In the light of this understanding Goffman asserts that someone creates a conceptual frame enabling their behaviour to be viewed by an audience as a performance. “Based on this understanding the relationship between everyday and extra daily performance can be described as a continuum” (Schmit, 2004, p.55). The implication is that every day unmarked performance is part of the big picture that is about the extra daily.

Performance in anthropological, sociological and psychological spheres is concerned more with context other than specific activities by the performer.

Fitzpatrick in quoting Bauman’s definition of performance points to the fact that there is the assumption of responsibility to an audience to whom is a display of communicative competence.

According to Bauman (1984) “competence is based on knowledge and the ability to speak in socially appropriate ways” (p.9). Fitzpatrick himself defines performance by pinpointing three specific elements that are constituents of the Fitzpatrick performance triangle. The elements are personal resources, role in a particular context of the situation and specific goals.

Bauman’s understanding of performance can be mapped to Fitzpatrick’s triangle in the three areas where Bauman’s assumption of responsibility aspect points to Fitzpatrick’s acceptance of role in the context situation.

While Fitzpatrick mentions goals aims and derived outcomes, these concur with Bauman’s display of performative competence. “This competence according to Bauman rests on the knowledge and ability to speak in socially appropriate ways which according to Fitzpatrick relates to the deployment of personal resources” (Henke, 2002, p. 34).

Defining the Fitzpatrick terms

Accordingly Fitzpatrick views performance in terms of the deployment of personal resources, goals, aims and desired outcome and acceptance of role in context of situation (Fitzpatrick, 1995). In a broader sense these personal resources would be performing artists in the Goffman frames. The personal resource refers to the entities that will contribute to the everyday or extra daily performance. The particulate behaviour as defined by Bateson defines the role in a particular context or situation.

The objective of this particular behaviour is to be able to display performative competence which are actually the goals, aims or derived outcomes of the performance. Fitzpatrick’s triangle visually aids in effectively contextualizing lectures with performance being the central focus. To effectively gauge a lecture the performance of the performer or personal resource in this case the lecturer is vital. This largely depends on competency, the comprehension and the capability to speak in socially suitable ways.

On the other hand lectures are effective and the lecturers are performing if there is a program and an outline of desired outcomes or results that can define the levels of performance in other words Bauman defines these as display of performative competence. To a large extend the success in terms of performance for a lecture depends on how well that lecture has attained the goals, aims and desired outcomes. That largely depends on the lecturer’s ability to display performative competence.

Fitzpatrick’s triangle addresses a third and important aspect within the performance context. Basing on the lectures, the personal resource or the performer who in this context is the lecturer can only perform if they have acceptance from the audience or what Fitzpatrick terms as acceptance of role in context of the situation. In delivering the lecture the performer is seen to perform if they have a responsibility to an audience. This is the particular role in a particular context or situation.

Conclusion

Performance studies remains a broad subject today and covers a number of disciplines most of which borrow from the tenets of the scholars such as Fitzpatrick who have laid out a thorough foundation in performance studies. Being the broad aspect it is performance studies derivatives would include the fields such as anthropology, sociology, drama and theatre studies linguistics among others.

Contributions Austin a speech act theorist serves to give us another dimension to understanding performance where according to him a statement can assert something what he calls the constantive as well as do something what he terms performative. With this idea has arisen performativity which is an attempt at defining the processes taking place around the world in terms of language especially so speech acts and how these acts affect the listener.

What has resulted is an important view of the world in terms of performance a term referred to as performativity.

Reference List

Baumann, R., 1984. Verbal Art as Performance. Illinois: Waveland Press.

Fitzpatrick, T., 1995. The Relationship of Oral and Literate Performance Process in the Commedia Dell’Arte: Beyond the Improvisation / Memorization Divide. New York: Edwin Mellen Press.

Goffman, E., 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, 1^st Ed. Colorado: Anchor Press.

Henke, R., 2002. Performance and Literature in Commedia Dell’Arte. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Schmitt, N.C., 2010. Life on the Street in Commedia dell’ Arte Scenarios of Flamino Scala. Viator, 41 (1), pp. 367-393.

Schmit, N.C., 2004. Commedia dell’Arte: Characters, Scenarios and Rhetoric. Text and Performance Quarterly, 24 (1), pp. 55-73.

Introduction

The concept of learning was extensively discussed by Bruner, a prominent scholar in the psychological field. However, several intellectuals considerably contributed to the subject, by employing several experiments and research projects, thus modifying the concept (Kellogg, 2002). They studied the theories of learning beginning from immaturity stage until the adult periods. Ultimately, they represented their findings in writing, which was later published for other educational purposes.

Describe the concept of learning

Concept learning begins at a child’s birth and proceeds all through its lifetime period. It is further noted that concept learning only happens in the following ways, i.e., concept formation and assimilation. Concept formation entails how an infant struggles to learn and recognize shapes, color, and names of things.

For instance, under normal circumstances, a child should be able to learn all these, by the age of three. Concept acquisition often results from what we bump into such as new words, thus learning them. For instance, one may encounter a new word from a dictionary thus finding out its meaning.

There are specific issues associated with concept learning, for instance, determining whether there are single or numerous mechanisms and the problem of determining what was done before an individual attain the knowledge. Concept learning is extensively influenced by certain types of knowledge, i.e., the casual and the schemas (Eysenck & Keane, 2005).

Several problems also characterize concept learning; for instance, lack of knowledge theories that may assist in inferring knowledge impacts. Additionally, it is tricky to have an extensive conceptualization of the factors that led to the attainment of knowledge.

Distinguish between learning and performance

There exist a considerable difference between learning and performance. Learning is influenced by factors such as training, rewards, partial reinforcement, and interstimulus time; whereas, performance is influenced by motivations and individual effort (Benjamin, 2007).

Tolman, prominent psychology, contributed to the difference by insisting that learning is unobservable, and it’s exclusively evaluated and deduced by performance. Tolman also mentioned that learning is an internal process; whereas, on the contrary, he regarded performance as a behavior (external).

Comparing and contrasting the conceptual approaches

There exist two types of theoretical approaches, which noted as ecological and nonecological approaches. These approaches are directly linked to the study of learning, with different extensive explanations from several psychologists. It is noted that these two approaches consist of certain qualities; some of them are common to both methods, while others are not.

The Ecological approach to the study of learning

An ecological approach is considered as a product of traditional learning theory; in other words, the conventional learning theories played a vital role in developing the approach. However, despite its traditional origin, it is essential to acknowledge that, this theory approaches learning from a nontraditional perspective.

The ecological approach also stresses that learning has certain features, which are decided by either two of the following reasons, i.e., previous happenings during the development period or by preontogenic factors that existed in their ancestors.

The environment is one of the primary factors considered in defining and explaining the ecological factor. It plays a fundamental role in influencing the investigation and scrutiny of the learning process. Conclusively, the ecological approach connects learning with behavior, which is also extensively influenced by the environment.

Nonecological approach to the study of learning

The nonecological approach assumes a different position regarding the hitches of environmental explanations. It describes the environment as a collection of several stimuli and reinforcers. The application of stimuli on the approach utterly renders it nonecological, since it is unspecific to a particular person.

It is noted that nonecological approach pilots the formation of several theories, although they are exclusively nonecological. Ultimately, it is also imperative, not to forget that tradition plays an extensive role in supporting the nonecological approach.

Conclusion

Bruner initially discussed the concept of learning, and then followed by several modifications by different scholars. The two concepts, i.e., learning and performance are dissimilar in various capacities, despite the extreme associations between them. There exist two types of conceptual approaches, i.e., concerning learning; therefore, it is extraordinarily significant to understand the dissimilarity and the similarity within the terms, for a compelling understanding of the topic.

References

Benjamin, T. L. (2007). A brief history of modern psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Eysenck, W. M. & Keane, M. T. (2005). Cognitive psychology: a student’s handbook. New York: Taylor and Francis.

Kellogg, T. R. (2002). Cognitive psychology. California: Sage.

Introduction

This paper aims to describe and evaluate performance appraisal techniques, used in the United States Army. We are grateful to Lieutenant John Carlyn who agreed to spend time on this interview and share his expertise with us.

Furthermore, in this paper we are going to make recommendations which can improve performance procedures and tools in this organizations. Despite the fact that a great number of scholarly works have been dedicated to the study of performance appraisal, there is no universal pattern that would guarantee an objective evaluation of performance.

Literature Review

In recent years, performance appraisal has become one of the most crucial tasks for many HR managers as it is instrumental for good employee retention and organizational performance. A well-developed remuneration system is crucial for the reduction of staff turnover because a person, who feels that he/she is valued by the management, is rather unlikely to search for a different job (Whiting et al 2008).

More importantly, an effective performance appraisal system helps to work out training programs for the employees. If the manager carefully monitors and evaluates a person’s performance throughout a certain period of time, for example, three or four months, he/she will be able to see which skills he should acquire or elaborate.

During the last decade, many leading companies decided to take a new approach to performance appraisal. It became evident that the evaluation of performance, which relies only on numerical data, leads to job dissatisfaction and high turnover rates.

The thing is that the volume of employee’s output often depends upon many out-of-control factors such the functioning of supply chain, the structure of organization, the efficiency of the managers and so forth.

Thus, quantitative assessment of performance does not fully reflect the skills of the employee and his contribution to the company’s successes. For this reason, both scholars and managers tried to map out more efficient performance appraisal methods.

On the whole, job performance is measured according to such parameters as quantity, quality, time and cost. One of the most important parts of performance assessment is job analysis. At this stage, the manager has to identify the skills, abilities and knowledge, required from a person (Goel, 2008, p 153). During job analysis it is vital to single out those quantitative and qualitative characteristics which can be measured.

At present, there are a great number of performance evaluation methods. In recent years, 360-degree feedback has become increasingly popular. It can be explained by the fact that many organizations attach much importance to quality management.

The essence of this technique lies in the following: the performance appraisal of an employee is based on the feedback, provided by his/her colleagues, customers, subordinates and the executive officers (Schneier et al, 1995, 208). In their article Steven Whiting and his colleagues (2008) maintain that a manager should focus not only on a task performance of an employee, but also on his interactions with other coworkers.

For example, if he/she helps other employees, who cannot cope with tasks, the manager ought to include this information in the assessment report.

Furthermore, the scholars argue that such criterion as organizational loyalty should also be taken into consideration by people, who conduct performance appraisal (Whiting et al, 2008). Overall, the framework, proposed by the authors, is supposed to enhance employee’s satisfaction with their job and motivate them.

This method aims to evaluate various qualitative characteristics of person’s performance such as teamwork, leadership, customer satisfaction. There are other strategies for assessing the quality of employee’s job performance; yet this one is the most accurate and objective.

The greatest challenge, faced by both managers and employees is subjectivity and bias. There is no performance appraisal technique that completely eliminates them. 360-degree assessment seems to us as the most useful tool for performance assessment.

Thus, we have analyzed theoretical approaches to performance appraisal. At this point, it is vital for us to show how it is done in practice. For this purpose, we have interviewed Lieutenant John Carlyn of the United States Army, who explained the principles of performance appraisal in this organization.

The text of the interview

During this interview, we have asked Lieutenant John Carlyn about performance appraisal strategies, applied in the United States Army. In particular, we inquired about various stages of performance of appraisal and the dimensions according to which job performance is measured.

The transcript of the interview

How many individuals work for the organization?

At the moment, the personnel of the US Army number more than half a million people. It is one of the largest organizations in the world. I assess the performance of fifty people, who are under my command.

How often are appraisals conducted?

The appraisals are performed on an annual basis.

Are appraisals formal, informal, or a combination of both?

Well, I try to combine both formal and informal assessment. There is a standard evaluation form that helps measure task performance.

Each member of the personnel receives my performance appraisal report at the end of October. However, I also try to discuss the results with each of my subordinates. You know, the person needs to know exactly which areas of his performance need improvement and in some cases, a standardized report is not sufficient.

Is a standard evaluation form that is used? If so, is it used consistently?

Yes, I’ve said before, we do use performance evaluation form; it is a tool, used to monitor and document performance of each personnel member.

What dimensions of performance are evaluated? Why?

There are several dimensions which ought to be measured: task or mission performance, interpersonal skills, leadership qualities, technical efficiency, and the behavior, which is not directly related to a person’s duties.

While evaluating the performance of each subordinate, do you employee a 360 degree assessment?

Well, yes, I’m aware of this technique, I do take into consideration the feedback, provided by a person’s peers. This helps to better evaluate his teamwork and interpersonal skills. However, the use of 360 degree assessment is not mandatory; it is optional.

You have mentioned the behavior, which is not associated with immediate duties. What exactly do you mean?

You know, a soldier of the US Army must be perfect not only in terms of professionalism but in terms of ethics. Every incident that can affect the public image of this organization is documented and taken in account by the performance assessor.

You have mentioned interpersonal skills. What kind of skills do you refer to?

Well, I mean person’s willingness to help those people, who lag behind, or leadership skills such as ability to motivate others.

What do you like and dislike about conducting performance appraisals?

You know, I don’t like the fact that performance appraisal has to be based on someone’s subjective opinion. Although, appraisal methods are standardized, there is still a room for bias.

In fact, there are many cases, when people disagree with the results of assessment, and in the long term it can give rise to many workplace conflicts. This is why I combine both formal and informal assessment. It’s important to discuss the results of performance appraisal with the subordinates.

What components of the evaluation process need improvement?

It seems to me that performance appraisals should be conducted more than once a year. Annual assessments can overlook many important details. Some of person’s achievements can go unregistered and this often leads to job dissatisfaction. Besides, I think that mission-based performance assessment does not reflect personal progress.

Could you please speak more about this mission-based assessment

As you know, the performance is evaluated according to a certain grading scale that includes such points as Excellent, Adequate, Satisfactory and Unsatisfactory.

When you evaluate the soldier’s performance from a mission-based point of view, there are basically only two grades, excellent and unsatisfactory. The thing is that the results of any task or mission usually depend on many out-of-control factors. This is why it is sometimes quite difficult to conduct performance appraisals.

Critical analysis

This interview indicates that such an organization as the United States Army has a very complicated system of performance appraisal. It includes both quantitative and numerical data, which helps to measure a person’s reflection throughout a certain period of time, namely a year.

Yet, as John Carlyn pointed out the performance appraisal, conducted on an annual basis, does not fully reflect the achievements that an employee has made during this time. Probably, this is the reason why so many companies carry out performance appraisals at least twice or thrice a year (Goel, 2008).

The second aspect, which requires in-depth examination, is the so-called mission-based assessment. Overall, this approach is based on the premise that an individual performance can be measured according to the outcomes of a certain task or mission. This method is more suitable for evaluation of team performance, rather than that one of an individual.

As John has outlined in his interview, the outcomes of a mission or operation are influenced by many external factors, such as the reliability of intelligence data, meticulousness of planning, or time available for this mission. Those people, who work in the army, are usually dependent on someone else. Therefore, we can say that mission-based performance appraisal is not the most effective tool.

Recommendations

On the basis of this discussion, we can make the following recommendations. First, it might be prudent to conduct performance appraisal two or three times a year. It has to be admitted that this change would entail a great deal of paperwork but in this way a person will be better able to see which areas of his skills need improvement.

Besides, an annual assessment can be too superficial, it does not register the development of employee’s skills or his/her minor achievements. As a result, it forces a person to a belief that he/she is not valued according to his merits and this is one of the problems, which any organization should avoid.

Secondly, one has to find an alternative to a mission-based performance appraisal. Although this technique is not used very often, it may influence a person’s attitude toward the organization, itself. Such approach to performance evaluation can be regarded as unfair and biased because it aims to evaluate the outcomes of a mission or a task, but it cannot measure individual contribution of each member of the staff.

Finally, we can argue that the US Army should make a more efficient use of 360 degree appraisal. This strategy is registering and evaluating qualitative aspects of an employee’s work. It appears that this method will be quite applicable for the needs of a military institution.

Conclusion

Thus, in this paper we have discussed strategies of performance evaluation, used by modern organizations. Much more attention is now being paid to the qualitative dimensions of performance but in fact, there are only very few methods, which enable to measure these qualitative characteristics. This is one of the key difficulties, faced by HR managers.

This research focuses on a very specific type of organization: the United States Army. This is one of those cases, when a performance appraisal has to be based mostly on qualitative characteristics. The interview, which we have conducted, shows that evaluation of performance is one of the most challenging tasks, faced by the commanding officers.

The problem is that an annual performance appraisal does not always include the progress that a person made during this time. In this paper, we have proposed a framework, which relies on 360-degree assessment. This model can improve the organizational performance and enhance job satisfaction.

Reference List

Goel V. (2008). Performance Appraisal and Compensation Management: A Modern Approach. NY: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.

Muchinsky, P. M. (2009) Psychology applied to work: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. Summerfield, NC.: Hypergraphic Press

Schneier. C. E. Shaw. D. Beatty. R. & Baird L. 1995 Performance measurement, management, and appraisal sourcebook. Ney Jersey: Human Resource Development.

Whiting, S. W., Podsakoff, P. M., & Pierce, J. R. (2008). Effects of task performance, helping, voice, and organizational loyalty on performance appraisal ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 9(1), 125-139.

Abstract

Sleep deprivation is a big issue in many students who desire to achieve positive results in their studies. Many experts have associated poor sleeping habits in students with decreased functioning of the brain. The quality of sleep that students have determines their level of performance at college. The students deprive themselves of sleep to study without looking at the adverse health consequences they exposed themselves to.

Surveys will be used to establish the relationship between lack of sleep and poor performance outcomes in class. The measures to be used will determine why sleep deprivation is a big issue in many academic institutions. The study will seek to validate the argument that sleep deprivation results in poor performance outcomes for college students.

Introduction

This study analyses the effect of sleep deprivation on the performance of college students. Students usually neglect sleep for the purpose of excelling in their academic performance. They sacrifice sleep so as to accomplish school projects and assignments. Their lack of enough sleep makes them dysfunctional in other areas well. Sleep deprivation has been found to affect thinking and cognitive functions within the human brain.

People who do not get enough sleep are unable to perform their tasks to the desired quality compared to those who do. The body’s nerve functions are negatively affected as a result of inadequate and irregular sleep patterns. People who are deprived of sleep have the misunderstanding that their bodies are still able to operate normally, which is not true.

College students who spend a lot of time on other activities at the time they should be sleeping are likely to experience a decline in doing academic tasks and other activities that affect their academic performance. People who sleep a few hours every day are likely to have problems with their memory.

College students are likely to experience a low retention ability of what they learn, which has negative consequences on their academic performance. It is necessary for students to spend their time well to ensure that they have enough rest before embarking on strenuous activities.

Some students stay late at night either studying or getting entertained. This interferes with their normal sleep cycles and this action leads to poor health. These students are likely to have low energy levels in their body because of the constant fatigue they are subjected to. It is important for students to have consistent sleeping patterns in the whole week, including the weekends.

Several surveys have been carried out which sought to evaluate the extent of sleep deprivation and quality among students. The Groniger Sleep Quality questionnaire was one of the tools used in the survey. This survey measured the average times in a week students had slept.

The examined sleep patterns were less than five hours, average number of hours every week spent on sleep, and the number of nights students had spent without sleeping. The survey found that students who on average slept more than five hours had a positive GPA score while those who slept for less than five hours had poor GPA scores.

However, the survey failed to test other important parameters such as class attendance, the ability of students to understand the course material, and student access to crucial learning materials. All these factors have a contribution on the performance of college students (Lowry, Dean, & Manders, 2010, p. 2).

A study was carried out to determine the level of sleep quality in college students. Buboltz, Brown, and Barlow (2001) found out that college students had very many sleep related problems than any other adult grouping.

Their findings closely mirrored those of McClelland and Pilcher (2007) who examined the performance of students who were deprived of sleep (p. 18). Their study looked at 14 college students who were observed on their level of sleepiness in a period of 28 hours. The students in question were able to detach the two causes of drowsiness, the body’s state and their individual conduct.

The study revealed that as time progressed, the students were not able to distinguish between the state of their bodies and their own behavior. This study confirms that sleep deprivation affects students’ personal behavior and the ability of their minds to stay alert. However, the survey failed to bring out other factors that can make a student’s mind to stay alert in a learning environment.

Hypothesis

Sleep deprivation is one of the main reasons students do not to measure up to the set academic standards in educational institutions.

The study seeks to confirm the position of the hypothesis that sleep deprivation leads to poor academic performance in college students. The study aims to validate this hypothetical position through a comprehensive review of various sources of published information that reveal more information about the topic.

This study will seek to advance the existing knowledge regarding the effects of sleep deprivation on academic performance. The study will rely on a variety of published and non published sources to validate the assumptions made by the hypothesis. The results obtained will look at the various ways in which sleep deprivation causes students in higher learning institutions to perform poorly.

Method Section

The participants in the studies highlighted are mainly college students who will be willing to participate in the surveys. The students will be tested on various sleep related issues and the manner in which they affect their performance. Questionnaires will be used to conduct the surveys and gather information from randomly sampled respondents who are willing to contribute to the study.

The design of the study focuses on uncovering more statistics and information that helps to reveal the impacts of sleep deprivation on college students. The research will look at past surveys and studies, which discuss at length the impacts of sleep deprivation on college students.

The surveys conducted will consist of samples drawn from different students from diverse locations. The students will be from different racial backgrounds and will not be given any cash inducements to participate in the study. The students will be taken through procedures that explain how to answer questions on the questionnaires and they will remain anonymous throughout the surveys.

One of the measures to be used will be the Groniger Sleep Quality questionnaire, which measures the students’ quantity and quality of sleep.

The Groniger Sleep Quality tool has been chosen because of its suitability in capturing accurate results regarding the topic under study. The performance outcomes of the students will be evaluated through their GPA scores. The relationship between the GPA scores will be compared to six other variables. These variables included sleep quality, academic excellence as well as the four main aspects of sleep deficiency.

Discussion Section

The hypothesis of this study presumed that college students who do not get enough sleep are likely to register poor performance in their studies. Several reasons lead students to be deprived of sleep which impacts negatively on their performance. There are high expectations that are placed on them by their parents, tutors and their peers on the importance of performing well in the classroom.

Such students are likely to spend more hours studying than sleeping, an action that negatively affects their cognitive functions. Fredriksen, Rhodes, Reddy, and Way (2004) carried out a study on the effects of sleep loss among adolescents during in high school (p. 86).

Their findings revealed that students who did not sleep enough were likely to suffer from depression, poor performance and low self confidence. This study validated the argument that sleep deprivation has adverse consequences on the performance of students in schools and colleges.

Sleep deprivation affects college students’ ability to think; this affects their health and mental alertness to decipher various terms and activities, which they are exposed to during their studies. Trockel, Barnes, and Egget (2000) studied the effects of various health-related behaviors and influences on college students’ GPA scores (p. 126).

The health-related behaviors used in the study comprised of diets, sleeping, time management, religious habits and average hours spent on active engagements every week.

The study revealed that there was a higher relationship between sleeping habits and the levels of performance that are attained by college students. The study concluded that poor sleeping habits contributed to a decline in performance as shown by the GPA results of the affected students.

Bahammam, Alaseem, Alzakri, Almeneessier, and Sharif (2012) argue that late sleeping hours have an unpleasant impact on the academic results of medical students (p. 3). They carried out a study to determine the extent to which sleep deprivation caused poor academic performance in medical students.

They surveyed a total of 410 students; 115 of those surveyed registered remarkable academic performance and the remaining 295 registered average results in their academics. The students who had average results were deprived of sleep because of many reasons. The students who performed well slept for longer durations on average than their counterparts.

Sleep deprivation was found to be a major factor that contributed to poor performance among some of them. The irregular sleep cycles that students have to endure result in sleep deficiency, which leads to a decline in academic performance (Medeiros, Mendes, Lima, & Araujo, 2001, p.264)

This argument has been consolidated by Fenn and Hambrick (2012) who argue that sleep deprivation leads to a decline in working memory capacity (p. 404). They insist that memory performance levels increase after a person has slept. Their findings demonstrate there is a strong correlation between poor sleeping habits and poor academic performance by college students.

It is necessary for students to get adequate sleep for them to perform positively not only in their studies but also in other activities. The rigorous training approaches that are synonymous with some courses make it difficult for students to get enough sleep.

James, Omoaregba, and Igberase (2011) argue that medical students are affected by the rigorous curricula they have to undergo for them to become qualified practitioners (p. 2). These students have to learn in active hospital environments even at night and this does not allow them to get adequate sleep during their free time.

Courses that involve a lot of practical tests and knowledge transfer place a heavy burden on the students. Students are likely to forego sleep in order to study to get good results. It is necessary to restructure some training curricula to give students an opportunity to rest (James, Omoaregba, & Igberase, 2011, p. 3). College students who have the habit of going out are likely to find less time to sleep, which leads to poor performance.

The consumption of alcohol makes students have irregular sleeping patterns. Such students are likely to be overwhelmed by the effects of the alcohol they consume, which compromises their chances of getting proper sleep.

Singleton and Wolfson (2009) bring another interesting dimension which reveals the impact of alcohol consumption on sleep deprivation in students (p. 556). College students who spend most of their time drinking alcohol are likely to devote their time to sleeping and studying.

The hypothesis of this study has been validated by the information and data uncovered by the review of different sources. The sources have shown that there is indeed a correlation between sleep deprivation and poor academic performance in students. The factors that were revealed by the study show that educational institutions need to limit the pressure to perform they put on the students.

The limitations of the study are that it did not look at measures that need to be used to encourage students to sleep for longer periods. Future studies need to look into the ways in which students can be encouraged to sleep more for them to be healthy.

It is necessary to improve the curricula taught in educational institutions to ensure that they do not place a heavy burden on students. Students need to be encouraged to take part in activities that can help them sleep better at night.

References

Bahammam, A.S., Alaseem, A. M., Alzakri, A. A., Almeneessier, A. S., & Sharif, M. M. (2012). The relationship between sleep and wake habits and academic performance in medical students: A cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education, 12(61), 1-6.

Buboltz, W., Brown, F., & Soper, B. (2001). Sleep habits and patterns of college students: A preliminary study. Journal of American College Health, 50(3), 131-135.

Fenn, K. M., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2012). Individual differences in working memory capacity predict sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 141(3), 404-410.

Fredriksen, K., Rhodes, J., Reddy, R., & Way, N. (2004). Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the effects of adolescent sleep loss during the middle school years. Child Development, 75(1), 84-95.

James, B. O., Omoaregba, J. O., & Igberase, O. O. (2011). Prevalence and correlates of poor sleep quality among medical students at a Nigerian university. Ann Nigerian Med, 5(1), 1-5.

Lowry, M., Dean, K., & Manders, K. (2010). The link between sleep quantity and academic performance for the college student. The University of Minnesota Undergraduate Journal of Psychology, 3, 16-19.

Medeiros, A. D., Mendes, D. B., Lima, P. F., & Araujo, J. F. (2001). The relationships between sleep-wake cycle and academic performance in medical students. Biological Rhythm Research, 32(2), 263-270.

McClelland, L., & Pilcher, J. (2007). Assessing subjective sleepiness during a night of sleep deprivation: Examining the internal state and behavioral dimensions of sleepiness. Behavioral Medicine, 33 (1), 17-26.

Singleton, R. A, & Wolfson , A. R. (2009). Alcohol consumption, sleep and academic performance among college students. Journal of Alcohol and Drugs, 70,555-565.

Trockel, M. T., Barnes, M. D., & Egget, D. L. (2000). Health-related variables and academic performance among first-year college students: Implications for sleep and other behaviors. Journal of American College Health, 49(3), 125-131.

Introduction

The research topic is a self assessment of the effect of personality on work performance. The five-factor model is one of the most recognised methods of assessing one’s personality. Research experts also affirm that one’s personality has an adverse impact on work performance. Therefore, a self assessment of personal competencies will assist in making me more effective at work

Effect of personality on work performance using the five-factor model

One can define work performance in different ways depending on one’s background. Work performance can be understood in terms of organisational parameters like effectiveness, economy and efficiency. In the realm of economy, work performance is the relationship between effectiveness and low cost. Efficiency is the association between a firm’s productivity and its costs. Finally, effectiveness is the association between results and productivity. On the other hand, one may define work performance in terms of the extent to which a worker contributes towards organisational goals. However, others may individualise this parameter by defining it in terms of the effort that a worker puts into achievement of the person’s goals (Barrick et. al., 2002).

Personality as assessed through the five-factor model may fall in five categories: Extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, openness and conscientiousness. These traits have a direct effect on one’s work performance.

Extraverted persons are more likely to look forward to work because it is an opportunity to experience high levels of stimulation. Introverted employees may not respond well to stimulation so they are less likely to look forward to work. Such attitudes have direct effects on their overall performance. Extroversion is positively associated with work performance owing to this latter explanation. On the other hand, extraversion could have a higher positive impact on work performance if one’s job requires interaction with others. The factor may become moderately significant when such a quality is absent (Colbert et. al., 2004).

Openness to new experiences often has a positive impact on work. Several workplaces will undergo changes, so a person who is open to new experiences is likely to take them in stride. Additionally, most employers expect their workers to go through training. People who exhibit this trait are highly optimistic about different aspects of work. As a result, they would be more willing to grow and learn about their work. This means that they have greater performance. Additionally, a person who is open to new experiences is often an original and creative person; these are qualities that are valued in modern workplaces.

Neuroticism usually impairs action and this has a negative effect on work performance. These persons have a low level of emotional stability. They often question their actions and require approval from others in order to move on to another task. As a consequence, they are slow; furthermore, they will have a tendency to undo previous work in a quest for perfection. The tendency to experience low mood swings and mild forms of depression may interfere with their work and thus alter their work performance negatively (Awadh & Wan, 2008).

Conscientiousness also has a highly positive effect on work performance. This is the most relevant factor in assessment of how one’s personality affects one’s work performance. Persons who are conscientious will exhibit a strong sense of work ethic. Their lives’ achievements are often described by how effective they are at the jobs. Consequently, they are more likely than all the other personality types to exhibit high levels of work performance.

Agreeableness is a relevant factor at work since several individuals work in teams. The quality leads to an increase in work performance in this regard. An agreeable person is more likely to cooperate with others and would thus do project work more effectively than a disagreeable one. On the flipside, agreeableness may become an impediment to work performance. In situations where leadership is a crucial aspect of job performance, then agreeableness may hinder it. People who state their opinions are more likely to get promoted and lead others than those who merely agree with what others are saying.

Analysis of my own effectiveness at work

The five-factor model test examines one’s personality trait on the basis of how one prioritises certain things. I filled in an online questionnaire from www.personalitytest.org.uk (Personality Test, 2013). All the questions were categorised into the five personality traits and one was to select a circle that corresponded to the closest description of one’s personality. The responses were as follows: very inaccurate, moderately accurate, neither inaccurate nor accurate, moderately accurate and very accurate. A sample question was “I have frequent mood swings” or “I know how to captivate people”. All the scores were added up and the different aspects of my personality were established.

In my analysis, I found that I have a high level of neuroticism as well as a deep sense of conscientiousness. My scores for these parameters were 31 and 46 respectively. Conscientiousness is one’s willingness and ability to follow through on goals. These individuals are dutiful, organised and quite meticulous. My high score indicated that I am an organised and dutiful person. As mentioned earlier, several scholars believe that conscientious people have high work performance because of dedication to work. On the basis of this trait alone, I am a desirable employee.

On the other hand, the scores also indicated that I am neurotic. This implies that my feelings may fluctuate from time to time, and I may experience long periods of negative feelings or thoughts. The test illustrated that I am insecure and can get distressed emotionally. Scholars believe that neurotic persons do not exhibit high work performance because their emotional instability comes in the way of work. I need to relax more and deal with my stress issues.

The analysis found that I have a relative rate of agreeableness- my score was 24. This means that I am neither abrasive to my fellow workers or a pushover. When situations arise, I can work in teams as needed and can also cooperate with people to get work done. Such test scores imply that my work performance is likely to be satisfactory if I belong to a project team. However, when left alone, then it is likely that other unwanted traits may surface.

I had a relatively low sore in the openness dimension -19. This implies that I am not that creative and would much rather focus on practical aspects of work. This component is not favourable in terms of the work preference parameter.

Finally, the test found that I have a low extraversion score; my sore was 18 in this category. It indicated that I am not likely to seek out other people’s company. Furthermore, I am reserved and quiet especially in social situations. The literature indicated that introverted persons are likely to exhibit low work performance because they get less stimulation from work and are less enthused by tasks. It is a trait that will not work favourably especially in my chosen profession which involves interactions with others. Since I intend on taking managerial work, then chances are that the quality will work against me.

I have also noted that my worst moments arise during corporate functions where I have to go around and talk to strangers. I often feel like everyone in the room is watching me, so I would rather hide at the back or stick with someone else from the firm. I have also found that my attention to detail sometimes immobilises me. If a task seems ambiguous, then I won’t move as fast as I have to. In these circumstances, my work performance will be reduced. I am not the type of person to rush into leadership positions. In fact, all I care about is keeping my end of the bargain and getting the job done. When working in groups, I often let other people take up the leadership role as they wish.

Strategies for developing my workplace competence in light of the test scores

The scores illustrated that I am not an extraverted person. As a result, I will not do well in situations that involve a lot of social interaction. One way of ensuring that this trait does not become an impediment to my work outcomes is by matching my job positions with my personality. I need to rethink my career choices as the current position I hold is not compatible with this trait. In fact, it is likely that I have been experiencing immense amounts of pressure at work because of this aspect. In the future, it will be more appropriate for me to select technical positions.

Neuroticism is a highly undesirable trait in the work place because it shows insecurity and approval seeking. I may need to work on my self esteem in order to reduce approval seeking. On the other hand, it would be best to work in small teams as those situations would have fewer triggers. It is sometimes impossible to control how one works with others in an organisation. As a result I need to pay more emphasis to the prevalence and nature of team work in a firm before applying for a position. This will shield me from circumstances that can create unwanted results.

I have a high level of conscientiousness, so this means that I like to know when things are logical and meticulous. In the future, I need to go for departments and work assignments that have low risks or are logically played out. I also need to ensure that my supervisors do not abuse my conscientiousness by overworking me. This strategy would also work well for my level of agreeableness. Some of people may take advantage of my goodwill to refrain from participating in group work. I need to ensure that I do not do other people’s work for them. In the future, I would do well to focus on jobs that are practical in nature. Those components that involve too much creativity would not work well for me.

Conclusion

The five-factor model has indicated that I have one quality that increases workplace performance; that is, conscientiousness. On the other hand, I have performed moderately on agreeableness. However, other traits that could minimise work performance are introversion, lack of openness to new experience and neuroticism. In the future, it is best to stick to unambiguous work, focus on small teams and ensure that other do not take advantage of my conscientiousness.

References

Awadh, A. & Wan, I. (2008). The impact of personality traits and employee work related attitudes on employee performance with the moderating effect of organisational culture. Asian Journal of Business and Management Studies, 1(10), 108-127.

Barrick, M. R., Stewart, G. L., & Piotrowski, M. (2002). Personality and job performance: Test of the mediating effects of motivation among sales representatives. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 43-51

Colbert, A., Mount, M., Witt, L. & Barrick, M. (2004). Interactive effects of personality and perceptions of the work situation on workplace deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(4), 599-609.

Personality Test (2013). Instructions. Web.

Introduction

Nowadays, issues of subordination are becoming increasingly relevant and gain media attention. Recently, The Arizona Republic reported that, according to scientists, humble bosses are the most productive leaders (Ou et al., 2014). In an interview, scientist Angelo Kinicki explained that “humble people are more in the background, but they lead differently, by empowering their employees, which trickles down” (Merrill, 2014, para. 10). This paper aims to discuss personal qualities that are most beneficial for leaders of criminal justice agencies.

Effective boss traits

Knowing which leader’s traits are most effective can be crucial in daily work. According to Kinicki, qualities of a humble and effective boss include “self-awareness, openness to feedback, appreciation of others, appreciation of the greater good” (Merrill, 2014, para. 11). Kinicki also assumes that bosses with a lower level of humility, which are focused on themselves, do not accept feedback, and make unilateral decisions tend to be less effective (Merrill, 2014). As for me, I agree with the scientist, but I also suppose there are other appealing personal traits beneficial for leaders and their employees.

Moreover, I believe that not only leaders’ personal qualities influence job performance; managerial approaches are also decisive. Remarkably, O’Hare (2019) stated that employees of correctional agencies often face stress and burnout associated with poorly established organizational processes. The scientist emphasizes that personal input into decision-making and a clear understanding of job tasks can reduce stress levels significantly (O’Hare, 2019).

She suggests improving the relationship between managers and employees of the correctional agencies by introducing participatory management, that provides 360-degree feedback and applying “five practices of exemplary leadership” (O’Hare, 2019, p. vi). The scientist also draws attention to critical elements of the organizational structure, which are centralization, integration, organizational justice, effective communication, leadership and change, feedback, and participation.

Police stations organization

I assume that the organizational structure of police stations in the US needs improvement since high levels of stress and professional burnout are typical for police officers. Here, burnout is associated with issues related to organizational processes rather than with the dangers of work in the police. Thus, applying the principle of participative management will help simplify work processes in police stations as well.

In my opinion, the results of the first study are widely applicable. However, there are some differences between the workflows in the factories and the police stations. Therefore, some attention should be paid to another study, which involved 100 police officers from various police stations in Lahore, Pakistan (Masood, 2017). According to its results, openness to new experiences was the sole and principal quality associated with the higher levels of the job performance of police officers.

Participants answered questions from the Big Five Personality Traits Questionnaire to determine their personal qualities and find out how they affect job performance. According to results, openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, and agreeableness, had a positive association with job performance. At the same time, neuroticism had a negative impact (Masood, 2017, p. 31). Thus, there is an apparent demand for openness to new experiences among police officers and their leaders, which can have a decisive influence on the job performance and job satisfaction of the entire police station.

Conclusion

Thus, the optimal personal qualities of leaders in criminal justice agencies were discussed. To summarize, openness to new experiences, as well as modesty, and agreeableness are the most beneficial qualities both for police officers and their managers. At the same time, efficient workflows require rather sensible managerial approaches than particular individual traits of CEOs, top management team members, middle managers, and other leaders.

References

Masood, A. (2017). Personality traits as a predictor of job performance in police officers. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 16(2), 31-53.

Merrill, L. (2014). ASU study: Humble bosses are the best bosses. The Arizona Republic. Web.

O’Hare, K. (2019). Impact of organizational structure in corrections: Recommendations for correctional leaders. Web.

Ou, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., Kinicki, A. J., Waldman, D. A., Xiao, Z., & Song, L. J. (2014). Humble chief executive officers’ connections to top management team integration and middle managers’ responses. Administrative Science Quarterly, 59(1), 34-72.

Introduction

Personality type is a term mostly connected with the prototype of personality development originally designed by Isabel Myers Briggs. Together with her mother, she authored the extensively utilized personality inventory known as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. They interpreted most of Jung’s concepts into a language that was easy for an ordinary person to comprehend. In the present day, the test is among the most extensively employed psychological instruments in the modern world.

Briggs and Myers trusted that by assisting a person to appreciate himself, they could enable the person to pick out a profession that fits his personality type. Achieving this gave the person higher chances of a healthier, content life. They formulated an instrument founded on the detection of the basic inclinations of each of the four dichotomies and identified and explained sixteen distinct personality types that ensued from the relationships among the inclinations.

This paper looks at the use of this type of personality assessment indicator to understand the personality traits of individual members of an organization in an attempt to improve the organization’s performance. It elaborates the value of this type of assessment to an internal program improvement leader especially during the diagnosis of team members, the team and the organization. It also looks at the benefits of knowing one’s personality at individual, team, and organizational levels as well as some of the dangers of using this kind of assessment.

The Value of Personal Assessment When Diagnosing a Team or an Organization

“A clear understanding of the basics of personality type and type development will help you gain a greater understanding of yourself and others and the impact type has on your daily interactions” (Myers & Myers 2005, p.2). The goal of the MBTI and other similar personality assessment programs is to allow participants to take a look at and be familiar with their personalities. It helps them understand their likes and dislikes; strengths and weaknesses, possible career inclinations, and how compatible they are with other people. It is important to note that personality types cannot be compared based on one type being better than the other. This is not the purpose of the assessment tool. It is not designed to search for abnormality. On the contrary, its purpose is to assist people in learning more about themselves.

This type of assessment report can present a program improvement leader of an organization with valuable insight into the personality types of the team members of the groups with whom he is working. Knowing the personality types of an organization’s members enables the program improvement leader to diagnose existing complications within the system. He can use this information to suggest practical remedies relevant to the organization’s members. This is probably one of the reasons for its rapid and enormous popularity. A person does not even need to take the formal test to identify some of the tendencies on his own.

Benefits of Knowing the Personality Type of the Individual Members of the Team

The main aim of knowing one’s personality type is to understand and welcome most of the differences that exist between people. All personality types are equal insignificance, and none should be seen as more important than the other (Myers & Myers, 2005, p.3). Each personality type has its value. When a leader works with a team, it is very important to understand the strengths of other members of the group besides recognizing his own.

“Organization design is concerned with the larger organization within which the individual job is the smallest unit” (Cummings & Worley, 2008, p.113). The personality traits of the individual, consequently, have a great impact on the overall performance of the organization. While performing a task with other members of the team, the leader can appreciate the fact that particular individuals are more competent and capable of performing certain actions than others. Therefore, such people can be assigned certain tasks based on their abilities. Knowing each other’s strengths also helps the team to work together more efficiently and complete tasks within the stipulated time. This is one of the values of knowing personality types within the team.

Knowing the personality types of members of a group presents ease to the leader in the process of designing tasks for members of the organization. The people charged with the responsibility of designing tasks need to know the personality of the people for whom the tasks are designed. This information assists them in creating tasks relevant to the organization and its members.

Dangers of Using Personality Assessment Indicators to Label and Categorize Team Members

It is important to note that no answer is right or wrong in this assessment and that the purpose of the indicator is not to assess mental well-being or offer any kind of diagnosis on the mental competency or the participant. On the contrary, the basic aim of the instrument is to offer additional information about a person’s unique personality. However, this is not to say that this information cannot be abused or used in a way that can cause psychological harm to an individual.

Human resource staff who are acquainted with this kind of typology say that members of the organization typically respond positively to the test results if their type seems right to them. They then begin to see others differently if they know their personality types. Typologies are also likely to close the door on additional examination of personality dimensions since the instrument used appears complete in its descriptions.

The MBTI assumes that the four dimensions it measures are opposite dichotomies. It looks at traits like extraversion-introversion and sensing-intuition as distinct categories and uses a sorting process to place people in a separate category based on the direction they take from the mid-point. It does this without taking into account the scale of their scores. Like MBTI, most typologies impose an artificial separation on continuous scores that are distributed conventionally. Consequently, the outcome does not precisely display the exact characteristics of the fundamental attribute.

Precautions to Take When Using Personality Assessment Indicators in an Organization

There are considerable arguments in organizational psychology on the use of personality measures drive change in the organization with many people believing that the tests are not reliable and can be faked. Though personality tests have some predictive powers in assessing the potential of employees and team members, their reliability is not at a level that is high enough to be used to decide the fate of employees. The best we can say is that in certain situations, for certain purposes, certain personality measures can offer useful predictions. Therefore, the authority of any personality assessment must be determined precisely and expertly for the specific scenario in which it is to be used.

As more organizations embrace personality tests in an attempt to escalate their growth, cases of participants faking responses are not the only problems an organization should expect. If not properly designed, the possible legal complications of these tests can be immense and costly to the organization.

References

Cummings, T. G. & Worley, C. G. (2008). Organization development and change (9th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Myers, P. B. & Myers, K. D. (2005). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Interpretive Report. Web.

Accuracy monitoring is used to measure the extent to which the participants’ evaluation of their memory and learning capabilities with their actual performance. Upon conducting the experiment, it is necessary to assess whether such match exists and what is the extent of it. Within the framework of such assessment, we will conduct a few correlations.

Exam Performance and Confidence Ratings

The overall exam performance summed up to 0.85 (proportion of correct responses). To convert the performance into the language of grades, such performance can be counted for a good B. Although the average does not give an account for results specifically, it is possible to say that the students have reached a high performance rate in the given test. Only one student has a proportion of correct answers that is lower than 0.7; three students have to be excluded from the sample because they have given 100% correct responses. Overall, the performance rate was high for all participants regardless of their self-efficacy predictions.

Monitoring Accuracy

The correlation (r) between the participants’ predictions of their performance – estimated self-efficacy – and grade-point is not significant: r = 0.248; p < 0.5 (Median = 0.294; SD = 0.254). A weak correlation, in this case, means that relying on a participant’s self-efficacy estimation, it is not possible to adequately predict their performance and proportion correct. The weakness of the correlation means that the participants were not quite accurate in predicting their performance.

The average correlation between the participants’ confidence rating at the end of the exam and their actual post-test grade outcome is r = 0.33. Such result indicates a weak association between the students’ confidence rates and their exam grades.

The relationship between monitoring accuracy and exam performance

Further, we have to test the hypothesis on the presence of association between those with high learning monitoring accuracy and low learning monitoring accuracy and their learning outcomes. For that purpose, we have separated the participants into two groups based on how well did their self-efficacy estimation correlate with their exam performance. 3 participants who had 100% test results do not meet the inclusion criteria, which is why they were excluded from the data analysis.

Based on the correlation score, high monitoring accuracy group consisted of 11 participants and low monitoring efficacy group amounted to 8 participants. A t-test was conducted to determine if the groups’ performance was significantly different from each other. The results of the t-test for both groups are t (19) = 0.46; p = 0.64 (M = 0.81; SD = 0.14). The results of the t-test do not demonstrate any significant difference between the groups. Thus, contrary to the initial hypothesis, the absence of the difference indicates that higher or lower accuracy monitoring does not determine the performance rate.

This correlation is reflected in the pretest and posttest results of the participants. The final grades did not show significant improvement and did not correlate with the time the participants spent studying. As a result, it is possible to make a conclusion that the study-time allocation, in this particular scenario did not produce any visible effect on the performance of the respondents. To be more precise, the results indicate individual correlations of the participants’ performance during the tests and the time spent preparing.

No specific patterns could be found in order to group the respondents based on certain criteria. That is why, the results of the study are recognized as inconclusive; and therefore, the overall performance of the participants during the first and the second tests differs in a way that does not support the hypothesis. The general results indicate that the mean performance of the participants during the first test was overall less successful compared to the results of the first test.

The fact that there was no visible improvement in the median results demonstrates that the allocation of the study-time in this particular scenario, was not in correlation with the performance of the participants. According to the hypothesis, it was anticipated that the self-regulated learning would be applied by the students during the experiment and generate positive results in accordance with the conditions of the learning (the number of items required to memorize, the amount of time available).

The study has demonstrated that there was a relationship between the study-time the participants spent learning certain items and their JOLs. Based on the Goodman-Kruskal’s gamma correlation calculation, it was possible to determine that all of the 36 participants of the test relied on metacognitive monitoring while deciding which pairs of figures they had to look at for a longer period of time due to their complexity and the related difficulty to memorize. Goodman-Kruskal’s gamma correlation showed the results significantly different than zero in all the participants (t (33) = 8.4, p <.01; and that indicates that there was a correlation between the use of metacognition and the time the participants spent attempting to memorize the items.

The level of the memory performance was studied within the relationship between JOLs of the participants and the study-time allocation patterns. The gamma correlation variables served as the criteria for the division of the participants into groups with low and high self-regulation results accordingly. Further, the results found that there was a correlation between the level of self-regulation and its alignment with the JOLs of a participant and their ability to memorize. At the same time, the Goodman-Kruskal’s gamma correlation calculation showed no correlation between the study-time allocation, the complexity of a pair in terms of memorization, and the participants’ results and performance. In other words, the amount of time spent by the individuals attempting to memorize the figures did not relate to how well they performed during a test. This pattern was noticed in both of the groups (with high and low self-regulation capacity).

All in all, the allocation of study-time by the participants was proven not to be related to their performance even though their judgement of the complexity and difficulty to memorize various objects was equal and accurate. These results indicate that the performance of the participants depends on their individual memory abilities in a combination with self-regulation capacity.

Social learning theory

Social learning theory is a general psychological theory deployed for understanding the nature of deviations in behavior as well as predicting confronting behaviors. What is special about this theory is that it has no relation to culture. Instead, it is believed that any social bonds and relations have a significant impact on an individual’s development and behavior in the future (Akers & Gensen, 2007). Significant attention is paid to the impact of social bonds on the formation of criminal ideas.

Social learning theory is based on several central postulates. First of all, it is believed that an individual’s behavior is modeled by parents, closest relatives, peers, and the combination of all of them. It means that if a child becomes a witness of home violence or sees peers smoking, these pictures are considered to become normal causing deviations in behavior. There are four primary constituents of the social learning theory – “differential association, differential reinforcement, imitation, and definitions” (Bell, 2008, p. 17).

The first one stands for the idea mentioned above – it is the closest social environment that has the most momentous influence on the future behavior of a person. The second element, reinforcement, implies treatment. For example, rewards in case of doing something positive and punishing when breaking the rules. Definitions are the third part of the theory. It means defining behaviors and actions as positive or negative. Finally, there is imitation, which is about learning behaviors by copying those belonging to the closest environment (Holt, 2010).

Social learning theory can be investigated from the perspective of different scholars. Albert Bandura, for example, views the development of behavior in the light of observation calling this phenomenon observational learning (Siegelman & Rider, 2015). It resembles imitation, but the primary idea is that people consciously choose and change their environment. Another noticeable scholar is Julian Rotter. His central belief is that the primary concept of the whole theory is potential behavior. It is measured as the combination of expectations, reinforcement value, and subjective perception of a situation. In other words, a particular behavioral outcome is possible to the extent of the expected reinforcement and the personal value of this reinforcement to an individual (Carducci, 2009).

I believe that this theory is still significant because it could be applied not only to determining the causes of deviations leading to crimes and predicting them but also choosing the right way for building social interactions. What is even more paramount, understanding the fundamentals of the theory might be beneficial for bringing up children and guaranteeing their psychological welfare in the future. I think that all components of the social learning theory are still applicable to analyzing behavior. Even though the world and society are constantly changing, this theory could be transmitted to any dimension of social interaction either real-life or virtual.

Measuring Performance

There are different methods for measuring performances including forced rankings, graphic rating scales, management by objectives, etc. In general, there are qualitative and quantitative measurements (Raab, Lobinger, Hoffmann, Pizzera, & Laborde, 2016).

I believe that the worst practice is to estimate performance in quantities (e.g. forced rankings). For example, 20 percent of people within a statistically average community are the best performers, up to 70 percent are mediocre, and the rest are the worst ones (Mayhew, n.d.). These figures are determined by achieving particular objectives or completing tasks. I think that this method is bad because it implies the risk of excess competition for reaching the desired grade ignoring quality. In addition to it, the quantitative method does not reflect the true picture, as figures could be affected by a group of people.

On the other hand, I see qualitative measurements as the best alternative because people know that to become the best performers they should possess in-depth knowledge and strong skills in particular areas. This technique promotes healthy competition and the desire for self-development. Moreover, the qualitative method is expressive, so it is an assessment with a human face.

References

Akers, R. L., & Gensen, G. F. (2007). Social learning theory and the explanation of crime. New Brunswick, NJ: transaction Publishers.

Bell, K. J. (2008). Intimate partner violence on campus: A test of social learning theory (Doctoral dissertation). Web.

Carducci, B. C. (2009). The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications. Hoboken, NL: John Wiley & Sons.

Holt, T. (2010). Social learning theory: Oxford bibliographies online research. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.

Julian Rotter social learning theory. (n.d.). Web.

Mayhew, R. (n.d.). The three types of methods used to measure performance. Web.

Raab, M., Lobinger, B., Hoffmann, S., Pizzera, A., & Laborde, S. (2016). Performance psychology: Perception, action, cognition, and emotion. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

Siegelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2015). Life-span human development. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

Over the past years, researchers have documented a decline in confidence and gratification with the performance of ruling governments in both developed and developing states, predicting the adverse outcome for the future of democracy. Until recently, governments and other parastatals used resource availability and output as indicators of performance. However, increase in attention to responsible accountability and the relationship between input and output by citizens characterize today’s situation. Information on the performance of different departments and programs of the government no longer gratifies philosophers and citizens but instead ask for knowledge about governance as a whole. The primary aim of this paper is to explore the cause of a decline in trust in the government by a citizen. The paper will also explain the importance of trust and give recommendations on the possible ways of regaining trust.

Trust in an important aspect in the successful running of any government. Lack of confidence, therefore, affects the voluntary ability of countrymen and the business community to respond to government policies that enable rational economic recovery. Researchers explain the importance of trust by citizens to be important in many development aspects of the economy.

Trust in different arms of the government affects individual behavior in aspects that lead to desired policy outcome, (Hetherington 2). The desired outcome may range from minor government programs such as involvement in immunization campaigns to major policies of tax payment. Through trust, citizens can forego some immediate benefits if they have a positive expectation in the long-term effect of the public program either for their individual benefit or the common good of the country.

With trust, investors and consumers are confident. A proper functioning government matters to the business community. Many investors participate where there is a value attached to citizens hence decisions that harness economic growth. Scholars have also linked trust to increased compliance with the general rules and regulation. This aspect is important because it reduces the cost of enforcement. Rules and regulations do not eliminate abuse. However, the degree to which people see them as fair may improve compliance without enforcement.

Confidence in policies and performance of the government has declined. Nye, Zelikow, and King (1), explain that in 1964, three-quarters of the general American population knew that the federal government was able to do the right thing. However, to date, only a quarter of the population believes in their government. The cause of the declining trust in the government by citizens today can be explained looking at the value attached to the society by the government and satisfaction attained by citizens from policy and performance.

Performance-based theory can explain the lack of trust in the government. This perception involves the ability of a state to effectively respond to various policies related to the value of citizens. Different policies that include public policies, corruption, scandals and how politicians are represented by the media affect the trust that citizens have in their government. The government is responsible for minimizing uncertainty in the economic, social and political environments. However, uncertainties and crisis pose questions on the degree of citizen’s trust in the government. Failure to shield them from such conditions and Psychological factors resulting from situations such as unemployment pose an adverse impact on the confidence of citizens in the ruling governments. Here any shift in the economy of the country adversely affects the general population that leads to the general population perceiving that the government does not value them.

Value and expectations also play a significant role in the declining trust in the government. Social and political values of the new generation have shifted from “materialist” concerns of their parents and grandparents to “post-materialist” values. The older generation valued economic prosperity, safety, and the general security. However, the new generation values freedom and quality of life which gradually wear off respect for the government hence reducing public support for the government.

Trust occurs in three different levels that include Macro, Meso, and Micro levels and dressing them requires considering its causes at all levels. The macro level involves political institutions and democracy, Meso level that involves policy making and the micro level that involves the effect the government policy poses on the daily living of the people. Trust does not just happen to the government, but the government should impact it through actions and policies. It is also important to note that influencing trust does not only involve public policy but for whom and with whom is made, (Vigoda-Gadot 196).

Winning back the trust also involves various critical areas that include;

• Reliability; by fulfilling its responsibility, citizens will put more trust in their government.
• Responsiveness; trust in the government, depends on the degree of public service available. Government increase in engaging with citizens will ensure quality that will lead to trust.
• Openness; it improves trust since citizens fill they are in control through involvement and participation in policy formulation.
• Better regulation; regulation by putting in mind justice and fairness for all citizens will increase trust.
• Inclusive policy making; citizen involvement in a decision-making process improves trust between government and citizens.
• Integrity; It is a major factor for developing trust. Integrity increases trust through value-based decision framework.

The experience of governmental challenges in finance, economic and social conditions has been the order of various researchers. However, philosophers explain that better crisis management is possible with trust. Understanding and improving trust therefore is important for crisis management that will result in the general development of any country

Works Cited

Hetherington, Marc J. “why political trust matters.” Why Trust Matters: Declining Political Trust and the Demise of American Liberalism. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005. 1(1), 1-7. Print.

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Vigoda-Gadot, Eran. “Building a strong nation by effective governability in democratic cosmos.” Building Strong Nations: Improving Governability and Public Management; Farnham: Ashgate, 2009, 9(1), 195-199. Print.