In 2010, it was an innovational investigation that created a foundation for many further types of research. The most important feature of this research is that it determines the interrelation between subsidiary performance and headquarter attention based on the empirical data of 283 acting subsidiaries worldwide. Therefore, the result of this study is not just a theoretical basis, but a practical guide to action for managers at the international level.
Motivation
The motivation of the article is to conduct empirical research in the field of headquarters’ attention to the subsidiary performance and its impact on it. The principal value of the conducted research is in the first attempt to combine two areas separately investigated before – attention as an organizational resource both for the entire corporation and individual or top/middle management approach. The authors aim to clarify the way top managers interpretation of the strategic environment and the attention paid to specific issues impact corporate actions and performance, revealing the subsidiary characteristics affecting and contributing to headquarter-subsidiary relationships.
The Key Essence
Attention directly affects both immediate and strategic action, defining the level and quality of subsidiary performance. The study’s main proposal was as follows: the more freedom in choice subsidiary has along with the attention, the better it performs. The subsidiary performance was analyzed in terms of hypothetical possession of attention combined with a) autonomy, b) inter-unit power, c) initiative. The hypotheses were tested utilizing moderate multiple regression in the statistical approach, evaluating management and financial performance. Slightly locally adapted, standardized surveys were used for data collection to avoid bias. Moreover, publicly available secondary sources have been examined either. The variables used included attention and profile-building (meta-construct), autonomy, initiatives, and performance (reflective constructs), market competitiveness, and power (computed indices). The fundamental essence of the study is revealing more effective ways of managing MNCs. It aimed to research the concept of attention in terms of headquarter-subsidiary relationships framework, as its role has been undeservedly underestimated earlier.
Results of Researches
The researches resulted in both theoretical and empirical evidence applicable for further practical use. The results revealed no direct correlation between the headquarter’s attention and the subsidiary’s performance. Nevertheless, it increases performance when it comes to interaction with strategic choice, especially that of high levels. The main empirical result of this research is proof that the subsidiaries provided with individual freedom in the strategic decision but not deprived of attention show higher performance levels than those endowed with only one of these sources. Theoretical contribution: the way top management interprets strategic issues influences further company’s strategic actions and, thus, ultimately affects the performance of subsidiaries. This statement has become another prospective topic for new, more thorough researches for the authors. Both theoretical and empirical contributions of the conducted study became an invaluable discovery in the fields of effective control and coordination methods.
Important Management Consequences of the Research Results
Practicing top managers can benefit significantly from this study in terms of headquarter-subsidiary relationships. Previously, many of them disregarded this powerful tool of overall company’s performance, betting on more commonly used management strategies. The headquarters ‘ top management should focus their attention evenly on all the subsidiaries, no matter how high their strategic choice level is. Moreover, providing the highest possible choice level also allows the whole company to benefit to the maximum subject to competent control. In turn, subsidiary managers should concentrate on coordinating strategic choice level and attention in balance, as giving preference to one of these factors is obviously not the most winning and effective policy.
The chapter introduces the neural network, which is a massively parallel distributed processor constituted of simple processing units with a natural propensity for storing experiential knowledge and availing it for use. The neural network resembles the brain in two ways. The first one is the acquisition of knowledge by the network from its context via a learning process. The second one is the strengths of connection for the interneuron known as synaptic weights. They are utilized in the storage of learned information. The human nervous system consists of a three-stage system constituting receptors, a neural network, and effectors. The main task of receptors is to modify stimuli of any nature into electric compulsions, which carry the information to the brain. On the other hand, the main objective of effectors is to change the electric compulsions, which the neural network creates into apparent responses as a way of establishing the system outputs. The neural net contains more than 100 billion neurons. The main components of the central nervous system are the brain and spinal code.
The brain has interregional circuits, constituting pathways, columns, and topographic maps. Local circuits are approximately 1mm in size and contain neurons with varied or the same properties. Neurons are approximately 100 microns with the dendritic as the subunits. A neural microcircuit is an assembly of the synapses created in a pattern of connectivity in order to produce a functional operation of interest. Due to their smallest size, they are measured in microns with the fastest speed of milliseconds. Synapses are the most basic aspect because they depend on molecules and ions to enhance their actions. The sensory inputs include motor, visual, somatosensory, and auditory, among others. They are mapped onto the corresponding regions of the cerebral cortex in patterns. The following video illustrates the adaptability of the human brain to its functions. The models of a neuron refer to the artificial neurons developed to study the real neural networks of the brain. The design uses extensive mathematical models to develop a structure for human brain architecture to study the central nervous system.
Lecture
The main objective of the perceptron is to perform correct categorization of the internal stimuli sets given as X1, X2,…………X m into either of the classes C1 or C2. The classification is made through a decision rule that assigns the point represented by X1, X2 …X m to class C1 if the output of the perceptron, y = +1, and to class C2 if the output of y = -1. The hyperplane is a technique used in making the decision boundary for the two-dimensional categories. The hyperplane applies the following formula in classification:
Class 2:
Class 1:
The above formula is a linear equation that produces a straight line with a negative gradient. The perceptron convergence theorem is a framework used to develop an understanding of the error-correction that applies the perceptron algorithms. It uses the signal-flow graph model and applies the following equation: x(n)=[+1, x1(n), x2(n),…, MX(n)]T and w(n)=[b, w1(n), w2(n),…, wm(n)]T. A linearly separable data shows the existence of weight vector, w and, hence, WTX> 0 for each input vector X for Class 1. The next technique is the perceptron and two-class Bayes classifier. It is used to determine the class of an observation denoted by x. The observations are determined either as Class 1, or Class 2 categories.
However, to minimize the average risk or cost, a classifier is created. In the case of the Bayes Classifier for a Gaussian distribution, the mean of X varies from one class to another with the same covariance matrix in both classes. The equations for the classes are E[ X ]=μ1, E[( X −μ1)( X −μ1)T ]=C and E[ X ]=μ2, E[( X −μ2)( X −μ2)T ]=C. The Bayes classifier of a Gaussian distribution takes the form of Rosenblatt’s perceptron when the covariance matrix of X is similar for both classes. The linearly separable classes have perceptron that gives a perfect classification. Nevertheless, Gaussian distribution intersects and is not linearly separable. As the classification error takes place in most cases, the main objective is to minimize the risk.
Multilayer Perceptron
In a network layer, a neuron is connected to all other neurons in the previous layer. The flow of the signal in a network occurs in the forward direction. The multilayer network has two kinds of signals, which are functional signal and error signal. A functional signal refers to input or stimulus, which comes through an input end of the network and propagates from one neuron to another through the network. The signal then emerges into the other end of the network as an output network. On the other hand, the error signal comes from the output end and propagates in the opposite direction. It is called theerror signal’ as its computation depends on errors.
The error energy refers to the training set denoted by T, which constitutes a set of inputs denoted by X(n) and output denoted by d(n) for the neural network.
Back propagation can be explained in two cases. The first case is when the neuron j makes the output node. In this case, the needed response is identified as ej(n) = dj(n)-yj(n). The second case is when the neuron j makes the hidden node and the needed response is unknown. In this case, the error signal should be evaluated in a recursive manner as it works backward. The calculation of the local gradient for every hidden neuron is done using the following equation:
It is possible to adjust layer by layer the weights, which connects every neuron I to neuron j using the following expressions:
The local gradient of the neuron j as an output is equal to the product of the derivative and the error of the activation function. The local gradient for the hidden neuron is equal to the product of the derivative’s activation function and the next layer’s weighted sum of every calculated local gradient for the neurons. There are two passes of calculation, which are forward pass and backward pass. The forward pass calculates the activation function derivative for the neuron and all errors of output layer. In terms of backward pass, the local gradients of the output layer neurons are calculated first before calculating the local gradients of the hidden layer neurons. When the learning rate parameter η is small, the network experiences change in the synaptic weights with smooth transition and slower learning rate. The increase of η will increase the speed of the learning with oscillatory network weights. Increasing the learning rate helps in avoiding the dangers associated with the instability. This is achieved by including a term for the momentum. In summary, the back-propagation algorithm is done in five steps, which are initialization, presentation of training examples, forward computation, backward computation, and iteration.
In terms of XOR Problem, we refer to the single-layer perceptron developed by Rosenblatt, which cannot classify the non-linearly separable input patterns. In this case, a multi-layer perceptron is necessary for non-linearly separable patterns. The cross validation is used to train the artificial neural network to learn much about the past in order to generalize to the upcoming events. This is achieved through the random partition of training sample. The convolution neural network is enhanced in the modern context using advanced computation system. The system is used to analyze the output layer and the hidden layer of neuron network.
Performance Surfaces
An artificial neural network denoted by ANN constitutes weights and biases. These components are ideally determined in a way that minimizes the output. In this sense, the output error is viewed as a function of weights and biases. This can be expressed in terms of Taylor’s series as shown in the equation below:
Taylor series can also be used in Vector Case when there are multiple variables in which F as a function of x is given by the following equation:
F(x) = F(x1, x2,… xn).
Vectors and a matrix can be used to represent a multiple variable in the second order Taylor series expansion as shown in the equation below:
The first gradient or derivative of F(x) along xi axis is given by ∂F(x) / ∂xi , which is the ith element of gradient. The second derivative is a curvature of F(x) along the axis of xi is given by ∂2F(x) / ∂x2i , which is I element of Hessian. The first derivative for F(x) is the projection of slope onto the direction of p and is given by
The second derivative of F(x) is the curvature along the vector p and it is given by
There are three types of minima, which are strong minimum, global minimum, and weak minimum. Strong minimum of F(x) occurs at point x* when a scalar ∂>0.
When there are positive eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix, then the function given will have a single strong minimum. On the other hand, a single strong maximum is achieved with all negative eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix. A single saddle point is achieved when there are both positive and negative eigenvalues. A weak minimum or lack of stationary point occurs when some eigenvalues are zero but with nonnegative values. Weak maximum with no stationary point occurs when the eigenvalues have some zero values without positive ones.
Performance Optimization
The analysis of the basic optimization algorithm can be achieved using the following equations. These are:
In this case, pk is the search direction, while the αk is the vector. To determine the Steepest Descent, the next step is chosen for the function to decrease by F(xk+1) < F(xk). For small changes in the value of x, the F(x) can be approximated as follows:
To decrease the function, we used the following equation:
The decreased function can be maximized by choosing pk = -gk. This gives the following expression: xk + 1 = xk – αk gk.
A stable learning rate, also known as quadratic, is achieved using the following equations:
F(x) = ½ xT A x + dT x + c
F (x) = A x + d
X k + 1 = x k – α g k = x k – α (A x k + d) => x k + 1 = [I – α A] xk – α d.
It is important to note that the eigenvalue of the matrix [I – α A] is used to determine the stability. The following equation satisfies the stability requirement:
, in which λi is the eigenvalue of A
In terms of minimizing along a line, αk is chosen to minimize F (xk + αk pk). Plotting a graph creates successive steps of orthogonal.
Conjugate vectors are determined using the expression: F (x) = ½ xT A x + dT x + c. The vectors are mutually conjugate based on the positive definite matrix A of Hessian if
The quadratic functions are given by the following expressions:
The change in the gradient at iteration k is defined using the following equation:
Δ g k = g k + 1 – g k = (A xk + 1 + d) – (A x k + d) = A Δ x k where Δ x k = (x k + 1 – x k) = α k p k.
Conjugate directions are determined by choosing the initial search as the negative of the gradient expressed as follows:
P 0 = – g 0
The subsequent search for direction is chosen using the following general equation:
The conjugate gradient direction takes several steps. First, a search direction with negative gradient is taken. Second, a learning rate minimized along the line is chosen. The expression P k = g k + βk p k – 1 is used to determine the next search direction. A non-convergent algorithm returns the process to the second step. The resultant quadratic function is minimized in n steps.
Multilayer Perceptrons
The Newton or gradient descent methods can be used to find a minimum function using the following equation:
The averaging of the error energy ε av over the training set N, as a function of the weights w selected for the network, which is given as the following expression:
The following Taylor expansion can be applied as follows:
Where Ι i=1N is the training set, while F(x (i); w) is the approximating function, which is achieved by the network. The following expression defines the Levenberg-Marquardt optimization as applied to the vector w:
Where I = identity matrix with dimensions similar to Hessian matrix
λ= loading parameter to perform inverse operations on the positive definite matrix
In this case, small λ ~ Newton, and large λ ~ Gradient descent
Kernel Method and Radial-Basis Function Network
The chapter illustrates the Cover’s Theorem on the Separability of Patterns, which assume the existence of a set of N pattern vectors expressed as x . Each of the x represents a vector in the dimensional space m0. A set of real valued functions is defined as a column vector Φ(x) using the following expression: Φ(x)=[Φ1(x),Φ2(x),…,Φm1(x)]T. The vector Φ(x) is then mapped to points in the m0 to create a new dimensional space denoted by m0.
Support Vector Machines
The chapter illustrated the Optimal Hyperplane for Linearly Separable Patterns. With the training sample, it is possible to create a hyperplane using the support vector machine as the surface for decision in such a manner that the separation margin between positive and negative attain maximum values. A decision surface for linearly separable data based on a hyperplane takes the form of w T x + b = 0, in which x = input vector, w = adjustable weight vector, and b = bias. Langrage Theorem and quadratic optimization is also used to create a hyperplane.
Principle Component Analysis
The determination here is to describe the way in which the implementation of principal-components analysis is achieved by applying unsupervised learning. In this context, the unsupervised learning is used as the requirement for discovering significant patterns and features of the input data. This is achieved through the utilization of unlabeled mathematical models and expressions.
Self-Organization Maps
In terms of self-organization, the brain is organized in several places, and topology separates different sensory inputs that can be understood through the computational maps.
This was a real experiment done with students who were provided Albino rats who were to run towards a darker platform for being rewarded. Every investigator faces the problem of influencing his subjects in experiments and he takes caution not to be so influenced. However, there is an unconscious influence that one cannot control.
Unexpected findings in experiments are probably due to this uncontrollable influence. The hypothesis that an experimenter is able to get the results or data that he desires has not been tested before. This study has done just that.
Summary
Hypothesis tested
The E effect was tested in this experiment. The E effect is understood to be the outcome in an experiment which is the one expected by the experimenter. The hypothesis that Es are able to obtain from animal Ss the data they wanted or expected to obtain is studied here.
Participants
12 students who were enrolled in the senior division course were the participant Es in this experiment. The 13th student participant was an undergraduate student who had one years’ experience in the program as an experimenter. The sample was adequate.
Subjects
The subjects Ss were Sprague-Dawley albino rats of age 64-105 days. Each group was composed of 2 males and 3 females between 83 to 91 days of age.
Setting
An elevated T maze was built to the specifications of Ehrenfreund (1952). This had 2 interchangeable arms which were painted differently, one white and the other dark gray. The position of the arms would be interchanged daily.
The instrument used
A questionnaire that had 20-point rating scales and was similar to previously used ones was constructed for this experiment. The Es were required to rate various emotions during the experiment. They were to rate their satisfaction with their participation in the experiment, their feelings about the animal’s Ss, and the perception of their own behavior during the experiment. The scales were marked as -10 for extreme dissatisfaction to +10 for extreme satisfaction and the intermediate points were to be used as required.
Preparation for the experiment
The Es were given 5 rats each and was told that the experiment was a repetition of what they had been doing earlier. Some would be getting maze-bright rats and some maze-dull. The Es were told that the maze-bright rats were expected to show some evidence of learning on the first day itself and thereafter would show daily improvement and that the maze-dull rats would be expected to show little evidence of learning. The experiment would involve a discrimination-learning problem. Only those rats which go to the darker of two platforms would be rewarded.
Just before the experiment
One in each pair received the maze-bright and the other maze-dull rats.
The rats were labeled bright and dull randomly for the Es sake when actually the rats were all alike. Before the actual running of the rats, the Es were asked to judge whether they expected their rats to run well, on the 20 point scale: +10 for extremely well to -10 for extremely poorly.
The Ss each had one hour’s experience in the maze before the actual experiment. They obtained food from both arms in the maze experience.
Actual experiment
Each E ran each of the 5 rats Ss 10 times each day for 5 days. The Es recorded the performance of the Ss. They watched to see whether the response of selecting the darker arm which had food in it was achieved by each rat and noted the time required to reach the correct arm with food (gray arm). The arms were interchanged randomly but the same T was used by all the rats on each day.
None of the first 12 Es knew anything about the aim of the experiment or the role of the 13th participant. Only the 13th participant knew what the experiment was really for.
She was fully conscious about her motivation to get good performance for her rats without appearing to cheat. Her additional role as an informant on how the others performed without arousing suspicion was another fact that was hidden from the other 12.
Variables
The dependent variable was the experimenter’s bias of conscious and unconscious influence on the outcome of the experiment. The 12 students were of the latter group and the assistant was of the former group. The independent variable was the time taken by the rats to find the food in the maze correctly.
The tabulating of the results
A number of correct responses per day were recorded first. The mean time taken to get correct responses were then noted and tabulated. The ratings of self and the Ss on the 20 point instrument used revealed the behaviors of the Es before, during, and after the experiment and gave an idea of their biases working for and against the outcomes. These had been grouped into 3 clusters which were signed by an earlier experiment.
Results
The number of correct responses per day per Ss was recorded for the 6Es who believed that they were running maze-bright rats, the 6 Es who believed that they had maze-dull rats, and for the Assistant who knew that all the rats were the same and still expected her rats to perform well. Performance of the maze bright rats appeared to be better on days 1, 4, and 5 but not on the other days. However, when all the days were compared, t was significant with a one–tailed p-0.01. The maze-bright rats were indicated as showing a monotonical increase in function as if learning was occurring alongside. The maze-dull rats did not perform well and the performance was seen increasing till the 3rd day and then decreasing on the 4th and not changing on the 5th day. It was assumed that learning was not likely to have happened in the maze-dull rats.
The research assistant tried to and succeeded in getting performances better than the maze-bright rats. The t for all 5 days was 2.38 where 4 df was significant at the level of 0.05, one-tailed test. But the performance of her rats who had fewer runs was not increasing monotonically. The E who was biased enough to elicit good performances obtained good performances, better than those who were biased but not explicitly instructed. On average there were 60 occasions on each day when the rats did not run.
These could be because of the difficulty to discriminate between the platforms, limiting the pre-training to one hour, or because of the inexperience of the Es in running the rats.
Of the 60 occasions each day, the maze-dright rats did not run on 17 occasions and the maze-dull on 43. Since the dull rats made fewer responses, and the more responses made led to more correct responses, there was confounding of the results. The mean time is taken to make correct responses each day was tabulated. The maze-bright Ss made their correct decisions faster. They actually improved their timings each day. The maze-dull rats made no such improvement. The research assistant’s rats actually had the best timings. Her Ss ran the best. Instances of cheating were observed when Es prodded the rats to run. The data Es expected and the data they obtained were used as an index for the degree of experimenter bias. The Spearman rank correlation between expected and obtained performance was 0.43 for the Es who had maze-bright rats and 0.41 for the other group. Statistical significance was not obtained as only 6 Es were in each group.
However, when the results were combined, the one-tailed preached the 0.09 level.
Strengths
The Es were careful not to influence their Ss. The study design was good and could be replicated. The study had been done in an exemplary manner and the results proved the hypothesis that was mentioned earlier. The methodology was well conducted and the instrument used was appropriate.
Weakness
Not informing the 12 Es appeared unethical as they were ignorant of the real aim of the experiment. It seemed like encroaching or spying on a person’s emotions or behavior without informing them. However, that was the only way it could have been done to avoid bias.
Suggestion for improvement
There was another way this experiment could have been done. The first part of the experiment could have been done where all the Es were ignorant as in this experiment. Then the whole matter could have been revealed to the participants and the experiment repeated. The new results would have shown up the bias definitely as the same Es would have been running the same Ss. Comparison of the first and second groups of results could have given a better conclusion that bias did affect the results.
Conclusion
An E who was explicitly biased to get good performance from the Ss obtained good performance than those less explicitly biased. The instances of cheating could not be attributed to any real cheating as both groups did the prodding. Correlations could not reach a statistical significance.
In 21 of the 23 scale instruments, Es who had maze-bright rats believed in more favorable responses. These Es considered their rats were brighter, cleaner, tamer, and more pleasant. They also described themselves as more relaxed and casual and altogether pleasant. This conformed to the Perry Como Cluster. Both groups wished to have good performances from their rats. Future research needs to concentrate on bias in different kinds of Es and the method of mediation of this bias through auditory, visual, and tactile cues. This experiment has an implication in behavioral science in that a theory that bias can change the outcome of a behavior response has evolved.
The study cannot be deemed right or wrong. That experiment bias is truth has been confirmed in this experiment. The outcomes of all experiments are bound to be the result of experimenter bias. Future research needs to discover a method to account for this and correct results to eliminate bias.
Cocoa is one of the most popular products around the world. It is used to make coffee, chocolate, and a variety of other popular products. This versatility makes it an especially profitable resource. The cocoa tree is native to the Amazon and has been domesticated by pre-Columbian cultures such as Olmecs and Mocayas and later used by Mayans for various purposes. The earliest evidence of cocoa beans being consumed shows that they were used as far back as 1500 BC. However, the modern use of cocoa did not occur until the 17th century. This paper will provide background information on cocoa, investments related to it, its relation to Fairtrade, as well as risks for humans and the environment related to it.
Background
Cocoa beans grow in long pods that can have more than 40 seeds inside. The pods have thick skin which protects them from outside damage. After gathering the seeds, they are put through a fermentation process. Subsequently, the beans are dried, roasted, and then cleaned through an ancient process called “winnowing.” The trees themselves can only grow in rainy tropical areas around the equator.
One of the unique aspects of the tree is that it is able to produce pods over the whole year, which makes the harvest process almost continuous. It is done by using a long pole with a curved knife attached to the end of it. A person may be able to harvest hundreds of pods in one day. After the beans are prepared, they a shipped to facilities in a dry container. On arrival, they may be used in the production of coffee, chocolate, or any other related product (“History of cocoa,” 2018).
Cocoa production grew exponentially over the decades, with more than 5 million tons of cocoa beans being shipped worldwide today. Countries such as the Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Indonesia produce the largest amount of cocoa beans in the world. While there are three primary types of cocoa plants, the vast majority of the product is created from the Forastero variety. Criollo and Trinitario are used much less often due to lower yields during harvest and less resistance to disease. A hybrid of Criollo and Forastero plants also exists. It is called Trinitario and is considered to be the highest quality cocoa plant due to its high yields and strong resistance to diseases.
Cocoa Investments
The investment market in cocoa is relatively large. There is a multitude of large companies that work in the cocoa industry, and the sales of cocoa are projected to gain $25 billion by 2019. The choices of investment depend on the region that the investor is most interested in. The United States market includes four large companies: Hershey Co., Rocky Mountain Chocolate Factory, Mondelez International, as well as Tootsie Roll Industries.
These companies are involved in the majority of chocolate production in the country and a portion of the international market. However, the largest cocoa investments come from Sweden with companies like Barry Callebaut, Nestle, and Chocoladefabriken Lindt & Spuengli having the largest market share of the cocoa investments. A person may invest in any of these companies through the purchase of cocoa futures or ETF (Whittaker, 2016).
Cocoa Issues
There is a variety of significant issues related to the growth and production of cocoa. Perhaps the most important is the involvement of forced child labor that some countries utilize during the harvest and production of cocoa. This is a major risk to people and children especially as the conditions that enslaved children live in are highly harmful to them. Moreover, the practice of slavery is immoral, illegal, and unethical.
These practices were first reported in 1998, and over the last twenty years of international investigations, they have shown that more than three million children are forced to work on cocoa farms against their will. The primary countries that produce the product are also the most involved in child labor. Ivory Coast and Ghana have the highest number of children who work on cocoa farms. Conditions that legal farms operate in are also poor with farmers gaining wages that are too low to improve their quality of life (Bertrand & Buhr, 2015).
A risk for the environment and trees is also present due to the practice of cocoa farming. The increased demand for cocoa–related products around the world created a need for cocoa farmers to expand their territory. This expansion often leads to deforested virgin areas being used for farming. The areas never regrow their original plants, and it affects the environment of the area. Some species may lose their habitats, rare plants and trees may go extinct due to this practice. If this practice continues unopposed, a myriad of unique plants may disappear which could change the environment of these areas forever.
Further, it may contribute to the growing danger of climate change as plants that are more effective in the consumption of carbon dioxide are replaced by cocoa plants in service of profit. The effect would then also affect the cocoa farms due to their need for a very specific climate to properly harvest cocoa pods. The long-term dangers of this development should be considered to prevent such disasters, and tighter regulation is required to make any serious difference in this industry. With the use of child labor still being common in the top producing countries, it is unlikely that the majority of farms would be willing to follow them (Utomo, Prawoto, Bonnet, Bangviwat, & Gheewala, 2016).
Cocoa Fairtrade
The Fairtrade Foundation is an organization that is focused on providing workers from various industries with better pay, working conditions, and other aspects that allow for products to be created in legal and humane environments. Due to the previously described issues in the cocoa industry, the organization is very involved in the cocoa farming industry. Their efforts are spread between the Dominican Republic, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They state that approximately 6 million people work on cocoa farms in the world and that to make their jobs more sustainable, improvements to the industry are required.
The organization was already able to certify three large farming communities and is currently working on others. This effort is not left unnoticed by the international investors who began to focus on purchasing cocoa from certified areas to avoid contributing to the unsavory practices of illegal cocoa farms. It is possible that the efforts of this organization would be used to lessen the risks that are associated with the industry (“About cocoa,” 2018).
Conclusion
Cocoa is a highly desired product around the world. Its beans are used in almost every country on earth in chocolate, coffee, and confectionery items. Its history spans millennia, and it became a staple product in our everyday life. However, the process of growing cocoa beans has not improved in a long time. There are serious issues associated with it, including child slave labor, poor working conditions, and permanent environmental damage. To change this, the Fairtrade Foundation began to improve the industry by establishing better pay and conditions for workers. Hopefully, future developments in this field will avoid the risks present in it at the moment.
Bertrand, W., & Buhr, E. (2015). Trade, development and child labor: Regulation and law in the case of child labor in the cocoa Industry. Law and Development Review, 8(2), 503–521.
Utomo, B., Prawoto, A. A., Bonnet, S., Bangviwat, A., & Gheewala, S. H. (2016). Environmental performance of cocoa production from monoculture and agroforestry systems in Indonesia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 134(10), 583–591.
Probability acts as essential tool in determining the performance of individuals. In this case, the performance of judges in three categories of courts can be determined by applying probability analysis, which considers the total cases conducted by each judge, the number of appeals, and reversed cases.
Probability of Cases being appealed and reversed
Common plea courts
Total number of appeals =1762
Total numbers of reversal is 199
Probability= (199/1762)100=11.29% or 0.1129
Domestic relations court
Total numbers of appeals=106
Total number of reversals=17
Probability= (17/106)100=16.04% or 0.1604
Municipal court
Total numbers of appeal=500
Total numbers of reversals=104
Probability= (104/500)100=20.80% or 0.2080
Probability of a case being appealed for each judge
The Formulae is a total number of appeals divided by the total number of cases (Anderson, Sweeney &Williams, 2012).
Common plea courts
Domestic relation courts
Municipal courts
Probability of a case being reversed for each judge
The general formulae is total reversed cases divided by total cases (Anderson, Sweeney &Williams,2012).
Common plea courts
Domestic relation courts
Municipal courts
Reversal on appeal given to each judge
General formulae is a total number of reversals divided by the total number of appeals for each judge (Anderson, Sweeney &Williams,2012).
Common plea courts
Domestic relation courts
Municipal courts
Ranking judges on the basis of the quality of their services
Ranking of judges started from the best performing to those who make many mistakes. The probability of reversal given an appeal for each judge was considered. Those with the lowest probability value were considered as high performing judges(Anderson, Sweeney &Williams,2012).
Common plea courts
Domestic relation courts
Municipal courts
From the probability results based on different categories, it is easier to determine performance of judges based on the appealed cases and the reversed cases. Through probability analysis, the performance of judges can be ranked from highly performing ones to those who make mistakes when giving their verdict (Anderson, Sweeney &Williams,2012).
Reference
Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., & Williams, T.A. (2012). Essentials of statistics for business and economics. South-Western Cengage Learning.
The analysis of the efficient scores data in the excel sheet is as shown in the descriptive Table 1 below.
Descriptive Statistics
Efficiency Scores
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Minimum
Maximum
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
small
74
.69987975
.124491628
.014471858
.67103738
.72872212
.360904
1.000000
medium
208
.74428702
.113083606
.007840937
.72882869
.75974535
.408013
1.000000
large
79
.79339540
.109032200
.012267081
.76897352
.81781729
.460748
1.000000
Significantly Large
36
.78594411
.089160985
.014860164
.75577637
.81611184
.604460
.964718
Total
397
.74955926
.116470069
.005845465
.73806724
.76105128
.360904
1.000000
Table 1: Descriptive statistics.
The table shows the count, mean, minimum, maximum, and standard deviation values similar to those presented in the research. The results are presented in eight decimal places as compared to the published research’s four decimal places. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the significance of firms’ size on their efficiency scores in the dataset is shown in the Table 2 below.
ANOVA
Efficiency Scores
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
.388
3
.129
10.195
.000
Within Groups
4.984
393
.013
Total
5.372
396
Table 2: ANOVA.
The ANOVA results show a statistically significant effect of a firm’s size on its efficiency. The F value and p-value obtained F(3, 393) = 10.195, p = 0.000 were significant since the p-value was less than the significance level of 0.05. Since the ANOVA test shows a statistically significant difference between the groups, post-hoc analysis was conducted to investigate multiple comparisons between the groups. The post-hoc analysis based on the least-significant difference was conducted, and the results are as shown in Table 3 below.
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Efficiency Scores
LSD
(I) Size
(J) Size
Mean Difference (I-J)
Std. Error
Sig.
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
small
medium
-.044407265*
.015242924
.004
-.07437514
-.01443939
large
-.093515650*
.018218289
.000
-.12933315
-.05769816
Significantly Large
-.086064354*
.022883397
.000
-.13105354
-.04107517
medium
small
.044407265*
.015242924
.004
.01443939
.07437514
large
-.049108385*
.014882881
.001
-.07836841
-.01984836
Significantly Large
-.041657089*
.020328403
.041
-.08162311
-.00169107
large
small
.093515650*
.018218289
.000
.05769816
.12933315
medium
.049108385*
.014882881
.001
.01984836
.07836841
Significantly Large
.007451296
.022645160
.742
-.03706951
.05197210
Significantly Large
small
.086064354*
.022883397
.000
.04107517
.13105354
medium
.041657089*
.020328403
.041
.00169107
.08162311
large
-.007451296
.022645160
.742
-.05197210
.03706951
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Table 3: Multiple Comparisons.
The post-hoc analysis results from the analysis of the data are similar to the published research’s results. The results show significant means difference between small, medium, and large shipping firms. The p-values for comparing small, medium, and large shipping firms are all less than 0.05; implying statistically significant mean differences. The P-value of the efficiency mean differences between large firms and significantly large firms is 0.742 which is greater than 0.05. Therefore, the difference between large and significantly large shipping firms are not statistically significant.
The results in Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3 in published research used the Durbin Watson test of autocorrelation between market orientation and firm performance. The analysis in Table 1 showed a single market orientation factor with small statistical significance on firm performance from the test. The test researcher partially accepted the hypothesis which would have rather been rejected. The analysis in Table 2 showed; the firm size was statistically significant to its performance, confirmed by the ANOVA test showing the researcher’s results were correct. The analysis in Table 3 shows hierarchical regression analysis in testing firm size’s effect on market orientation.
The results showed significant p-values that led to the acceptance of the hypothesis. The researcher’s use of Durbin Watson’s tests for testing the hypothesis was effective for testing correlations since similar results were shown in the ANOVA test presented in Table 5 of the published research.
The following is an analysis of the research carried out in Nigeria about the impacts of the exterior atmosphere on the performance of an institute in the food and beverage industry (Olarewaju, 2012).
During the research, there was reviewing of literature regarding both the types of exterior factors influencing a business and the aspects determining the performance of an organization. Furthermore, there were random sampling and selection of three firms out of Nigerias all companies in the sector of food and beverages to participate in the research occurred. There was stratification of the sampled organizations into external factors such as political, social, cultural, economic, and cultural variables. To collect data, the distribution of the questionnaires related to the external factors to the workers of the selected firms happened and eighty-four percent of the respondents filled in and returned their questionnaires.
Besides, the data recorded was analyzed through a multiple regression analysis whereby the organizations performance was the dependent variable and the external factors were the independent variables. From the analysis of the results, there was conclusion that the external factors influenced the performance of any organization in the food and beverage industry. Hence, the researchers recommended the organizations in the food and beverage sector to be attentive to their exterior environment as a way of maintaining their efficiency, competence, boost sales, and accomplish the corporate goals (Olarewaju, 2012).
Analysis of the Research from Ethical Standpoint
From an ethical standpoint, there are various questions raised about the above research process (Joungtrakul & Bobbie, 2012). That is, where do the responsibilities begin and end for the researcher? What are the research standards that guide the researchers work? What is the researcher’s relationship with the sample subjects? What environment is the researcher interacting with during the research? What are the ethics governing the researcher outside the professional rules and regulations of researching? These questions analyze how the research incorporates the effects the research has on society, ecology, environment, culture, and the overall globe (Lisa, 2008).
From the questions, the participants in the research process voluntarily consent to involve themselves in the research. Besides, the question clarifies the process of researching and the benefits the research contributes to the society-the research must have sound theory and have no negative impacts on the community. Lastly, the question outlines that the researcher needs to protect the environment during the research (Center of Bioethics University of Minnesota, 2003).
Assessment of the Ethical Research
The researchers aim of beginning to research on the topic rests on the researchers personal involvement in the topic and this could impact the expected results and the participation of the researcher. However, in this research, personal involvement does not influence the results, as there is greater cooperation and coordination among different people, from different institutions and careers (Resnik, 2011).
As a result, before commencing the research, the researcher determined how to undertake the research without conflicting the rules and regulations by causing negative effects of the research on the sample subject and the public (Lisa, 2008).
Furthermore, during the research, the researcher chooses the research methodology carefully. For instance, the researcher employed questionnaire, which is an indication that the researcher informed the sample subjects about the research and its importance to the society (Lisa, 2008). By employing questionnaires, which fail to demand for respondents personal details or appearance when giving responses, the researcher observed the rules of confidentiality (Joungtrakul & Bobbie, 2012). Finally, when respondents filled-in the research questionnaire, the researcher allowed the respondents to exercise their freedom, they were free to submit the questionnaire or not.
Nowadays, a considerable number of fishing grounds are already depleted to such an extent that their future viability is at risk. The best way to increase farms’ yield is to create genetically modified fish that will be safe for people, the environment, and other species. One of the first GM fish that seem appropriate and are considered for commercial farming is AquaAdvantage Salmon – growth hormone transgenic Atlantic salmon. However, there are still some genetic and ecological concerns about whether they can enter the wild waters, participate in spawning events, and interact with wild and non-transgenic fish.
The discussed article adds significant value in terms of the topic. It provides the first empirical data reports concerning “the breeding performance of GH transgenic Atlantic salmon males, including that of an alternative male reproductive phenotype, in pair‐wise competitive trials within a naturalized stream mesocosm” (Moreau et al., 2011, p. 737). The results described by the authors are rather valuable for scientific society. The article’s findings showed that in terms of spawn participation, quivering frequency, and nest fidelity, captively reared transgenic counterparts were outperformed by wild anadromous males (Moreau et al., 2011). Similarly, regarding spawn participation and nest fidelity and notwithstanding less aggression, “captively reared non-transgenic mature parr were superior competitors to their transgenic counterparts” (Moreau et al., 2011, p. 738). Both domesticated non-transgenic and transgenic males appeared to be able to participate in natural spawning events. Therefore, there is a potential that they bring their genes into subsequent generations.
For the article, the authors used the method of collecting data by conducting two separate experiments. First, they observed captively reared and anadromous transgenic males and their breeding participation and behavior alone with wild females and in competitive trials with wild males (Moreau et al., 2011). Second, they analyzed transgenic and non-transgenic captively reared precocial parr and their reproductive success, performance, and breeding behavior (Moreau et al., 2011). The chosen methodology is the article’s primary strength; no weaknesses were detected. To add legitimacy to this study, it is necessary to mention that AquaAdvantage Salmon is indeed the first genetically engineered fish in the U.S. that became approved for human consumption, as was mentioned at the beginning of the article.
Situation: Bill is a new factory manager for ABC Inc. After being on the job for just two weeks, Bill is approached by one of his employees, Sandy. She would like Bill to evaluate her job performance. While Bill is trying to decide what to tell Sandy, Bill’s boss calls him and asks him to provide a list of employees that should get merit raises. After being in his position for only two weeks, how can Bill decide which employees are doing a good job?
Evaluating job performance requires a manager to explore both the intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Hence, the performance of anemployee when discharging various duties only at a particular point in time may not be adequate in assessing overall worth in terms of performance. Therefore, there is need to evaluate behavioral pattern of an employee over a long and sustained period of time.The following are some of the issues that Bill ought to consider when evaluating the performance of an employee:
One of the evaluation criteria in performance evaluation is task proficiency. The latter entails evaluating employeesbased on technical aspects of a given task(Jex & Britt, 2008). For example, Bill could assess performance of an employee based on proficiency in computing skills such as programming.
Secondly, the non-job-specific task proficiency is also critical when carrying out job evaluation. According to Jex and Britt (2008), this can best be displayed during common tasks. For example, Bill can evaluate responses of employees during certain issues and the alertness of employees to certain problems at workplace.As such, employees who take up tasks even when they are not assigned to do so may make to the list of those who are to be merited.
Furthermore, writing skillis indeed very important when considering those to be promoted. In this evaluation, Bill should consider both the written and oral communication skills as a form of task proficiency. Only the employees who can go extra miles to make their work fruitful should be recommended. Jex and Britt (2008) emphasize that personal discipline is vital when recommending a person.
For instance, employees who always avoid negative attitudes and who follow their tasks thoroughly should be recommended first. Additionally, cooperation at workplace is yet another evaluation criterion that can be employed. Other aspects include leadership and supervision capability as well as a strong demonstration that a person can be relied upon to manage or administer important duties given new tasks (Jex & Britt, 2008).
Organizational Commitment
Situation: How committed do people seem to be in your current organization/organizations you have worked with in the past? Why? What are the elements of a job, a profession, and an organization that you feel lead to organizational commitment?
Jex and Britt (2008) point out that organizational commitment is crucial when it comes to employee performance. This is the motivation and job attachment that an employee develops in the course of working. An employee should always demonstrate a liking and enthusiasm in any job that he or she is assigned by the seniors.
This is also a necessary issue when considering those people in the organization to be promoted to new tasks. This is because, if some of the employees do not exhibit a liking of enthusiasm of the job they are doing, then, they may not add value to new tasks.
Where I work, employees show strong commitment and enthusiastic about what they do. This perhaps is derived from the fact that immediate managers treat the employees well. In addition, the employees are given freedom to own task, that is, an employee is allowed to organize his or her work without strict supervision.
Good remuneration in the organization seems to please anyone. The testimony in this is the tendency to devote some of extra hours after 5 PM and Saturdays to work for the organization. There is no particular employee who is commanded to work extra time, and even though this is not compensated, the basic pay is good enough to motivate the employees to do so.
There are various elements that help instill enthusiasm at work. Jex and Britt (2008) outlinefour major elements that can help motivate employees to work more and like their jobs. These are positive situational factors, workplace interactions between teams and groups, fair remuneration and a sense of belonging and ownership within an organization.
Factors such as good working environment, safety of employees, job security as well as fringe benefits may all go a long way towards improving performance of workers. Needless to say remuneration acts as major motivating factor in any workplace environment.
Reference
Jex, M. S.& Britt, W.T. (2008). Organizational Psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (2nd ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Ceremony or performance of rituals has been in existence with humans for all their life on earth. Evolution of humans has shown that human beings have that inner desire to always believe in a being with greater power, and to always look for ways of paying homage to that Supreme Being.
This drive has resulted in the creation of rites that are sacred. There is no doubt that our ancestors were very religious, just in the same way people are at present as seen from the things they do in their daily life. This means that in life, everything has some spiritual importance. People usually get a sense of empowerment through rituals, they are united in a communication to the higher being, and they are also able to satisfy their inner desires. This paper will discuss the importance of sacred sites in performance of rituals.
Shi’i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran
Much of the history of the Middle East dwells on two Islamic groups, the Shi’is, and the Sunnis. The Shi’is is a group that supports the descendants of Prophet Mohammad whom they believe should be his successors. This there has made them to be in opposition to the Sunnis who are associated with the ruling class.
This opposition has attracted many people because of its religious inclinations. The rituals and symbols that are performed during the month of Moharram are linked to this opposition where by the Shi’is remember the war at Karbala where the offspring of Prophet Mohammad were killed including his Grandson, Hoseyn. The rituals involved mourning and recounting of these killings. These symbols and rituals have grown to become popular among the Iranian culture.[1]
The rulers used these symbols to strengthen their relationships with the people. One group that was successful in this area was the Qajars. There were those who used their power to suppress these rituals.
These included rulers like Reza Shah and his son Mohammad. There followed revolutionaries, who used the rituals to overthrow the existing regime and put in place an Islamic regime. The Iranian State has also used these symbols and rituals to stamp its authority and legitimacy, although the opposition and the society as a whole, uses them to check the government.
Failure by the state to incorporate the rituals and symbols into its policies can lead to a crisis as it happened to the Pahlavi regime. The present Iranian government has effectively used these symbols, and that is why it is hard for any one to oppose it. The symbols and rituals performed during Moharram in Iran have been effective in expressing ideals both socially and politically.[2]
From the Qur’an
The holly book, the Qur’an, to the Muslims is a symbol that gives them guidance in their daily lives. The holly book comprises of the actions, sayings, and recommendations given by the prophet to his followers. It gives all Muslims legal authority in their land as well spiritual purity.
Apart from its theological and political guidance, the Qur’an also has a linguistic significance in the Islamic realm. In the Islamic religion, rites of passage for young people and celebration of annual holidays are some of the rituals performed. To Muslims, children are blessings from God. The male child is usually circumcised while in the infancy stage.
All children learn the Islamic faith by memorizing the Qur’an. According to the holly book, all Muslims are supposed to pray five times in a day (salat), but before prayers, one has to enter what is called “Wadu”, a state purity that involves hand, feet, and face washing. Women are also to wash their hair. An important event in the Islamic calendar is the Hajji. It is said that every able and strong Muslim should at least pay a pilgrimage to Mecca.[3]
From the Bible
Christians use the bible to perform many rituals basing on their understanding of the biblical symbols and their denominations. For instance, many of the Christians worship on Sundays, although some worship on Saturdays. Their service or mass usually include singing of songs, praying and then the sermon. Christian churches usually have rituals for ordination as is done by the Catholics or inaugurating a person in a leadership position in the Church.
Practicing Christians usually have regular bible readings at home. An important ritual that is performed by many Christians is baptism whereby a baptized individual is expected to participate regularly in communion. This two are considered sacraments in some denominations. For instance, the Catholic Church practices seven sacraments on top of other devotions such as reciting the rosary and paying pilgrimages. Baptism is understood by Christians as a symbol of liberation or salvation from sin.[4]
From Tanakh
Tanakh is the book carrying the holly scriptures of the Jews. It is an abbreviation coined from Torah “teachings”, Nevi’im “prophets”, and Ketuvim “writings”. The Tanakh comprises of 24 books. The Jews believe that God made a covenant with the Israelites when he gave the Torah containing the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mt. Sinai. During praying and religious practices, Jewish men and women wear specific clothes.
For instance, a Kippah is worn during “raying, eating, studying religious texts, and reciting blessings.” Jews usually have three prayer sessions in a day, in the morning, after waking, and before and after meals. Many Jews prefer communal prayers although they can also pray in isolation.[5]
Mecca to Sunnis
Mecca is a city in the west of Saudi Arabia. It holds what Muslims regard as the holiest Mosques in Islam. It is also where the founding father of Islam was born, began his preaching and where he came for his last pilgrimage. It is therefore the center for Muslim pilgrimage in the whole world.
Pilgrimage is one of the five Islamic pillars that are required of all Muslims who are able bodied. Pilgrimage stand for Hajji in Arabic, for the Sunni Muslims, Hajji is the most important pillar in their lives because the other Muslims, the Shi’is have other pilgrimage. This makes Mecca a significant site in the lives of Sunnis.[6]
Karbala to Shi’is
Karbala on the other hand, is a city located in Iraq. This city is considered among the holiest cities among the Islamic Shi’is. The Shi’is regards this city with utmost importance because it is the site where the shrine of Prophet Mohammad’s grandson Hoseyn was built.
Hoseyn is considered a great martyr among the Shi’is who was killed by Sunnis at Karbala. Shi’is pay pilgrimage to Karbala, while there, they also visit the shrine of Hoseyn’s half brother that was also killed in the battle. It’s is alleged that many Shi’is who are old go to Karbala to die because they believe that Karbala is one of the gates to heaven.[7]
Significance of Mt. Sinai to Jews
Mt. Sinai is a very sacred site among the Jews. They believe that because the prophet Moses was given the Ten Commandments or the Torah by God on this mountain. According to them, this is the place where God made a covenant with them.[8]
Significance of Jerusalem to Christians, Muslims and Jews
Jerusalem on the other hand, is Israel’s capital city but recognized by Christians, Muslims, and Jews as the holy city. The biblical events that are said to have taken place in Jerusalem as mentioned in the Old Testament makes this city very important in the Christians and Jewish religion.
The Torah also has explicit accounts about Jerusalem, and this being a Jewish scriptural text, the city is very important to them. Muslims on their part believe that Mohammad, the last prophet had paid a visit to Jerusalem during one of his dreams. This event made Jerusalem the first prayer direction for the Muslims. The close relation of significant figures in the bible such as Abraham, Solomon and Jesus to Jerusalem makes this city have significance to the Muslims because they also regard these figures as prophets of Islam.[9]
Conclusion
In this paper we have seen that rituals are events that entail rites or symbolic actions. It does not just involve putting up symbols but calls on people to participate in some special being that projects them beyond the physical realm. All the religions in the world incorporate rituals in their day to day activities in make sure that their faithful understand their doctrines. Communities also use symbols and rites to carry on their traditions.
Bibliography
Aghaie, Scott. 2004. The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi’i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. Seattle: University of Washington Press.