Performance testing is vital for all sorts of applications and systems, and it is essential for life-critical applications such as healthcare, medical, biotech, drug discovery systems, and mission-critical scenarios involving automobiles, aircraft, and defense. This paper presents a review of performance testing concepts and tools that are utilized in a range of business and scientific applications. Thus, the primary purpose of this work is a comparative analysis of three different tools aimed at performance testing. Performance testing is the practice of putting an application through its paces by simulating real users with a load generator in order to identify system bottlenecks (Srivastava et al., 2021). The main aim is to test for scalability, availability, and performance from both a hardware and software perspective. As part of performance testing, resource characteristics such as CPU utilization, memory usage, cache coherence, data consistency (in terms of main memory, virtual memory pages, and disk), power consumption, and network bandwidth usage are monitored and reported.
In addition, it should be noted that another goal of the work is to build own performance analysis tool. The main task is to create an application aimed at a stress test. In addition, performance testing takes into account response time and consumption linked to the router, web server, and appserver (application server). At each level of the product development process, performance analysis is required. In terms of reaction time, throughput, availability, dependability, security, scalability, and extensibility, system performance is regarded as a figure of merit. All this will be reflected in a comparative analysis of the tool created within the framework of this work with another application with similar characteristics and scope.
Consumer and b2b e-commerce platforms are getting increasingly competitive. Companies must ensure that their web-based applications can support numerous concurrent users connecting to a website or doing several online transactions (Srivastava et al., 2021). The service provider organizations must employ an application load-testing technology to ensure that such a service level is guaranteed. Thus, the carried out analysis will reveal the most successful tool that meets all the necessary standards. In addition, by learning specific indicators of other applications and applying the positive aspects in the tool, there will be a chance to create a successful sample.
The tool created within the framework of this study will have some positive aspects that various companies can use. The first feature that is considered to be achieved is better reliability. Performance testing aids in the avoidance of deadlocks, the improvement of response times, and the provision of scalability, fault tolerance, and failure recovery. Performance testing significantly decreases the time to market for major corporate applications. In general, it is appropriate to release to market after 98 percent of the high-priority criteria have been satisfactorily tested. It may enhance time-to-market by treating non-functional performance criteria as part of high-priority requirements, which results in a significant decrease in the test cycle and a lower defect rate.
It is worth noting that the created tool will aid in the management of memory issues. Memory leaks, overflows, inconsistencies in data, and byte order violations are just a few of the key issues that may be tracked, analyzed, and managed. The program will do performance testing to ensure safe software by detecting memory overflows and other resource issues in online and desktop applications. Thus, after analyzing the various existing tools, their main differences will be revealed and the positive sides and disadvantages. This will allow identifying the key components that will be needed to create the tool. Its comparison with another application will allow to determine whether it was possible to create tools with an acceptable range of functions within the framework of this work.
Reference
Srivastava, N., Kumar, U., & Singh, P. (2021). Software and performance testing tools. Journal of Informatics Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 2(1), 1-12.
The word science comes from a Latin word “sientia”, which means knowledge. This word has been translated in different forms like that of Webster’s new collegiate dictionary, which defines science as knowledge got from studying or practicing. The main idea of studying science is to construct a functional replica of truth. Science is normally categorized into two main ranks which are natural science, and social science. The two touches on both the ordinary world and the human activities and culture.
To start with, science began through the effort of a philosopher by name Francis Bacon who passed away in 1626. Even though Bacon was not a scientist, he kept on saying that visible things were a proof of truth. Although majority of the renowned scientists like Einstein, Newton, and Roman were all men, this does not mean that only men can perform well in science subjects.
There are a number of reasons, which have enabled me to come to this conclusion. For instance, if you go in hospitals you will find that most nurses are women proving that not all men can do sciences.
Unlike in the past where a large portion of doctors were men, today the trend and has changed and more women are joining the field. To prove that women can also do better in sciences, you find that the life span of women is high than that of men by the help of knowing how to balance their balanced diet which is science.
This balanced diet is the mix of foods and all this is in the field of science. In the recent past, there have been studies done to examine the myth that men understand science better than women do. All these studies have shown that women have both an excellent perceptive of science and climate change than men.
To strengthen that women are still good in sciences, you will find that women are extra in sync in the midst of science although they support the earlier study results that they tend to undervalue or disbelieve their scientific understanding.
One of the professors from the university of Michigan state Aaron McCright reveals that women could do much better in sciences except that the perception they have that science was made for men has made them slow down the potential of studying sciences. In his research, McCright reveals that women have the greatest percentage in worrying about the global concerns than men.
According to his research, women have greater concern that stems from the thought that the universal humidity will endanger their lifestyle throughout their life. (Priyanka) These among other factors prove that women can do much in the enhancement and the expansion of science if the perception they have in their mind is erased. According to me, women should be taught science seriously for they do much better than men especially in the field environment.
Conclusion
There is need for science to be handled with great care for it has some issues that can develop the world economy. This lesson should be left for every one who feels comfortable in handling it. The perception that was passed from the beginning that men could do better in handling this subject than women should be withdrawn. If both men and women will be considered equally in sciences, this will create a room of expanding and the perception of believing sciences are hard to be handled by women will be no more.
Work Cited
Priyanka. Women more likely to believe in climate change than men—study, 2010. Web. <http://themoneytimes.com/>
In the modern world, electric and hybrid cars have become a common phenomenon. Numerous people buy such vehicles because they try to reduce the amount of carbon emission, which is useful for the environment. Current technology aims at increasing the energy capacity of these cars to allow drivers to overcome longer distances without charging, and Regenerative Braking Systems (RBS) are a suitable option here.
It is so because this model makes it possible for a hybrid or electric car to obtain a portion of energy while braking. In general, when a vehicle applies brakes, it produces kinetic energy that can be turned into fuel for such cars with the help of a specific structure. This technology is requested now because it contributes to the longer working cycles of the vehicles. However, the RBS is not an ideal technology, and it implies some concerns. Thus, the main objectives of this research are to present a schematic of this model, explains how it works, comment on its advantages and disadvantages as well as predict its future.
Schematic
In general, the RBS is a relatively simple circuit that implies two modes. On the one hand, it is necessary to comment on a drive mode. Since the system under consideration refers to pure electric and hybrid cars, it is not a surprise that a battery is a central part of this system. This device stores energy and a motor consumes it to affect the transmission and make the wheels turn. This process is the main aspect that makes such vehicles move.
On the other hand, a regeneration mode implies an appropriate component that refers to a motor controller that predetermines how a car will apply brakes. It is so because this device has the potential to generate some energy by making the motor work differently. Once this happens, the electric current appears, and the motor controller transforms it back to the battery. Consequently, one can say that the RBS is a closed circuit, where the dual nature of the motor contributes to the fact that it both uses and generates energy. Figure 1 below by CarBike Tech (2019) demonstrates the energy flow and the correlation between the system components.
One should mention that the system above describes the performance of pure electric cars. When it comes to hybrid vehicles, however, it is not necessary to forget that such cars have both electric motors and mechanical transmission. Thus, Gupta, Khan, and Khan (2019) stipulate that these systems manage to work together with the help of power-split devices that make it possible to choose an appropriate source of energy to power a vehicle. Thus, such cars have two various sources of power, but it does not offer any issues for regenerative braking. When an RBS is applied, it sends obtained energy back to the batteries, rather than to the engine.
Working Principles
Even though the RBS seems to be a complicated technology, it works with the help of principles that are easy to understand. According to Gupta, Khan, and Khan (2019, p. 1600), a regenerative brake “is a mechanism that reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into another useful form of energy – electric current.” This transformation is possible because a motor acts as a generator.
Usually, a motor turns the wheels in an appropriate direction to make a vehicle move, which results in the creation of kinetic energy. When conventional braking systems are applied, they affect the wheels to make a car stop, and the kinetic energy disappears as heat.
When it comes to electric and hybrid cars, however, there is a possibility to reuse this resource and avoid heat emission. Here, when a driver brakes, it initiates a reverse rotation of the motor, which reduces the speed without friction. One should mention that there is friction neither between the wheels and the brakes nor between the wheels and the ground. In this case, the kinetic energy does not vanish but affects the motor to generate an electric current. After that, the produced power flows to a battery where it is stored for future use (Karthik, 2019, para. 6).
Effective work of the RBS is possible mainly because of motor controllers. It is so because these devices analyze the speed of wheel rotation, decide when braking begins and stops as well as control the inflow of electricity in vehicle batteries. Here, it is necessary to mention that batteries have limited capacity, which means that generating power can be harmful to a vehicle under certain conditions. If such a situation occurs, and a driver presses the brake pedal to stop, the motor controller chooses to use a conventional braking system instead of an RBS to reduce the vehicle speed.
RBS Advantages and Disadvantages
As has been mentioned above, the RBS has both positive and negative features. It is a normal phenomenon because it is impossible to invent technology that would not have any drawbacks. Thus, mentioning these features is necessary to identify the merits and flaws of this system, which will demonstrate whether it is beneficial to use the RBS in the modern world. In addition to that, the adverse elements can show what improvements the given technology requires.
Disadvantages
To begin with, many people mention that the RBS is not worth considering because it cannot restore all energy that has disappeared or even close to it. According to Loveday (2019, para. 5), regenerative braking can only restore up to 30% of initial energy. That is why it is impossible to say that this system provides vehicles with essential fuel intake. Furthermore, there exists a belief that the brakes of this kind are not effective when high speed is involved, which endangers electric and hybrid car drivers and other road users (Zhang, 2018). As a result, such vehicles are also equipped with conventional friction brakes to meet safety requirements.
The next disadvantage relates to the construction of the given systems. As a rule, electric and hybrid cars have ordinary batteries as their source of energy. Even though they are popular now, it does not mean that these devices are free from defects. Partridge and Abouelamaimen (2019, p. 1) stipulate that high power charging can cause battery “degradation, impacting performance and lifetime.” The researchers emphasize that it is more reasonable to use supercapacitors because they can absorb much power and possess excellent cycling features (Partridge and Abouelamaimen, 2019).
In addition to that, one should recall that the presence of the RBS does not eliminate the necessity to equip cars with conventional braking systems. According to Loveday (2019, para. 7), friction brakes are mainly required to bring a vehicle to a full stop. The disadvantages above show that this technology can offer some problems, but its positive phenomena that will be presented further mitigate the adverse impact.
Advantages
Even though the RBS can only restore a small part of the energy used, fuel economy is the most significant benefit when it comes to using such braking systems. It is so because this invention can provide vehicle batteries with regular intake of power irrespective of its amount. It is so because even insignificant portions of energy increase the working cycles of vehicles. Consequently, drivers can charge their cars without the necessity to stop and find appropriate stations. This option results in cheaper and more convenient maintenance of the vehicles, which is attractive for multiple individuals.
In addition to that, the absence of friction that has been explained above denotes that the vehicle braking system and tires feature longer working lives. There is no doubt that this fact contributes to the more effective performance of such cars. Furthermore, since any friction is absent, electric and hybrid vehicles apply brakes without producing heat and dust that harm the environment.
The information above demonstrates that the RBS has essential benefits that explain why the given system is applied in the modern world. This system is suitable for electric and hybrid cars, but its drawbacks show that the RBS application implies a few concerns. At the same time, engineers try to overcome the adverse effects with the help of the advantages that are present in the fields of fuel efficiency, costs, performance, and environmental impact.
Alternative Use and the Future of Technology
Even though it has been mentioned a few times that the RBS is suitable for electric and hybrid cars, these vehicles are not the only area of application of this system. Gupta, Khan, and Khan (2019) explain that the RBS is also applied in railway transportation, where electricity generated during braking is sent back to the supply chain. The researchers stipulate that the railway industry witnesses a more effective use of this braking system because it can return up to 40% of initial energy (Gupta, Khan and Khan, 2019, p. 1606).
Consequently, one can say that it is possible to increase RBS efficiency. In addition to that, the given system is useful in so-called real-life conditions. It refers to the fact that individuals can use the RBS principles to generate electricity at home. In this case, a bicycle generator is a suitable example that demonstrates how people can benefit from the alternative use of regenerative braking.
The future of this technology depends on whether engineers will manage to minimize its disadvantages and strengthen its positive features. Here, the most significant attention should be drawn to increasing the energy return rate and using a useful source of power. While achieving higher energy restoring rates seems to be a hypothetical goal, there exist firm hopes that it is possible to improve the situation with specific power elements. As has been mentioned, traditional batteries are not effective because they tend to degrade because of high power charging.
At the same time, they can be profitably replaced by supercapacitors that are known as productive electrochemical devices. Partridge and Abouelamaimen (2019, p. 2) stipulate that the supercapacitors feature “rapid charge/discharge cycle, long cycle life and very high power densities.” That is why it could be logical to suppose that the use of these devices would increase the efficiency of regenerative braking. However, the difference is not essential because of lower charge rates at the end of the charging profile, which is explained by the structure of supercapacitors (Partridge and Abouelamaimen, 2019). As a result, these devices have the potential to make the RBS future better, but it requires more engineering effort.
Conclusion
Regenerative braking systems can be applied in a few spheres, but electric and hybrid cars stand for the most popular variant. When evaluating the performance and effectiveness of these systems, it is necessary to determine what consequences they are expected to generate at first. On the one hand, when some people consider regenerative braking an almost limitless source of energy for electric vehicles, the systems fail to cope with the task because they have limited capacity. On the other hand, regenerative braking becomes more efficient when it appears as an auxiliary power source that can increase the working cycles of specific vehicles. This information denotes that the effectiveness of this technology is a variable that depends on who evaluates this phenomenon.
However, it is possible to compare regenerative braking with conventional braking systems to determine which one is more effective. Thus, traditional braking is better because it can bring a car to a standstill, and this system is irreplaceable for emergency stops. When it comes to other parameters, regenerative braking systems apply essential advantages. Firstly, they do not waste kinetic energy because it is transformed into additional power for electric cars.
It is of significance in the modern world, where recycling trends are popular. Secondly, the absence of friction leads to longer working cycles of tires and braking systems, which leads to both economic and performance benefits. Finally, regenerative braking does not have any negative influence on the environment and saves the existing resources. Thus, one can say that regenerative braking systems are useful devices, but their positive impact can become better with the help of further innovation.
Reference List
CarBike Tech (2019) What is regenerative braking in cars and how does it work? Web.
Gupta, R., Khan, N. and Khan, S. (2019) ‘Comparative study on regenerative braking system,’ International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 06(07), pp. 1599-1606.
Partridge, J. and Abouelamaimen, D. I. (2019) ‘The role of supercapacitors in regenerative braking systems,’ Energies, 12(14), pp. 1-15.
Zhang, H. (2018) ‘Research on regenerative braking combined control method for ESP of pure electric cars,’ Chemical Engineering Transaction, 66, pp. 1315-1320.
To achieve high results in the sport competitions of different levels, it is necessary to pay attention not only to the improvement of physical skills and abilities and to the regular training but also to the development of the athletes’ mental skills. In this case, imagination can be discussed as the most influential mental skill.
In their article, Duran-Bush and Salmela state that different external factors, personal relations, specific features of training, and personal characteristics including motivation and imagination can influence the peculiarities of an athlete’s development and maintenance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002).
According to Vealey, the aspects of the athlete’s performance can be influenced by the level of his mental skills’ development. Thus, the author’s main idea is that the improvement of such a mental skill as imagination is equal in its effectiveness to the regular training because athletes have the opportunity to provide the expected picture of their further success (Vealey, 2007).
In his turn, Gladwell develops the notion of the ‘physical genius’ and indicates that such mental processes as imagination and especially visualization are of great importance for the physical progress because they affect neurological mechanisms (Gladwell, 1999). Thus, the level of the athletes’ successes and their results depend on a variety of factors.
Although those results which athletes perform at the competitions are predominantly based on their physical state, the regularity of their training, the quality of the recovery, and the effectiveness of the used techniques, it is also necessary to focus on such characteristics as the development of the athletes’ mental skills, imagination and visualization in particular, because the athletes can not only regulate their motor functions but also use their productive thinking in order to create the picture of success.
Being able to manage his or her thoughts effectively, an athlete can influence the neurological processes which are important for the improvement of the physical abilities (Gladwell, 1999). Thus, the imagination power can be used to change the physical state and improve the effects of the training.
Nevertheless, the development of mental skills is also the necessary condition for the emotional progress of an athlete. The sportsman should be oriented to the success.
In this case, both the athletes and their coaches focus on the development of the athlete’s achievement drive and high performance skills in order to provide the fundament for the further victory. To achieve the best results, it is equally important to train regularly and to use productive thinking, set clear goals, relax, and manage physical and emotional energy (Vealey, 2007).
Having analyzed the conclusions of the authors, it is possible to discuss some controversial issues. Durand-Bush and Salmela examined a lot of factors divided into several groups which are essential for the athlete’s progress using the answers of the Olympic champions (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002).
However, it is rather difficult to indicate such a variant of the factors’ combination which can be considered as the most successful with referring to the problem of the mental skills’ development. It is impossible to determine only one effective pattern because of the diversity of variations and individual physical and mental peculiarities of athletes.
Moreover, paying attention to Gladwell’s viewpoint, it is possible to suppose that the controlled mental activity is of great importance for athletes because it can influence the success of the sportsmen with ordinary physical abilities or without the obvious potential.
To conclude the discussion, it is necessary to state that only the successful combination of the athletes’ physical and mental development with references to the possibilities of imagination, visualization, relaxation, and the effective setting of goals can lead to their great sport achievements.
References
Durand-Bush, N. & Salmela, J. H. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of world and Olympic Champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 154-171.
Gladwell, M. (1999). The physical genius. Web.
Vealey, R. S. (2007) Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R.C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 287-309). Hobokken: Willey.
Speed skating is and has been a popular winter sport since its invention in the Scandinavian nations particularly the Netherlands. For a considerably long period, it was resigned as an amateur sport in Europe exclusively. However, it has risen as a professional sport since the early 20th century. The first male Olympic speed skating Short Track and Long Track competitions were held in 1924 while the official Olympic female competitions were held in 1960 (Speed skating Canada 2011, Para. 4; Fridell 2008, p.32). Current speed skating global market spreads across the globe. Major geographical markets are, however, found in European countries, North America (Canada and United States), and in Asian countries such as Japan, South Korea, and China. China and South Korea dominate short track speed skating in the Olympic Games. The United States, Canada, Russia, and Germany are powerful leaders in the sport.
Even though the sport itself has retained its original nature, many transformations have occurred particularly with regard to the kind of design techniques and materials used to make skates, sportswear, safety equipments and protective gear for participants. Speed skating sportswear should provide warmth, dry and comfortable fit that can allow a participant to concentrate on producing as much power he or she can which is required to propel her body over a given distance in the shortest time possible. Advancement in fibre and fabric technology has enabled designers to make more effective speed skating performance sportswear. They have improved speed skating suits in a way that reduces drag and resistance from wind and ice in order to increase the average speed of skating. Design techniques and the apparel structure have also transformed considerably.
Development of Speed Skating
Definition
Speed skating also referred to as speed skating is one of the oldest winter sporting activity. Even though during the twentieth century there has emerged professional speed skaters, it has been largely a recreational or part-time sport (Speed skating Administration 2011, Para 1; Snoep 2010, p.4). Presently, the sport is mostly positioned as a professional sport in Europe, particularly in Norway and Netherlands. However, there are professional skating athletes found in different parts of the world, as well as, various competitions.
Speed skating is a form of competitive ice skating where participants compete with each other in travelling a definite distance on skates hence the name speed skating. The skates were initially made of bones in Scandinavian nations as early as 1500 AD where the sport originated. Today, there are skates made of steel blades and clap skates (Gustaitis 2009, p.5). Despite these changes, the sporting activity itself has retained its original nature (Speed skating Administration 2011, Para 1).
History and development
Speed skating has its roots in the Scandinavian nations particularly Netherlands where people were skating on bone skates as early as 1500 AD. Scandinavian natives used to add bones to their shoes and use them to travel on frozen rivers, lakes and canals over a millennium ago (Gustaitis 2009, p.4). However, it was during the sixteenth century that people started to see skating as a sporting activity and deriving fun from it. Since then, the sport has undergone various changes especially in terms of equipments used even though it has retained its original nature (National Speed Skating Museum 2011, p.1). Up to the years 1860-70s speed skating had not made any significant progress despite the fact that people had already practiced skating for many years (Brokaw 1910, p. 9).
During the early eighteenth century, the first skating club known as the Skating Club of Edinburgh was established. The first recorded speed skating competition took place at the Fens in England on February 4, 1763 (National Speed Skating Museum 2011, p.2). It was on a distance of fifteen miles. Shortly, skating tournaments and clubs spread through out Northern Europe. The first countries to organize national skating championships were Canada and the United States in 1887 and 1889 respectively. The sport became a masculine Olympic sport in 1924 and 1960 women’s speed skating tournaments were organized for the first time as an official Olympic sport (National Speed Skating Museum 2011, p.3; Gustaitis 2009, p.3). In Olympic Games, there are two forms of speed skating viz. Long Track and Short Track. Long Track is the oldest form and comprises of two skaters racing at the same time in different lanes with time being the fundamental consideration (Speed skating Administration 2011, Para 1; Gustaitis 2009, p.3). It is normally 400 meters long with some leeway in corner length and radius. Short Track first got popularity in the US during 1970’s and became an official Olympic Sport in 1990’s.
Speed Skating safety equipments
Speed skaters require protective equipments when they are taking part in practice and competitions. Apart from skates, significant speed skating safety equipments include helmets, knee pads, cut resistant gloves, eye protection, shin pads, elbow pads, bib style guard and clothing (Syracuse Speed Skating 2011, Para. 1). Safety equipment is vital for all skaters (in-line and ice skaters) because even experts skaters from time to time have accidents (Crossingham & Kalman 2003, p.28). It is usually recommended by training program organizers that participants should discuss with their coaches whenever they are interested in buying any equipment.
How to Speed skate
To be a successful speed skater one requires not only vigorous training but also courage and fitness. Just as the name of the sport suggests, it is a speed sporting activity, and in fact, the most essential factor is time. Therefore, it requires vigorous training because standards of professionalism have gone up with participants covering 500m in slightly less than a minute. A Participant must learn and master technical tactics and get used to skating in full speed skating safety suit because accidents can happen any time.
Speed skating is essentially a rhythmical, non-stop and fast sport of skating. It usually includes long and short tracks; marathon skating, in-line and pack style (Maughan 2000, p.646). Skating entails contraction of the hip and extensors during the stroke. Originally, speed skating was performed with wooden runners attached to shoes; bones were later used, and then iron runners first used in 1500s and now steel blades and clap skates (Maughan 2000, p.646).
Structure of speed skating
Speed skating is a member of the bigger family of sports of skating that also includes figure skating and ice hockey. Speed skating itself includes forms such as long track, short track, marathon skating, in-line skating and pack style (Maughan 2000, p.646; Miller et al 2009, p.216). Long track and short track are the most common competition forms. Long track speed skating takes place on an oval rink that is 400 meters around. There are 500m, l000m, 1,500m, 3,000m and 10,00m races for both men and women (Gustaitis 2009, p.3). Participants also compete in a race known as team pursuit. Short track speed skating is conducted on an oval track that is 111.12 meters around. There are also 500m, 1,000m, and 1,500m races for men and women. In addition, there is a 3,000m and 5,000m relay for women and men respectively (Gustaitis 2009, p.3). In Short track speed skating, turns are tight and thus falls take place frequently (Books LLC 2010, p.17). A typical speed skating competition such as marathon skating includes various officials such as meet coordinator, referee, starter, registrar, electronic timers, six place judges, two lap counters, track stewards and announcers (Speed skating Canada 2010, p. 6; Alberta Speed Skating 2010, Para 4).
Demographic profile
Speed skating is an old winter sporting activity. Even though it has been mostly an amateur sport, professional skaters have emerged since 20th century. Presently, it is thought of as a professional sport in Europe particularly in Norway and Netherlands. However, there are expert skaters in different parts of the world. It is presently a popular winter sport in United States, Canada, South Korea and China (Alberta Speed Skating 2010, Para. 6). Through out the Scandinavian Europe, it has been a popular winter sporting activity among various age groups. For instance, most long-track speed skaters are from the Netherlands where the sport enjoys a large number of fans. Moreover, the sport has had champion athletes from other countries around the world including Germany, Japan, Austria, China, Canada, South Korea, Russia, Finland, Italy, Norway, the United States, Czech Republic, and Sweden.
In fact, majority of long track facilities are found in Europe, the United States, and Canada. It is generally recognized that Short Track skating achieved popularity in the United States in 1970’s before it became an Olympic sport in 1990’s. South Koreans have dominated Short Track skating since its beginning in the United States. Long Track skating is best known for its attraction to many competitors from different Mesothelioma Lawyer countries who have won many medals. Other countries where speed skating is played in the contemporary world include Belgium, France, Britain, Australia and New Zealand. Statistics available show that speed skating participants are mainly concentrated between ages 15 and 55 years amongst both males and females across the world (International Olympic Committee 2006, p.18). The table below shows the number of medals won by each country that took part in the year 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games organized at Richmond Olympic Oval from 13 to 27 February 2010.
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
1
South Korea
3
2
0
5
2
Netherlands
3
1
3
7
3
Canada
2
1
2
5
4
Czech Republ4ic
2
0
1
3
5
Germany
1
3
0
4
6
United States
1
2
1
4
7
Japan
0
2
1
3
7
Russia
0
1
1
2
9
China
0
0
1
1
9
Norway
0
0
1
1
9
Poland
0
0
1
1
Total
12
12
12
36
Source: International Skating union site.
Market research and Assessment
Global market
Speed skating global market has been expanding steadily since the rise of the sport as a professional sport during early twentieth century. The sport is still largely a popular recreational sport across the globe. Its markets are particularly bigger in Europe and North America – Canada and the United States. In Asia, China, South Korea, and Japan are the leading consumers of the speed skating sport. In fact, China and South Korea are known for their domination of short-track speed skating competition events in key championships such as Olympic Games.
Speed skating global market has in fact under gone a golden age like many other sports across the world. It is a sport that attracts interested participants from across virtually all age groups of a society. Hence, consumption of speed skating sports related products has been on the rise in various parts of the world. Hence, marketing of speed skating sportswear and events is attracting more and more people. This trend is clearly supported by a tremendous increase of media coverage and public viewing of the winter Olympic games including speed skating since the year 2006 in Torino Olympic Games (International Olympic Committee 2006, p.18). The increased appeal of the Winter Olympics is an indication of growing consumption of speed skating. It is also the major sporting event where male and female viewers are fairly represented (International Olympic Committee 2006, p.18).
Major geographic markets
Speed skating equipments, footwear, and apparel leading geographic markets are found in Europe, North America (Canada and United States), and Asia where speed skating is played. In Europe, major markets for speed Skating equipments, footwear and apparels are concentrated in the Scandinavian countries and other European countries where it is a popular winter sport. In Asia, its key geographic markets are situated in Japan, China and South Korea. In all these markets, world’s leading sports commodities companies including Nike, Adidas and Reebok dominate the markets.
Major retail apparel brands
Speed skating leading apparel brands come in a variety of models such as ice and non-ice models. Your choice of brand largely depends on your goals as an individual skater. Major Speed skating apparel brands includes those made by Bauer, Bont, Nike, Roces, Inliners, Senate Puberty, Roxa, and USD. Speed skating clothing is decidedly wide-ranging and colourful. Bont is particularly popular for its inline skating skin suits and protective speed skating suits. Bont’s speed skating suits, like its Hi-tech performance suit, are best known for enhancing a skater’s maximum endurance and offering unmatched comfort. Nike speed skating apparel brands are also popular in various speed skating countries. Its recently launched Swift Skin speed skating suits are a vital competitor in various geographical markets. Below, see a diagram of Bont’s High-Tech performance compression tights (Bont 2011, Para. 3).
Source: Bont official Website.
Drivers of their market growth and leadership of the sport
Skating, including speed skating, is presently a booming sport. For the better part of its contemporary history, speed skating has been largely a popular recreational sport. Even though professional aspects emerged within the sport since the start of the twentieth century it is still a popular winter amateur sport particularly in Europe and North America (Canada and United States). Speed skating is a thrilling and adventurous sport that requires not only intense training for one to make a cogent skater but also guts (Wixon 2009, p.13). It is a highly technical sport that needs a continuous brain alert. It is an entertaining sport since it is the fastest sport world over that is human-powered and non mechanical. Modern well trained expert speed skaters can move faster than 60 Kilometres per hour (Gustaitis 2009, p.5).
Apart from its popularity as a winter sport, advent of manmade ice rinks is another factor that has been significant to the growth and development of speed skating market (Levinson & Christensen 1996, p. 197). Currently, speed skaters do not have to wait until winter season in order to take part in their favourite sport. Since the early twentieth century when speed skating became an official male Olympic sport, participants have taken part in artificial ice rinks somehow making the sport an all weather sport like many others. This has in turn led to an increased demand for speed skating apparels, equipments, footwear and trainers in various leading global markets through out the year.
Health benefits associated with speed skating and other skating sports have also been significant to its market growth and development in a world that is increasingly concerned about the adverse health effects of increasingly sedentary lifestyles. Sports and nutritional experts recommend physically and mentally demanding sports like speed skating for purposes of normal and better physical and mental growth and development. These factors and others have contributed to a rise in demand for speed skating equipments, apparels and footwear for children, youths and people of other age groups. Furthermore, there has been an evident increase in sport market economies within the emerging South American and Asian countries (Janet et al 2007, p.171). South Korea and China are the world’s Short Track speed skating leaders. The United States, Russia, Germany, china and most of the Scandinavian nations particularly Norway and Netherlands have won many Olympic awards since the sport became an official male Olympic sport in 1924 (USA International Business Publications 2002, p.43).
Key attributes
Safety considerations
A lot of risk is involved in speed skating. Therefore, the sport should not be practiced without intense training and guidance under an expert skater and trainer (LTAD Canada 2007, p.5; Syracuse Speed Skating 2011, Para. 2). It is pertinent to note that although it is an engrossing sport, just like its name suggests it involves extraordinary high speed of about 60 km per hour. High speed in turn means that in case of an accident which even expert skaters encounter, injuries suffered can turn out to be disastrous and/or can put your life at danger (LTAD Canada 2007, p.5). Hence safety equipments are particularly critical and must be won through out all practice and competition events. It is safer to use ice tracks rather than frozen pools. A typical speed skating safety gear should consist of knee pads, elbow pads and a helmet that gives a participant safety and lowers the danger of sustaining injuries. It is recommended that before heading to a speed skating rink, “one should inspect his/her speed skating suits for defects and holes” (Brokaw 1910, p. 95). An ideal speed skating suit should be aerodynamically sound in order to reduce the space that air needs to cross during an event. Below, see an example of speed skating helmet known as Maple Speed Skating Helmet.
Source: Indy Speed.
Protection
All skaters must wear a protective gear during training sessions and competition events. In fact, during competition events additional protective equipments must be won. Helmets are meant to protect the head and skull from possible injuries in case of an accident should always be won. They are supposed to be the hard shell type, like bicycle helmets (Indy Speed 2008, p.1). Neck guards with a bib attached to protect the part below your Adams apple should be won (Indy Speed 2008, p.1). One can also use neck guards built into a shirt. Below, see an Itech JP400 with Kevlar Neck Guard.
Source: Indy Speed.
Participants should also put on knee pads in order to guard against knee injuries in case of a fall especially during short track speed skating, as well as, training sessions. Shin protectors are also required for short-track competition also highly recommended for training sessions especially for speed skating beginners (Indy Speed 2008, p.2). Soccer shin guards can be used and are known to work well. Gloves are particularly needed for short-track competition as well as for training. The palm part of a glove should be made of leather (Indy Speed 2008, p.3). It is also highly recommended that, for purposes of a little more warmth, speed skaters should consider wearing cross country ski glove (Indy Speed 2008, p.3). It is also recommended that skaters should wear Kevlar long underwear. The long underwear is won under your skin suit. The protective suits usually have Kevlar in strategy positions attached to soft Lycra in order to ensure a comfortable fit (Indy Speed 2008, p.3). Speed skaters should also wear protective glasses in order to prevent eye damage especially in outdoor skating events. It is recommended for one to use clear glasses like the ones used by expert marksmen in order to get a clear visibility of the track ahead. Glasses prevent pieces of ice and debris from getting into one’s eyes as s/he goes through the sharp turns.
Key actions or activities that influence the attributes required for a successful apparel assembly
Speed skaters should dress for warmth when skating indoor or outdoors, by layering their apparel. In most cases, indoor ice tracks are maintained at around 50 to 60 degrees; therefore, jackets are proposed. Outdoor speed skating ice rinks can be of any temperatures (Special Olympics 2011, p.6). Hence, if it is extremely cold, one should put on tights or thermal underwear to stay warm. Speed skating apparel should be comfortable and tight-fitting (Special Olympics 2011, p.6). It is well to note that, if for instance, the apparel is too loose or too large it can get tangled in the ice skates and bring other wise preventable accidents. Most of these accidents can be disastrous and can easily put your life at risk. Warm-up pants and sweatpants are recommended for comfort (Special Olympics 2011, p.6).
Jeans should be avoided because they stay wet for too long and are thus bound to be uncomfortable. Waterproof snow suits are particularly recommended for child speed skaters. One should also put on gloves or waterproof mittens and a hat to keep your ears warm if it is extremely cold (Special Olympics 2011, p.6). This practice is recommended at all times for children speed skaters. Hands usually feel better in case one falls and s/he is wearing gloves. Moreover, a speed skater’s feet feel much better if s/he puts on a one pair of lightweight, warm seamless socks (Special Olympics 2011, p.6). However, a beginner using borrowed rink skates should use a thicker pair of socks so as to help pad his or her feet since the skates are usually of poor quality and are mostly worn out. Finally, an ideal skin suit should be stretchy so as to provide freedom of movement and close-fitting to be aerodynamic because much of skating resistance is normally air resistance. Below, see a Team Bont international skin suit (Bont 2011, Para. 3).
Source: Bont Official website.
Functional requirements of each layer of apparel
Effective layering refers to dry, warm comfort while skating indoor or outdoors. Speed skaters should dress in layers that together keep them warm, dry and safeguarded from anything that can potentially injure them. Dressing properly for speed skating means being dressed up in layers that work together to ensure that one is warm, dry and properly protected from different skating circumstances. It is wise to remember to dress up properly for the coldest or severe weather conditions someone envisages. An ideal layering system for speed skating comprises of three layers namely:
The function of pants and tops in this layer is to ensure that the wearer is dry by ensuring that perspiration evaporates quickly as well as to keep the wearer comfortable through out the skating session. In addition, the long underwear should give comfort and warmth against your skin (Kunzle-Watson 1996, p.11; Indy Speed 2008, p.3). In terms of style, the conventional combination of long pants and long-sleeved pullover, both of which has wavy cuffs meant to keep out cold especially during traditional winter speed skating are up to date popular. However, there are other new styles such as short-sleeved tops, mock neck tops, and short-style bottoms that cover much of the thigh to keep one’s quadriceps muscles warm. Layer one clothes are supposed to fit tightly to the body in order to absorb moisture efficiently (Kunzle-Watson 1996, p.12). It is generally recommended that one should stick to his/her normal size because too-snug clothes will hinder free movement while too loose clothes can get entangled in the body, be irritating or bunch. Your comfort is the main issue here. Therefore, underwear clothes should be soft, able to keep the wearer dry and give a little more warmth.
Layer 2: insulating tops and pants
The fundamental function of this layer is to keep one warm through a training or competition event. One can choose from a variety of tops in this layer including vests, sweaters and fleece tops (Kunzle-Watson 1996, p.12). They are mostly in pullover styles. In addition, there are knit and fleece pants. One should avoid primary cotton knits because of cotton’s tendency to absorb and hold moisture. Layer two garments should be slightly loose fit for purposes of free movement when skating. However, they should fit under a jacket and skating pants without bunching or sagging.
Layer 3: outerwear
The outer layer is supposed to protect the wearer from harsh elements, which s/he may encounter while skating such as rain and wind in case of outdoor skating. It usually includes one- piece suits, pants and jackets which may be insulated or non-insulated (Kunzle-Watson 1996, p.13). They should be spacious enough to allow freedom of movement.
Comfort requirements
Ergonomics
Comfort is certainly a paramount concern in speed skating sport because; it is sport that takes places under circumstances that can potentially cause physical and psychological uneasiness and even injuries. Comfort refers to the ability of a speed skating performance sportswear to provide the skater with warmth, physical and psychological ease. An ideal speed skating performance sportswear should be a comfortable fit that is roomy in order to allow a skater freedom of movement (Group et al 1979, p. 261). Participants should always use a speed skating suit that fits tightly to their bodies.
Design, style ease and compression
A skater’s hard work and many years of training in the ice can be futile, if s/he is wearing speed skating clothing that slows him or her down since speed is the substance of this sport. Participants of a speed skating competition must race against time. Hence, there is a given performance sportswear that one is supposed to use in order to succeed in speed skating and be on the right side of international rules of speed skating. The kind and the way performance sportswear is used in speed skating play a critical role. One of the two main criterions of success in speed skating is essential equipments such as skates and performance sportswear. The other condition is the time needed to propel the participant’s body for a standard distance (Kuper & Sterken 2002, p.6). For speed skating, the best competitor is usually the one who can properly sustain the greatest power to beat resistance or drag resulting from whatever source. Apart from having the ability to produce exceptional power, the top competitor should also be able to maintain power out put in an efficient and skilful way for through out a competition (Kuper & Sterken 2002, p.6).
Layering
Sportswear plays a significant role in determining how well a speed skater is positioned to produce the power needed and sustain it efficiently and effectively due to the circumstances under which the sport takes place especially outdoor speed skating. Speed skating performance sportswear is noteworthy because it provides warmth, protection against injurious elements and comfortable fit to a participant. For instance, tights help a participant to increase his or her power while at the same time keeping them dry and light. Tights are also made in a way that encourages maximum blood flow toward the heart in order to keep a participant performing at his or her best. In addition, most of them are designed to provide compression and greater muscle stability in order to prevent injury.
This, in turn, enables a skater to concentrate on producing the required power in order to overcome resistance from ice or wind. Speed is a decisive factor in determining the success of a participant because he or she must race against time. There are many factors which determine the average skating speed including technical abilities of an individual skater, endurance, strength, the quality of the skating ring and aero-dynamics (Kuper & Sterken 2002, p.6). Speed skating suits affect aerodynamics and thus the average skating speed. Well designed modern speed skating sportswear to minimize drag and increase speed. A participant using performance sports wear with these qualities is bound to perform better. On the contrary, a participant using sports wear that does not reduce resistance and drag performs poorly because of the resultant low speed.
Thermal regulation
There are many factors that a designer should consider when designing speed skating clothing. Currently, progress in fibres and fabric have enabled designer to ensure softness of an ideal layer one garment like the recommended long underwear. Good performance sportswear should whisk perspiration away from the body of a skater to the outside of the clothing where it can evaporate quickly. When a skater puts on long underwear with a moisture wicking ability, a dry, warm area is established between this fabric and the protecting garment one wears over it. The fabric or fibre of your garments should continuously keep perspiration moving away from your skin and let your body keep the wearer warm effectively. The bulk or weight of the fabric used in making underwear and the insulating garments determines the warmth it offers to the skater or wearer.
Insulating garments exist in a variety of materials and weights which also affect the amount of warmth they provide. Elite speed skaters select their underwear that is light to mid-weight. It is pertinent to note that, low-bulk that can offer warmth without too much weight or bulk, is vital for the general comfort and more importantly for freedom of movement. Furthermore, stretchy materials that provide a natural stretch are suitable for more experienced speed skaters as well as those who prefer greater ease of movement. In some styles antibacterial or antimicrobial treatments are there. They offer more benefits even though they are not an obligatory necessity. These treatments make clothing resistant to germs and bacteria that cause unpleasant smell such as moulds and mildews. It is recommended that if one intends to use your long underwear for a prolonged period without washing anti-bacterial/anti-microbial treatments can be helpful.
Speed skating outerwear should be waterproof and breathable to ensure all necessary protection from any element that can cause harm to a participant. The objective of waterproof and breathable outer wear is to prevent moisture from outside from passing through the jacket, and at the same time allow water vapour produced by a participant’s perspiration to evaporate. It is well to note that water-repellent/water-resistant outerwear is more breathable than waterproof/ breathable out wear. Currently, there are waterproof/breathable outwears that consist of design elements such as zippers and venting systems that allow more perspiration to evaporate out of a peed skater’s body. Warmth, softness, comfortable fit and freedom of movement provided by speed skating sportswear are crucial to the overall performance of a participant in indoor and outdoor speed skating competition and training events. Without proper protection from various elements such as ice, wind and rain in a winter sport like speed skating a participant can hardly take part well and productively.
Current garment
Fibres
There is a variety of fibres which are currently used in making speed skating apparels including carbon fibre, Kevlar fibre, High Performance Polythene Fibre (HPPF), copolymer plastics, silk, wool, cotton and High-grade polyurethane. Carbon fibre is made up of long thin filaments which are at times transferred into graphite. Carbon fibre is used in the making of skate boards to make them “strong and light in weight, for various types of skating including speed skating and down hill speed boarding” (Kannan 2008, Para 4). Kevlar fibre is popular for its high tenacity. It was produced in 1970 under its current trade mark name Kevlar (Kannan 2008, Para 2). It is best known for its exceptional properties arising from the anisotropy of its superimposed substructure that makes available pleated, skin core features and cyrstalinity. Kevlar fibres are used in making speed skating protective apparels such as gloves (Kannan 2008, Para 5).
They are also used in making speed skating pants. High Performance Polythene Fibre (HPPF) is presently a common fibre in the making of speed skating sportswear. It is produced through gelatine and crystallization process where a spinning solution is converted into ultra high molecular weight polythene (Kannan 2008, Para 9). It is commonly used in protecting a wearer of a garment made with HPPE fibres against puncture and cut. In speed skating sport, it is used in making protective gloves, which are used to protect a participant’s hands against injury in case of a fall, particularly during short track speed skating and during the initial stages of training (Kannan 2008, Para 9).
They are popular for their high energy absorption at break due to low weight (Kannan 2008, Para 9). Furthermore, HPPE fibres do not lose strength in water and are not easily affected by seawater or ultra violet light. This fact explains why nets were the first goods to be made with HPPE fibres (Kannan 2008, Para 9). Speed skating apparels made with HPPE fibres have a low elongation and are flexible. Silk is particularly used in light weight garments. It is a natural wicking fibre that is both strong and soft. Sometimes long underwear made of silk is treated in order to enhance its moisture wicking ability. Wool fibre inherently wicks away moisture. Cotton fibre is popular in the making of underwear or base layer clothing because of its ability to absorb and hold moisture. Blends of silk, cotton, and wool are best known in providing the best properties of each fibre. It is thus recommended that designers should always consider using a blend of these materials when making garments for speed skating under a variety of conditions.
Fabrics
Common fabrics in speed skating sport garments making include polyester and other synthetics. Synthetic fabrics are highly recommended for long underwear because of their ability to provide a compelling combination of softness, moisture management, and thermal regulation properties. Polyester is popular because of its outstanding wicking ability. Synthetic fleeces like polar fleece are presently the commonly used material for insulating garments. Apart from offering warmth without too much bulk or weight, they are excellent moisture wicking fabrics and are normally useful for use in both popular and conventional speed skating apparels.
It is also washable with a machine and is known for retaining its original shape even after repeated wash and wear routines. Pile is another outstanding form of synthetic fabric. It shares many characteristics with fleece including breathability, wicking, and ability to provide warmth without a lot of weight or bulk. It is also popular because of its ability to provide a pleasant, artificial-fur appearance. It is well to note that, one should consider fabrics and treatments used on speed skating sports underwear carefully, as well as, outerwear when choosing a speed skating sports wear. Mostly, outwear is made of tightly woven polyester or nylon. These fabrics are long lasting and relatively water-resistant. Moreover, they can be woven in a variety of weights. In fact, some speed skating sportswears are made of a blend of polyester and nylon. In such a case, these fabrics are woven using extremely sensitive fibres. However, micro fibres are mostly used in expensive high-performance speed skating garments.
Finishes
For underwear
Soft.
Comfortable fit.
Quick dry.
Moisture wicking ability.
For outerwear.
Long lasting water repellent finishes.
Wind-proof.
Moisture wicking ability.
Apparel structure
Speed skating apparel structure has evolved drastically over years since the emergence of the sport as a professional sport during early twentieth century and establishment as an Olympic sport in 1924. Speed skating is still a popular recreational winter sport that attracts participants across all prime age groups of a society. Today, underwear or base layer are designed as short-sleeved tops, mock-neck tops, or short-style bottoms that cover most of a wearer’s thigh in order to keep quadriceps muscles warm. However, traditional blend of long pants and long-sleeved pullover that has ribbed cuffs to keep out cold is still prevalent in markets. Insulating tops and pants exists as a range of tops that include sweaters, vests and fleece tops most often in pullover designs. Knit or fleece pants are also present in various markets that consume speed skating sport products. Major brands of speed skating suits are made from materials such as Microfiber Lycra which is very soft and of an extremely high quality (Bont 2011, Para 2). Skiing wetsuit technology seam construction has been borrowed in order to enhance modern speed skating wetsuit durability. Some of their main features like the Team Bont international skins suit shown below include:
Double stitched seams and a flat locking stitch which offers a long lasting stitch.
They are made using streamlined new design techniques in black and red.
Their front opening consists of a hidden zipper which goes up to the collar or up to the base of the hood.
They also have thumb loops, knee and shin padding for Short track suits (Bont 2011, Para. 2).
Source: Bont Official Website.
Design techniques
Current design techniques are geared towards ensuring reduced drag and resistance in order to increase the average speed of speed skating, providing warmth, softness, comfortable fit and moisture wicking ability. They can also increase safety and protection of a participant from possible injuries, especially during short-track speed skating competition or training sessions in which, falls are common and almost unavoidable. For instance, designing techniques of modern compression tights includes a seamless design that is meant to prevent irritation and chafing (Bont 2011, Para 2). Designers are also borrowing techniques from technology of constructing sportswear for closely related sports such as skiing. For instance, strengthened construction of the compression tight has been borrowed from wetsuit technology in order to enhance its long life.
Current design and new product trends
Fibres
Major progress has been made in fabric and fibre technology. For instance, in 1970 Kevlar fibre which is one of the most widely fibres used in the making of speed skating protective apparels such as gloves was produced (English-heritage 2010, p.11; Bardal 2010, p.16). In addition, a combination of various fibres that provide their best properties is possible to make thanks to advances made in fibre and fabric technology. This fibre blending has enabled designers to make sportswear that is suitable for speed skating under a variety of conditions.
Fabrics
Similar milestones of advancement made in fibre technology have also been made in fabrics technology, thereby enabling designers to make high-performance speed skating sports wear. For example, improvements in current fabric technology have enabled designers to make speed skating sportswear that is made out of tightly woven polyester or nylon (Bardal 2010, p.16). These can be woven in a variety of weights as the designer may wish. In other instances, speed skating sports wear is made using nylon and polyester micro fibres. In such cases, the fabrics are woven using exceptionally fine fibres.
Finishes
Major improvements in finishes include those geared towards increasing comfortability of a typical speed skating sports wear including the following:
Softness.
Warmth.
Moisture wicking ability.
Quick dry.
Comfortable fit.
Long lasting water repellent finishes.
Wind-proof.
Colours
Current speed skating products are colourful. For instance, speed skating has additional reflective marks in addition to its other shiny and bright parts. The reflective marks play the role of enabling a participant to sport an approaching skater. This reduces chances of colliding with others on a track.
Apparel structure
As mentioned out earlier, speed skating apparel structure has transformed tremendously. Today, even the materials used to make speed skating apparel must be approved international speed skating governing bodies. The structure of speed skating apparel must meet standards that ensure safety, protection and comfort of a wearer.
Design techniques
After the Olympic winter games of 1998, speed skating sportswear manufacturers began to develop speed skating suits that could further decrease drag and resistance and thereby improve aerodynamics (Bardal 2010, p.16). For example, Nike developed the Swift skin suit. Suits developed since those dates are presently underpinned by a similar philosophy of reducing resistance and drag in order to increase speed skating speed. These design techniques in speed skating came into being against a background of the need to increase the average speed skating speed by reducing resistance and drag, which originates from ice and wind (Brownlie et al 2003, p.19).
Other design techniques have been adopted in order to allow more freedom of movement of a participant. Others are geared towards improving the softness of an ideal speed skating wear and improve its ability to provide warmth. Improved design techniques put more emphasis on improving the average speed of speed skating by improving aerodynamics. Speed is particularly paramount in speed skating because speed skaters must race against time. However, designers take note of the fact that other factors such as comfort of a given garment impacts up on the speed of a participant. Therefore, some new design techniques in the making of speed skating sportswear such as compression tights are recommendable since they ensure comfort of a participant so as to ensure that their feel does not hinder a participant from generating sufficient power needed to propel his or her body over a given standard distance.
Conclusion
Speed skating is certainly an entertaining and enjoyable winter sport since its birth in the Scandinavian countries more than a millennium ago. Its technical demand and the amount of power required to propel the body of a participant makes it more appealing. Although it is still largely a recreational sport, it has developed into a professional sport since early twentieth century. Even though the sport has undergone numerous transformations in terms of safety equipment, organizational structure, its sportswear and the number of participants as well as when to skate its has retained its original nature of its essence of sporting. Initially people could only speed skate during the winter season on frozen rivers, canals and lakes, however, today there are artificial ice rinks meaning that one speed skate through out the year or when he or she wishes. Many changes have occurred especially with regard to materials and techniques used to make skates, speed skating sportswear, safety equipment and protective gear.
Source: Alberta Speed Skating.
References
Alberta Speed Skating. 2010. Marathon skating in North America. Web.
Bardal, L. 2010. Aerodynamic properties of textiles. Web.
Books, LLC. 2010. Short Track Speed Skating Competitions: Short Track Speed Skating World Championships, Short Track Speed Skating World Cup. New York, NY: General Books LLC.
Bont. 2011. Apparel. Web.
Brokaw, L., 1910. The art of skating: its history and development, with practical Description. London: Arden Press.
Brownlie, L., Kyle, C., Harber, R., MacDonald, R., & Shorten, M., 2003. Reducing the Aerodynamic drag of sports apparel: development of the Nike Swift sprint running and Swift Skin speed skating suits. Web.
Crossingham, J., & Kalman, B., 2003. Extreme in-line skating. New York, NY: Crabtree Publishing Company.
Fridell, R., 2008. Sports Technology. Minneapolis, MN: LernerPublications.
Group, D., Heidenstam, D., Meier, P., & Wilkinson, J., 1979. The official world Encyclopaedia of sports and games: the rules, techniques of play and equipment for over 400 sports and 1,000 games. New York, NY: Paddington Press.
Gustaitis, J., 2009. Speed Skating. New York, NY: Crabtree Publishing Company.
With regard to sports events, psychological concepts and theories are not limited to the study of the behaviour of athletes and their motives. Various aspects are taken into account, including the effects of stress, anxiety, self-control, and other factors affecting the results of sporting fights. In order to determine what effect such psychological nuances have, a soccer match will be taken as a basis. As a target participant for analysis, the captain of one of the teams will be interviewed.
Based on his answers and observations of the game, relevant conclusions will be made regarding the interpretation of the performance situation within the framework of special psychological concepts. This work is aimed at determining the factors that characterise certain actions of athletes and the analysis of psychological concepts that are closely related to competitive activities.
Performer’s Background
The sports performance in question is a soccer national championship match. As an object of analysis, the captain of the winning team was interviewed and, based on the assessment of his behaviour and the work of the entire team, it is possible to identify some specific nuances. The athlete’s desire to win was obvious, and his efforts made it possible to achieve a high result, despite nerves and stress experienced during the match.
As the game progressed, the captain’s team lost, and some players looked morally depressed due to the inability to change the course of the match. However, after the break, the players managed to change the preponderance of forces, and the captain’s merit in it was substantial since he encouraged the teammates and motivated them. As a result, with a slight advantage, the players achieved their goal, and the captain was recognised as the best player of the match.
To comply with the ethical standards of the survey, the identity of the performer is not disclosed since anonymity is an important condition for an unbiased study. However, to prove the validity of the results, it is necessary to resort to the analysis of individual behavioural and other aspects of the athlete in question with the help of special psychological concepts. Based on these data, a comprehensive picture will be obtained, and appropriate conclusions will be made.
Analysis of Psychological Factors Influencing Performance
The evaluation of the athlete’s actions through the application of current psychological theories may help to determine the causes of certain emotional manifestations and highlight the most significant behavioural factors. The following practices will be considered as key approaches taken as rationale: the confidence and self-efficacy theory, concepts related to anxiety and its manifestation, as well as the principles for assessing personality and individual differences. Based on these approaches, the analysis of the performer’s actions will be conducted.
Confidence and Self-Efficacy Theory
Since the preparation for the match was essential, the athlete was probably under stress and was ready for different outcomes of the rivalry. However, in the course of the struggle, the team managed to seize the initiative and achieve victory. Such success can be interpreted from the position of attention and self-efficacy theory described by Bandura (1997). The author argues that those timely analyses of personal productivity may contribute to identifying the key areas of intervention and taking appropriate actions if necessary (Bandura 1997). Based on the result of the match, this principle was used by the captain, who did his best to motivate his teammates and make them reconsider the strategy of the game.
Certainly, in addition to the aforementioned advantages, self-confidence may have some limitations. In particular, Kerr (1985) gives an example of the reversal theory where much depends on the interpretation of arousal. Spiritual uplift due to success may help the performer achieve a high result, but in case of an error, it will not be possible to regain leadership because of a lost stimulus. Vealey et al. (1998) mentions a special model of sports confidence and argues that much depends on the motivation of players caused by attendant factors, in particular, the outcomes of performances. Moritz et al. (2000) argue that self-assessment allows timely revision of the game strategy to change tactics in order to win and achieve success.
As methods for improving self-efficacy, prior training should be appropriate. Mesagno and Mullane-Grant (2010) point out that routine workout can identify key problems and take steps to fix them. Thus, the captain of the soccer team was able to assess the current mistakes correctly.
Theories of Anxiety
The types of worries that may occur during sports event may vary. For instance, self-doubt is unlike anxiety caused by the need to retain an advantage. In this regard, there are different theories for evaluating this criterion from a psychological point of view. Hardy (1996) cites the example of the catastrophe theory when high and low levels of cognitive anxiety affect performance. Athletes’ individual differences, in this case, play an essential role. Woodman and Hardy (2003) also mention the multidimensional anxiety theory and argue that cognitive anxiety is the factor that influences productivity negatively, and measures should be taken to eliminate the emergence of such experiences.
Pijpers et al. (2003) note that a process-oriented approach based on concentration on the ultimate goal can be effective in overcoming anxiety. Koivula, Hassmen, and Fallby (2002) give similar reasons and suggest promoting the method of increasing self-confidence to exclude worries. To measure the levels of anxiety in sport, Vealey et al. (1998) argue that the model of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 that is aimed at finding incentives against worries, can be effective. In general, motor skills and other essential properties that are necessary for performance in sports are important to train under external pressure (Lam, Maxwell & Masters 2009).
Personality and Individual Differences
Graydon and Murphy (1995) note the high role of the individual in the context of sports and the achievement of success through competition. In general, personality as a mechanism consisting of different components (openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and others) is estimated by Woodman et al. (2010) as a set of multiple traits. The authors argue that such important parameters of success as performance and self-confidence largely depend on the development of specific qualities, which is particularly important in sports (Woodman et al. 2010). In the case considered, the role of the captain is significant, and his participation in achieving victory can be regarded as the manifestation of individual strength.
One of the concepts relating to individual differences is associated with perfectionism described by Roberts et al. (2013) as a desire to achieve the highest possible result, despite any obstacles. In sports, this feature can be effective since the key goal is to win, and the desire to achieve perfection increases the likelihood of positive outcomes. However, the means utilised for this purpose may differ, and some methods, such as the use of steroids, are a violation of sports ethics (Maganaris, Collins & Sharp 2000).
Another significant feature considered in the context of sports is narcissism that Wallace and Baumeister (2002) regard as the expression of excessive self-confidence. In the case under analysis, the captain of the soccer team can hardly be described as an athlete who is too proud of himself, Nevertheless, the strength of his personality, as the result of the game shows, made it possible to succeed.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Psychology Research
When assessing the strengths of the study, it can be noted that many psychological theories and concepts may be applied to the case under consideration. Based on the academic sources, it is possible to receive a comprehensive picture of the situation and determine which behavioural principles helped the captain and his team to defeat the opponent. However, in the study, there is one significant weakness that may not be left unnoticed. Most of the sources used can be considered outdated since they are older than five years. Certainly, the theories considered by various authors have hardly changed their essence over the past period.
Nevertheless, relevant facts and statistics could be useful in the analysis of the modern sports world. Moreover, in theory, it is possible to try to challenge some of the arguments, using the justification of other studies. For instance, the opinion of Maganaris, Collins, and Sharp (2000) about potentially effective steroids goes against the modern principles of sports ethics. Therefore, more contemporary academic sources can also be used as references.
Interventions and Implications for the Performer
When making conclusions about the performance, it can be noted that the success achieved by one team is largely due to the strong leadership qualities of the captain. The self-efficacy theory and the concept of the athlete’s personality strength are the strategic approaches that influenced the outcome of the match. The strategy by Moritz et al. (2000), which describes the self-confidence and desire to win, is relevant in this case. Also, the approach by Roberts et al. (2013) based on the strength of the personality applies to this example. In the process of implementing these behavioural principles, some practical issues may arise, for instance, misunderstanding on the teammates, and persistence is required to strengthen personal authority.
Reference List
Bandura, A 1997, ‘Editorial’, American Journal of Health Promotion, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 8-10.
Graydon, J & Murphy, T 1995, ‘The effect of personality on social facilitation whilst performing a sports-related task’, Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 265-267.
Hardy, LEW 1996, ‘A test of catastrophe models of anxiety and sports performance against multidimensional anxiety theory models using the method of dynamic differences’, Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 69-86.
Kerr, JH 1985, ‘The experience of arousal: a new basis for studying arousal effects in sport’, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 169-179.
Koivula, N, Hassmen, P & Fallby, J 2002, ‘Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence’, Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 865-875.
Lam, WK, Maxwell, JP & Masters, R 2009, ‘Analogy learning and performance of motor skills under pressure’, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 337-357.
Maganaris, CN Collins, D & Sharp, M 2000, ‘Expectancy effects and strength training: do steroids make a difference?’, The Sport Psychologist, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 272- 278.
Mesagno, C & Mullane-Grant, T 2010, ‘A comparison of different pre-performance routines as possible choking interventions’, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 343-360.
Moritz, SE, Feltz, DL, Fahrbach, KR & Mack, DE 2000, ‘The relation of self-efficacy measures to sport performance: a meta-analytic review’, Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, vol. 71, no. 3, pp. 280-294.
Pijpers, JR, Oudejans, RRD, Holsheimer, F, & Bakker, FC 2003, ‘Anxiety-performance relationships in climbing: a process-oriented approach’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 283-304.
Roberts, R, Rotheram, M, Maynard, I, Thomas, O & Woodman, T 2013, ‘Perfectionism and the ‘yips’: an initial investigation’, The Sport Psychologist, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 53-61.
Vealey, RS, Hayashi, SW, Garner-Holman, M & Giacobbi, P 1998, ‘Sources of sport-confidence: conceptualization and instrument development’, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 54-80.
Wallace, HM & Baumeister, RF 2002, ‘The performance of narcissists rises and falls with the opportunity for glory’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 82, no. 5, pp. 819-834.
Woodman, TIM, Akehurst, S, Hardy, L & Beattie, S 2010, ‘Self-confidence and performance: a little self-doubt helps’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 467-470.
Woodman, TIM & Hardy, LEW 2003, ‘The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis’, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 443-457.
Impact of Age and Sex on Performance in the Stroop Colour-Word Test.
Age by gender
Age group
Younger male
Younger female
Older male
Older female
Younger
Older
Lat. – congru.
1006.69
945.43
1062.20
1068.11
961.91
1065.16
Lat. – incongru.
1202.59
1147.91
1265.91
1264.58
1162.62
1264.95
Lat. – control
942.05
923.44
1010.61
1004.65
928.45
1006.30
Correct – congru.
94.88
95.95
97.50
95.93
95.42
96.36
Correct – incongru.
90.56
91.65
93.57
92.26
91.36
92.92
Note. N = 353, 257 (72.80%) male, 96 (27.20%) female. Participants who made unusually high number of mistakes were excluded. Average age of the participants is 31.51 (SD= 13.56). The ‘younger’ and ‘older’ groups were formed by splitting participants into those who are under 30 (55%) and those who are older (45%). Lat.: Latency, Congru: Congruent, Incongru: Incongruent. Latency: Milliseconds taken from when the word or square flashes on the screen to when a response is provided. Correct: The percentage of right responses. Congruent condition: Word colour matches with the meaning of this word, Incongruent condition: word colour does not match with the meaning of the word, Control condition: a coloured square without a word.
Findings
It is possible to note that the findings of the present study are quite consistent with other similar studies. Thus, Van der Elst, Van Boxtel, Van Breukelen & Jolles (2006) note that age and gender have an impact on Stroop activity. Likewise, Moering, Schinka, Mortimer & Graves (2004) stress that there is a strong correlation between performance in Stroop activity and age as well as gender and education. Numerous researchers focus on the impact education and training has on performance in Stroop activity. Meijer et al. (2009) stress that education is strongly correlated with Stroop activity performance. It is found that higher education is “an age-independent predictor” of higher performance in the Stroop activity (Noble, Korgaonkar, Grieve & Brickman, 2013, p. 653). Findings of Dos Santos, Tudesco, Caboclo and Yacubian (2011) support this viewpoint and the researchers stress that lower level of education often leads to faster brain decline.
At the same time, the present study shows that gender does not significantly affect brain function though the influence is still apparent. Some researchers are reluctant to admit the strong tie between such demographic variables as age, gender and education. Campanholo et al. (2014) state that age; gender or education does not affect Stroop activity performance. Zarghi et al. (2012) support this viewpoint and note that these variables do not influence on attention.
Therefore, though there are studies suggesting that the correlation between the variables mentioned above are insignificant, most researchers agree that age, gender and education affect Stroop activity performance.
Limitations
The major focus of the present research is the impact of age and gender on the Stroop Activity performance. This can be regarded as one of the strengths of the research as it concentrates on the most debatable aspect of the issue (since education has proved to affect people’s performance). Nonetheless, there are a number of limitations. First, the average age of the participants was 31.51 years and they note that there were two groups (those who at the age between 18 and 30 and those who are older). However, the researchers do not reveal the age of older participants. It may seem they are around thirty or forty which is quite insufficient for the research concentrating on the way age affects brain functioning.
Moreover, the percentage of male participants is far too low to ensure relevance of the research, as gender is one of major variables. The number of men and women participating in such research should be approximately equal. The present research cannot be regarded as a profound and comprehensive or relevant enough as there can be certain bias.
In future studies, it is crucial to make sure that the age of participants is highlighted. It can be effective to follow the example of Van der Elst et al. (2006) as the researchers revealed performance of participants according to their age. Admittedly, it is essential to make sure the number of male and female participants is (at least approximately) equal. The number of participants can also be increased.
Real World Implication
The present research can have a number of implications. Clearly, it can be the first step in further and deeper research of the exact effects (e.g. at what age impairments appear, to what extent gender affects brain functioning and so on). One of the real world implications can be development of specific training programs which can slow down the process of brain aging. Zomanczuk et al. (2006) claim age correlates with Stroop activity performance and report about positive effects of training among elderly people. Researchers agree that education often slows down brain aging (Moering et al, 2004; Santos et al., 2011). It is necessary to develop a program including training and raising awareness activities. Stroop Activity test (as well as other similar tests) can be used to train young and older people’s attention.
At the same time, it is crucial to make people aware of the necessity to train their brain at different periods of their life. In schools, students have to do Stroop Activity tests (and similar tests) monthly. They should also be exposed to results of similar researches which show that training and education enables people live fuller lives when they age. However, adults should also take part in this process and it can be effective to work with employers or HR professionals who could involve adults in this incentive. Adults should do tests and understand the importance of self-development. Elderly people should also be involved and their caregivers should encourage them to do tests and training courses.
Reference
Campanholo, K.R., Romão, M.A., Machado, M.A.D., Serrao, V.T., Coutinho, D.G.C., Benute, G.R.G., Miotto, E.C., & de Lucia, M.C.S. (2014). Performance of an adult Brazilian sample on the Trail Making Test and Stroop Test. Dement Neuropsychol, 8(1), 26‐31. Web.
Meijer, W.A., van Boxtel, M.P.J., Van Gerven, P.W.M., van Hooren, S.A.H., & Jolles, J. (2009) Interaction effects of education and health status on cognitive change: A 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht Aging Study, Aging & Mental Health, 13(4), 521-529. Web.
Moering, R.G., Schinka, J.A., Mortimer, J.A., & Graves, A.B. (2004). Normative data for elderly African Americans for the Stroop Color and Word Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19(1), 61‐71. Web.
Van der Elst, W., Van Boxtel, M.P.J., Van Breukelen, G.J.P., & Jolles, J. (2006). The Stroop Color‐Word Test: Influence of age, sex, and education; and normative data for a large sample across the adult age range. Assessment, 13(1), 62‐79. Web.
The main goal of this paper is to provide a thorough critique for the research methodologies of two articles. The first article is titled, “Private Physicians or walk-in clinics: do the patients suffer?” and the second article is titled, “Factors affecting the performance of Individual Chain Store Units (an Empirical Analysis).”
Hise et al. (1983) and Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) respectively wrote both articles. Hise et al. (1983) reported on the methodology and results of the first study, which tried to investigate the main reasons for the variations in total sales, contribution income, and return on assets for more than 132 stores.
Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) used a consumer-oriented framework in the second article to establish if patients of private physicians and of walk-in-clinics differ in terms of their preference for healthcare service providers.
Their findings showed that no significant differences existed in the way both groups of patients perceived their healthcare providers.
The methodological choices of both authors manifest through their data collection, data analysis, sample choices, and statistical tools.
This study uses these tools to assess the researchers’ rationale to select data analysis methods, appropriateness of the data set, rigour in data analysis, and the appropriateness of result interpretation.
Comprehensively, these analyses inform the right framework for providing a set of recommendations that this paper provides to improve the two articles analysed.
Article 1: Private Physicians or Walk-in clinics: do the Patients Suffer?
Rationale for Selected Data Analysis Method
Hise et al. (1983) intensively relies on regression analysis as the main data analysis technique. Specifically, the author uses forward and backward step regression as the main data analysis technique.
The use of the regression analysis method improves the credibility of the data analysis method because it provides an opportunity to specify the nature of the analysed variables. Similarly, the use of the regression analysis provides an opportunity to specify explanatory factors (Beldona 2007).
These features fixate on the action theory.
The use of the regression analysis method also improves the credibility of the data analysis process because Hair, Black, & Babin (2009 p. 155) say the use of a statistically valid adjustment in the regression model provides an accurate quantitative estimate of the net effects of the factors under analysis.
Rigour in Data Analysis
In the same manner, the regression model improves the data analysis process for Hise et al. (1983); it also poses significant questions to the entire process, through its weaknesses. For example, Akinci (2007) says the regression analysis method is prone to data snooping.
For example, the regression analysis may show a strong relationship between two variables and fail to include other factors that may affect this relationship.
Indeed, Hise et al. (1983) used 18 independent variables to predict chain store performance without considering the effects of other factors that may influence the same outcome.
Certainly, issues like the demographic profiles of the employees and managerial commitment of the unit stores manifest as afterthoughts of the analysis and not the main findings supporting the entire analytical process.
This weakness manifests through the regression analysis method because even though it provides an accurate assessment of how the 18 independent variable predict chain store performance, it fails to explain how “other” variables (especially the intangible, non-statistical variables) affect the same outcome.
Akinci (2007) says that the regression method often provides a cyclical analysis of independent variables, thereby making it inapplicable sometimes. For example, the regression analysis may explain two variables (say, “X” and “Y”).
Here, “Y” would explain “X” and “X” would explain “Y”, thereby providing a close and cyclical analysis of research variables.
This analysis exposes some significant weaknesses of the data analysis method because some factors that may not manifest through the closely looped analysis may equally fail to manifest in the final research findings.
Finally, the use of the regression analysis dents the credibility of the research findings as proposed by Hise et al. (1983) because its observations must provide sufficiently contrasted evolutions for any adjustment in the findings to occur.
Albeit Hise et al. (1983) may have adopted a relatively weak research methodology, it is imperative to say that his use of the standard deviation, mean, minimum, and maximum units of correlations and variations provided useful insight into the nature of the research variables.
In fact, the use of these measures provided an accurate assessment of the quality of every variable used in the research process.
Similarly, the identification of the return on assets as the main variable for the determination of store performance provides an accurate analogy of the main causes of store success (as proposed by the store managers) (Hise et al. 1983).
Indeed, the store managers are the most reliable sources for identifying the main factors that drive the performance of individual chain stores. This variable may also manifest through the inclusion of specific factors that drive store performance (such as sales volume contribution).
Appropriateness of Result Interpretation
Through the evidence provided above, Hise et al. (1983) admits that the use of the regression model poses the problem of multi-co-linearity. Hise et al. (1983) further admits that this problem occurs when the research variables are inter-correlated.
This problem however exacerbates when the degree of inter-correlation is high. In such situations, it is difficult to obtain accurate estimates of individual statistics in the research process. Hise et al. (1983) says that this problem commonly occurs among independent variables that seem to lack any substantial explanatory power.
In an unrelated context, Zelbst (2009) says that the presence of inter-correlation between the factors under analysis poses a significant challenge to the data analysis process because the likelihood of a poor interpretation of results occurs in such circumstances.
For example, Lee (2003) says, “it is easy to interchange the regression co-efficient of two perfectly correlated variables” (p. 72). This possibility may lead to the poor interpretation of results.
Similarly, the existence of inter-correlated variables may lead to the creation of an unstable prediction model because when the co-linearity between the two variables increase, the standards of error similarly increases.
This situation creates an unstable prediction model. Lastly, the existence of inter-correlated variables may also lead to the rejection of good predictors (Lee 2003).
In other words, if there is a high level of inter-correlation between two variables, the likelihood of finding good predictors may also decline. These are the weaknesses of the research analysis process, as proposed by Hise et al. (1983).
Appropriateness of the DataSet
The main data collection tool used by Hise et al. (1983) is questionnaires. Barnes (2001) says questionnaires pose significant strengths and weaknesses of the data collection method.
Notable strengths of the questionnaires include standardisation, ease of collecting information, and the ease of collecting information from a large group of people. These advantages show that the data collection process may have been more objective, quick and encompassing (Barnes 2001).
Nonetheless, despite these inherent advantages, the use of the questionnaires may pose significant weaknesses to the data analysis process because there is a high probability that the respondents may have given superficial information, or forgotten about important details regarding the questions posed.
Indeed, since questionnaires seek to gather information regarding past events, there is a high likelihood that the information gathered may be irrelevant, or lack correct statistical significance, especially if the chain managers may have forgotten some important information.
Finally, since researchers structure questionnaires in a standardised manner, the likelihood of misinterpretation may be high, especially if the respondents are unavailable to expound on their answers. Broadly, these challenges compromise the integrity of the data collection method (Barnes 2001).
An unrelated issue that may have equally compromised the data collection process focuses on the reliance on secondary research as a source of data. Hise et al. (1983) already admitted that some of the secondary data contained missing or unusable data.
This weakness also affected the sample size of the units sampled because Hise et al. (1983) excluded 37 units from the research process because of their insufficient data.
The reduction in the sample size also compromised the credibility of the entire research process because it may have negatively affected the validity of the research findings across the entire chain store.
Indeed, Al-Omiri (2007) says that a larger sample size is more representative of the real situation, while a lower sample size is less representative of the entire research scope.
Finally, the generalisation of data (for most of the stores analysed) provided an efficient assessment of the unit stores because there was no need of conducting independent assessments of every store, while most stores stocked similar products and shared the same profiles.
Indeed, this process saved time and costs which would otherwise be associated with undertaking individual assessments for every store. Nonetheless, this methodology overshadows the possibility of identifying slight variations that may influence the performance of some of these stores.
For example, while the managerial and operational profiles of these stores may resemble, the market environments that inform the success of every store may differ. The generalisation of store operations therefore overlooks this issue.
Article 2: Factors Affecting the Performance of Individual Chain Store Units (an Empirical Analysis)
Appropriateness of the DataSet
Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) greatly relied on telephone interviews as the main data collection tool. They say that they made 2,777 telephone interviews (Dant, Lumpkin & Bush 1990). Only 670 interviews were successful. The total ineligible calls made were 454.
Even though telephone interviews provide an accepted and well-structured approach to research, the over-dependence on telephone interviews significantly dented the credibility of the research process because the over-reliance on telephone interviews may have introduced a significant bias, especially for those houses that do not have a working telephone, or those households that do not have a telephone at all.
Indeed, Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) admitted to this weakness by saying, even though the sample was random, the use of telephone directories clearly introduces bias due to exclusion of households with unlisted numbers, or without residential telephones.
Nonetheless, Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) counters their argument by saying that there was a relatively low number of unlisted and non-telephone homes and therefore, it was difficult to register a high degree of representational bias.
They further said that if there were any representational exclusion, it would still be statistically insignificant (Dant, Lumpkin & Bush 1990). However, it is crucial to question the quality of the information sourced from telephone interviews, even if there is little representational bias.
One such question is the short nature of telephone interviews. Cachia (2011) says it is difficult to have detailed discussions about research topics, via telephone interviews. Instead, Cachia (2011) proposes that face-to-face interviews are more reliable and effective in such circumstances.
This weakness mirrors with the high level of distraction that characterises phone interviews. Certainly, Calvert (2005) says that phone interviews are highly prone to environmental distractions (on the respondent and the interviewer), thereby compromising the quality of communication.
If we infer these dynamics of the research process, as proposed by Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990), it is correct to say that their data may have lacked an in-depth understanding of the research problem.
Through these intrigues, it is easy to discern the view that most researchers see telephone interviews as inferior to face-to-face interviews.
The use of random sampling in the data collection process also poses significant strengths and weaknesses to the data collection process. Matheson (1996) says that the random sampling technique is the least bias sampling method and may analyse large sample populations.
However, in the same breadth, Matheson (1996) says that random sampling techniques may provide inaccurate samples, especially in areas where there is an uneven distribution of the samples. Similarly, there may be practical constraints for the collection of research information using the random sampling technique.
The use of telephone interviews however remedies this problem because it would have been difficult to collect information (physically) from a large selection of company stores located around the country.
The use of the random sampling technique therefore improved the convenience of the research process, more than it dented its credibility. In this regard, the sampling methodology, as proposed by Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) was commendable.
Appropriateness of Result Interpretation
The definition of walk-in clinics and other criteria for understanding the research was a correct move that preceded the data collection process. In other words, the research paper was fixated on determining if patients differed in private or walk-in clinics.
Through this assessment, it was vital to determine which clinics were private, and which ones could be easily determined as walk-in clinics. This move was an informed decision by the researchers because it provided a proper assessment for choosing the respondents.
Stated differently, it was easier to ignore respondents who frequented other forms of healthcare facilities, besides the private and walk-in clinics described above.
In fact, Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) say, “the requirement for respondents to answer specific questions about the clinics they had visited gave the researchers enough ground to anchor specific answers about their most recent response” (p. 24).
This way, it was easier for the researchers to safeguard the data collection process.
Rationale for Selected Data Analysis Method
The selected data analysis method, as proposed by Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990), is the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and the multiple discriminate analysis method.
Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) proposed that the multivariate analysis of variance method is (best) applicable when “there are multiple interval scaled criterion variables and one categorical predictor variable” (p. 27).
Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) also said that the MANOVA technique resembled other techniques such as the “univariate” analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique, but its applicability in the study of population differences superseded most other techniques.
In this regard, the MANOVA technique was highly appropriate for Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) in identifying patronage characteristics for patients in private clinics and patients from walk-in clinics.
Therefore, the MANOVA technique is appropriate for identifying the differences within population characteristics, but researchers should still use other methods to evaluate why these population characteristics exist.
Rigour in Data Analysis
The data analysis process, as proposed by Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990), was rigorous enough to provide an accurate assessment of the main differences surrounding each population and sample patronage characteristic of the populations sampled.
For example, when evaluating the sample demographic statistics, Dant, Lumpkin & Bush (1990) mentioned the marital status of the respondents.
For example, they investigated if the respondents had children or not, the employment status of the respondents, and the educational status of the respondents (to mention a few).
Their analogy provided an accurate assessment of the demographics of the sample population. This way, it is easier to explain the reason for the differing characteristics of the populations sampled.
Recommendations
Even as this paper reviews the use of the random sampling method for both articles described above, it is still vital to appreciate that it is impractical to have enough time, energy, money and other resources to compute (correctly) the view of every respondent in a research process.
However, as Johnson (2008) affirms, it is still vital for researchers to appreciate that whatever methodological approach they chose, it ought to have a more accurate representation of the “whole.”
Similarly, they should realise that the correct sample size should provide a correct balance between obtaining statistically significant and valid research resources. Indeed, if the researchers pursue a sampling strategy that contains minimum bias, statistically valid assessments may manifest.
However, most researchers assume that parent populations have a normal distribution, thereby affirming the belief that a 95% (or more) confidence level is achievable (Matheson 1996).
This statistic may be true, but it is still vital to provide a more thorough understanding of the research sample to predict if the normal distribution prevails, or not. In other words, it is still crucial to acknowledge that up to 5% sampling may lie out of this assumption (Matheson 1996).
Conclusion
The methodological properties of the two articles analysed above provide some insightful features of the credibility of their findings. Notably, both articles described above show a great determination (on the part of the researchers) to choose the right methodologies that would suit the nature and scope of their studies.
Unfortunately, some of the methodologies chosen failed to protect the integrity of the findings. Notable weaknesses in both articles stemmed from the data collection process.
Nonetheless, it is crucial for both groups of researchers to balance the strengths and weaknesses of every methodology, instead of overly depending on a single technique for collecting data. Striking a strategic balance among the methodologies chosen may help to provide a fair and balanced representation of the findings.
References
Akinci, S 2007, ‘Where does the logistic regression analysis stand in marketing literature?: A comparison of the market positioning of prominent marketing journals’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 41 no. 5, pp. 537 – 567.
Al-Omiri, M 2007, ‘A preliminary study of electronic surveys as a means to enhance management accounting research’, Management Research News, vol. 30 no. 7, pp. 510 – 524.
Barnes, D 2001, ‘Research methods for the empirical investigation of the process of formation of operations strategy’, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, vol. 21 no. 8, pp. 1076 – 1095.
Beldona, V 2007, ‘Regression analysis for equipment auditing’, Managerial Auditing Journal, vol. 22 no. 8, pp. 809 – 822.
Cachia, M 2011, ‘The telephone medium and semi-structured interviews: a complementary fit’, Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal, vol. 6 no. 3, pp. 265 – 277.
Calvert, P 2005, ‘Telephone survey research for library managers’, Library Management, vol. 26 no. 3, pp. 139 – 151.
Dant, R, Lumpkin, J & Bush, R 1990, ‘Private Physicians or walk-in clinics: do the patients suffer?’, Journal of Health Care Marketing, vol. 10 no. 2, pp. 23-34.
Hair , J, Black , W & Babin, B 2009, Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective, London, Pearson Education, Limited.
Hise, R, Kelly, P, Gable, M & McDonald, J 1983, ‘Factors affecting the performance of Individual Chain Store Units: An Empirical Analysis’, Journal of Retailing, vol. 59 no. 2, pp. 1- 18.
Johnson, C 2008, ‘Decision ’08: event marketing or product sampling?’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, vol. 25 no. 5, pp. 269 – 271.
Lee, J 2003, ‘A Canonical Correlation Analysis of CEO Compensation and Corporate Performance in the Service Industry’, Review of Accounting and Finance, vol. 2 no. 3, pp. 72 – 90.
Matheson, L 1996, ‘On sequential versus random sampling in statistical process control’, Benchmarking for Quality Management & Technology, vol. 3 no. 1, pp. 19 – 27.
Zelbst, P 2009, ‘Impact of supply chain linkages on supply chain performance’, Industrial Management & Data Systems, vol. 109 no. 5, pp. 665 – 682.
Does performance appraisal-feedback program have any influence on the employees’ self-efficacy?
Hypotheses
H0: Performance appraisal-feedback program has no influence on the employees’ self-efficacy.
The null hypothesis holds that the feedback program has no influence on the performance of employees. This means that self-efficacy measures before and after the implementation of the program has no significant difference. In this view, the null hypothesis assumes that the program is not relevant in enhancing the employees’ self-efficacy. As the director has no clue regarding the direction of the differences, the two-tailed hypothesis testing is suitable.
H1: Performance appraisal-feedback program has an influence on the employees’ self-efficacy.
The alternative hypothesis holds that the feedback program influence performance of employees. Hence, it means that there is a significant difference in self-efficacy measures before and after implementation of the program. Therefore, the alternative hypothesis assumes that the program is important in improving the employees’ self-efficacy. Since the director has no any assumptions concerning the direction of differences, it implies that two-tailed hypothesis test is appropriate.
Variables
Self-efficacy measure (SEM) is a dependent variable of the study because it varied from one individual to another. It also varies due to the appraisal-feedback program, which the study seeks to establish if it has any influence on self-efficacy of employees. The SEM is a continuous variable that range from 10 to 100 depending on the self-efficacy of an employee. Since it is a quantitative variable, the scale of measurement is interval scale. Comparatively, the independent variables are employees before and after implementation of the appraisal-feedback program. Before and after implementation of the appraisal-feedback program, the employees represent qualitative data, which exist in categorical form. Hence, nominal scale is an appropriate scale for the independent variable.
Descriptive Statistics
The case processing summary below shows that fifty individuals participated in the study (N = 50).
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid
Missing
Total
N
Percent
N
Percent
N
Percent
Self-Efficacy Measure Before
50
100.0%
0
0.0%
50
100.0%
Self-Efficacy Measure After
50
100.0%
0
0.0%
50
100.0%
The descriptive statistics below show that there is an apparent difference in the SEM scores before and after the appraisal program. The mean of SEM scores before the appraisal is 54.06 and the standard deviation is 10.137 (M = 54.06, SD = 10.137). Comparatively, the mean of SEM scores is 62.86 and the standard deviation is 9.716 (M = 62.86, SD = 9.716). The descriptive statistics indicate that there is an apparent difference in SEM scores and thus requires statistical analysis.
Descriptives
Statistic
Std. Error
Self-Efficacy Measure Before
Mean
54.06
1.434
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
51.18
Upper Bound
56.94
5% Trimmed Mean
53.86
Median
56.00
Variance
102.751
Std. Deviation
10.137
Minimum
23
Maximum
86
Range
63
Interquartile Range
7
Skewness
.255
.337
Kurtosis
3.929
.662
Self-Efficacy Measure After
Mean
62.86
1.374
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
60.10
Upper Bound
65.62
5% Trimmed Mean
62.40
Median
61.50
Variance
94.409
Std. Deviation
9.716
Minimum
45
Maximum
89
Range
44
Interquartile Range
12
Skewness
.802
.337
Kurtosis
.581
.662
The median of the SEM score before the appraisal is 56.00 and the variance is 102.751, while the median of the SEM score after the appraisal is 61.50 and the variance is 94.409. The maximum and minimum SEM score after the appraisal is 86 and 23, while that of the SEM score before the appraisal is 89 and 45 respectively. In the analysis of the distribution, the SEM scores before appraisal have skewness and kurtosis of 0.802 and 0.581; while the SEM scores after have skewness and kurtosis of 0.255 and 3.929 respectively. Skewness and kurtosis values that are close to zero follow normal distribution (Jackson, 2012). Hence, the bar graph below shows the distribution of SEM scores of the employees before and after implementation of appraisal-feedback program.
Figure 1. Self-Efficacy Measure BeforeFigure 2. Self-Efficacy Measure After
ANOVA Test
To test if performance appraisal-feedback has any influence on the performance of employees in terms of self-efficacy measure, the study employed one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Since the study entailed an assessment of self-efficacy of employees before and after implementation of the feedback-appraisal program, one-way repeated measures ANOVA is suitable. Moreover, the test requires one-tailed analysis because the direction of the influence is clear. Given that the study has a single group that is tested twice, the data do not qualify for the post hoc analysis.
The multivariate table below shows that there is a significant difference in SEM scores before and after implementation of the feedback program. In the table, all the p-values according to various ANOVA tests is less than 0.05 (p<0.05).
Multivariate Tests
Effect
Value
F
Hypothesis df
Error df
Sig.
Partial Eta Squared
Time
Pillai’s Trace
.246
15.949b
1.000
49.000
.000
.246
Wilks’ Lambda
.754
15.949b
1.000
49.000
.000
.246
Hotelling’s Trace
.325
15.949b
1.000
49.000
.000
.246
Roy’s Largest Root
.325
15.949b
1.000
49.000
.000
.246
a. Design: Intercept Within Subjects Design: Time
b. Exact statistic
The ANOVA test within subjects shows that there is a significant difference in the SEM scores before and after implementation of the appraisal program.
Tests of Within-Subjects Effects
Measure: MEASURE_1
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Eta Squared
Time
Sphericity Assumed
1936.000
1
1936.000
15.949
.000
.246
Greenhouse-Geisser
1936.000
1.000
1936.000
15.949
.000
.246
Huynh-Feldt
1936.000
1.000
1936.000
15.949
.000
.246
Lower-bound
1936.000
1.000
1936.000
15.949
.000
.246
Error(Time)
Sphericity Assumed
5948.000
49
121.388
Greenhouse-Geisser
5948.000
49.000
121.388
Huynh-Feldt
5948.000
49.000
121.388
Lower-bound
5948.000
49.000
121.388
Sphericity F value is 15.949 with a significance value of 0.000. When a p-value is less than 0.05, it implies that there is a significant difference in means, and thus study should reject the null hypothesis (Weinberg, & Abramowitz, 2008). From the within subjects effects, it implies that there is a significant difference in SEM scores.
Likewise, the difference in SEM scores within-subjects contrasts portrays that there is a significant difference in SEM scores before and after the appraisal program. The within subjects contrast has F value of 15.949 and a p-value of 0.000.
Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
Measure: MEASURE_1
Source
Time
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Eta Squared
Time
Linear
1936.000
1
1936.000
15.949
.000
.246
Error(Time)
Linear
5948.000
49
121.388
Comparatively, between subjects SEM scores has F value of 4510.321 and a p-value of 0.000. Hence, the ANOVA test indicates that appraisal program has a significant influence on the performance of employees.
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Measure: MEASURE_1 Transformed Variable: Average
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Partial Eta Squared
Intercept
341757.160
1
341757.160
4510.321
.000
.989
Error
3712.840
49
75.772
Conclusion
From the results, one can draw the conclusion that an appraisal-feedback program enhances performance of employees in the organization. However, one should not be certain that the appraisal-feedback program is the only factor that enhances employees’ performance as other confounding variables like experience gained during the study period can enhance employees’ performance. Since the study analyzed the performance of employees in one organization, the findings have low external validity and thus their extrapolation is minimal.
References
Jackson, S. L. (2012). Research methods and statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Weinberg, S., & Abramowitz, S. (2008). Statistics Using SPSS: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Quantitative research is the type of study which uses an analysis based on mathematics and statistics. Various tests and models exist that helps to draw accurate conclusions about processes or events. The field of facilities maintenance is very technology-oriented, and many aspects require a mathematical approach. Although qualitative research proves to be useful when collecting opinions, this field needs the application of quantitative methods to measure the effectiveness of technology maintenance on each of the studied spots.
Methods and Tools
A typical quantitative research starts with the review of data that was either obtained through interviews or collected from measurements of technical performance. Both methods of collecting information are useful when addressing either human or technical performance. However, while qualitative research uses this data to compare and contrast different values, quantitative methods integrate it in various tests to prove a hypothesis. A hypothesis section is usually mentioned at the beginning of the study and includes two or more statements that are usually contradictory. The null hypothesis, as a general rule, implies that given variables do not have a significant impact on a studied value, while the alternative one insists on the opposite.
Models and tests are the essential part of any quantitative research. Some of the most popular are the ANOVA, the t-test, the Chi-square, and others. For instance, the study by Zhou, Kou, and Ergu (2014) features a proportional intensity model that was applied to measure the failure and repair rates as the part of a maintenance process in a particular site. Two composite models were also used, as well as geometrical calculations of graphic functions. The harmonic analysis method was used to measure the weekly failure level.
Effectiveness
Quantitative research proves to be very effective regarding prediction and evaluation of results. Statistical methods help to calculate the possibility of results that were acquired by an occurrence. Besides, errors can be tested by manipulating the size of the studied pool of data or the other variables that are independent. For instance, if the population is small and some people have provided answers that do not fit in the general picture, the number of questioned individuals should be increased to see if the initial deviation is a trend or an occurrence. Moreover, the way of representing data via linear graphs helps researchers to make predictions for the future if there is a clear trend seen on the model. This is probably the most valuable feature of quantitative research that differentiates it from qualitative studies.
Company Example
One of the companies that used quantitative research in the facilities maintenance field was PetroSA GTL refinery. The case study by Mahlangu and Kruger (2015) identified several objectives that had to be addressed, which included the connection between production output, profitability, and maintenance management. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to calculate the link between these objectives.
Some qualitative methods were also addressed to help build the overall picture of performance based on the interview answers of employees. The statistical approach helped to define a positive trend of a well-performed maintenance management style affecting the profitability rate of the company. This research was focused on the management impact, yet quantitative methods could also be used to measure any risks or casualties related to the usage of facility’s technology.
Future of Quantitative Research
Despite the fact that quantitative research calls for collecting a lot of data, it can currently be obtained in an easy way even without visiting a facility. For instance, interviews could be conducted via phones or the Internet, the latter of which is currently the second most popular way after the face-to-face method. Although there are some risks associated with a certain level of bias, these results can be very useful in evaluating things like performance based on self-assessment, along with the level of work satisfaction.
Globalization is becoming more powerful nowadays, and quantitative research could help to maintain facilities overseas. For instance, a group of researchers has studied the performance of an offshore wind farm by applying statistical models to the data obtained from the facility (Pliego Marugan, Garcia Marquez, & Pinar Perez, 2016). The main result received at the end states that there is a high probability of technology failure in this type of facility, yet the smart management style could help to control the situation and keep the number of such events to a minimum.
Once again, this example demonstrates that quantitative research can be used to make predictions and propositions about management tools in the field of facilities maintenance, which is valuable taking into consideration the fact that many head employees in this sector are more specialized in technology rather than leadership.
Conclusion
Quantitative research offers tools and methods that help to make accurate results and draw conclusions based on mathematical modeling. The future of this type of research seems bright as it is the most applicable when studying technological processes, and this fields is rapidly growing. Moreover, the trend of globalizing business that opts for maintaining facilities overseas also needs quantitative tools to measure the effectiveness of distant operations.
References
Mahlangu, B., & Kruger, L. (2015). The impact of the maintenance management system: A case study of the PetroSA GTL refinery. The South African Journal of Industrial Engineering, 26(3), 167-182. Web.
Pliego Marugan, A., Garcia Marquez, F. P., & Pinar Perez, J. M. (2016). Optimal maintenance management of offshore wind farms. Energies, 9(1), 1-20. Web.
Zhou, Y., Kou, G., & Ergu, D. (2014). Analyzing operating data to measure the maintenance performance. Quality and Reliability Engineering International, 31(2), 251-263. Web.