A conjugal visit is provided in the first Amendment, Section 1 in the US Constitution which protects a person freedom of religion and expression (assembly, speech and request the government to look into their problems) against the government intrusion. These visits are offered to inmates with the supervision of correctional officers in the prisons, “they are private meeting between inmates and their wife and during those meeting they are allowed to engage in anything including having sex. There are guidelines for these visits; the visits are allowed for inmates who are officially married” (Boudouris, 2008).
International Law on Conjugal visits
Many transexual, lesbian, bisecxual and gay (LGBT) usually face many challenges as prisoners and they usually bring challenges to many correctional facilities around the world, risks ob being sexual abused by other prisoners. There are no International Law that can protect these groups of people in various countries in the world; it only depends on the various legislations that are found in those specific countries.
In Argentina conjugal visits have been permitted for the opposite sex in the Cordoba province but other state do not permit this same sex conjugal visits. In Australia LGBT visits is only permitted in the capital and Victoria but in other places conjugal visits is not permitted of any type. The legislation in Brazil only allow conjugal visits for gay and straight couples but those couple which are lesbians they are not permitted for these visitations.
Conjugal Visits Do they Exist in US
At one time conjugal visits were quite common in many correctional facilities around the United State, “but most correctional facilities have abolished this system for security reasons” (Burstein, 2008). Many of these visits used to last even for a whole day in most of correctional facilities across United State which gave the inmates and their wives enough time to spend together. This visit used to be having security risks, imagine a wife of a prisoner came to visit an inmate; the prisoner officer will not monitor an inmate with his wife during the conversation because freedom for speech is provided in the first Amendment of the United State Constitution. In few correctional facilities which still allow these visits, “they are limited and only allowed to prisoners who have shown good behavior. This privilege is earned and not given because a prisoner must show he deserve this visit” (Burstein, 2008).
“The aim of conjugal visit was to encourage the prisoners and their spouses to preserve family ties. This was a way to maintain order in various correctional facilities that are available in the United State of America” (Lief, 2008), it was believed it prisoners will see their families after a period of time, they will maintain good behaviors while they are still in prison and other reasons was due to the increase of homosexuality and gang activities that was being experienced in most of the correctional facilities that are found in the United State of America. “But all this privileges to prisoners did not have an effect on their behavior” (Lief, 2008).
Argument on Conjugal Visits
Conjugal visits have been advocated in the correctional facilities around the nation in order o maintaining that bond in a family relation, but that goal has not been clearly attained. Most of these programs usually place unnecessary weight on the sexual part of a relationship rather than promoting family bonds. In addition these visits only recognize marriages which are legal between the opposite sex but those nontraditional support systems that are common in the country are not being recognized in these programs.
The unsupervised nature of these conjugal visits usually encourages physical risk to the safety of the member of the family, “it have been known male inmates during these visits have been committing further violence during these visitations, but only in supervised environment during these visitations that will minimize the violence that is being experienced during these visitations” (Pearlman & Cripe, 2004).
These visitations usually increases the spread of STDs in the inmates, while permitting these visitations to offenders who are infected the prisons authority don’t have the mechanism to prevent this infections from occurring. “In addition the tax payers will increase the cost of treating these inmates who have been infected with STDs” (Pearlman & Cripe, 2004).
These visitations also brings an ethical dilemma, the chances of female inmates getting pregnant during these visitations is increasing in various correctional facilities in the country. During this period the female inmate is pregnant the state will provide financial and emotional support to the inmate and the unborn baby and these cost the taxpayer will have to bear, “in additions those children who are born as a results of these visitations are denied emotional bonding with the inmate parent” (Pearlman & Cripe, 2004).
Reference List
Boudouris, J. (2008). Prisons and kids: programs for inmate parents. New York: American Correctional Association,
Burstein,J.(2008). Conjugal visits in prison: psychological and social consequences. New York: Lexington Books Publisher.
Lief, H.I (2008). Medical aspects of human sexuality: 750 questions answered by 500 authorities. University of Michigan: Williams & Wilkins, Publisher.
Pearlman, M. G., & Cripe, C.A. (2004). Legal aspects of corrections management. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Despite representing a large portion of the U.S. population, children of incarcerated parents are often overlooked in the general community’s understanding of their needs. While the incarceration effects on these children are not universal, many of them would benefit from proper community support (Austin, 2013). The sources of their hardships extend to social, economic, and emotional levels, and it is up to the community to recognize that and affect change by advocating for appropriate programs, policies, and practices.
Main body
To support the children of incarcerated parents on a social level, people need to advocate raising standards in the criminal justice system. Police conduct and arrest protocols need to account for the psychological trauma experienced by a child witnessing their parent’s arrest (Austin, 2013). Moreover, a proper caregiving arrangement for a child needs to be implemented in the event of incarceration. It is equally important to provide parents with in-prison vocational and educational programs and substance abuse treatments to ensure their rehabilitation. One such program, Parenting from Prison, emphasizes reuniting with children after incarceration and aims to strengthen family relationships, ensuring children’s mental well-being (Turney & Goodsell, 2018).
Protecting the children from the financial instability resulting from the loss of an incarcerated parent’s income requires compensation for their caregivers and raising awareness about the public services available. Options such as TANF, food stamps, and Medicaid can significantly contribute to the children’s sense of economic security (Austin, 2013). Another option is Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), which is reported to positively affect a child’s education and sense of stability (Turney & Goodsell, 2018).
Finally, it is essential to support the children of prisoners on an emotional level. The general community needs to understand that parental incarceration has a traumatic effect on children, resulting in mental health problems and antisocial behavior (Austin, 2013). Removing the stigma associated with children of prisoners is possible through the community’s awareness of the child’s undermined sense of stability and sympathy for their adverse experience. Resources such as the Children of Incarcerated Parents Program can help school counselors tackle the stigmatization and bullying of children with incarcerated parents (Warren et al., 2019).
Conclusion
In conclusion, raising the standards for children of incarcerated parents includes work on social, economic, and emotional levels. In addition to raising awareness about the adverse experiences of children that experience parental incarceration, communities need to advocate for proper programs, policies, and practices to ensure children’s sense of safety on all levels.
References
Austin, Michael J. (2013). Social Justice and Social Work: Rediscovering a Core Value of the Profession. SAGE Publications.
Turney, K., & Goodsell, R. (2018). Parental Incarceration and Children’s Wellbeing. The Future of Children, 28(1), 147-164.
Warren, J. M., Coker, G. L., & Collins, M. L. (2019). Children of Incarcerated Parents: Considerations for Professional School Counselors. The Professional Counselor, 9(3), 185-199.
The sandwich generation refers to individuals who take care of both their children and elderly parents. The definition indicates a person “sandwiched” between managing the responsibilities of a parent and a caring child at the same time. The caregiver ends up being caught between looking after two opposite generations. It is usually associated with a significant impact on the person who has the role of a caregiver. This topic is crucial to the field of human development since it refers to the pressure the caregiver feels, coping mechanisms, and overall impact on their mental well-being.
Developmental Impact
The sandwich generation falls into the category of middle-aged adults in their 40s or 50s. According to researchers, they are prone to experiencing stress that has adverse effects on mental well-being (Gillett & Crisp, 2017). Moreover, this practice can negatively affect the children who are caught in between their parents’ responsibilities. Research shows that they find it extremely difficult to take someone else’s perspective on a subject (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). A child who sees the mother spend less time and give less attention due to taking care of her parents might not appropriately interpret the situation, which leads to frustration.
While this is an example of cognitive development, emotional development might also impact the response to this situation. It has been shown that infants whose mothers interact with them even in the first hours of their lives feel a positive effect (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). A parent who is responsible for taking care of elders cannot be fully dedicated to the children, which may cause them to feel a lack of attention.
Since individuals who take the role of caregivers are the most affected by this phenomenon, they are impacted on many different levels. A person’s developmental progress is influenced by mental well-being. The emotional aspect tends to have both beneficial and negative connotations. According to researchers, caregivers have risks of developing cognitive problems; however, the emotional rewards include feelings of meaningfulness and importance (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). There are also implications when it comes to social and professional life. Combining work with caregiving might be a difficult task (Steiner & Fletcher, 2017). It is also shown that women who simultaneously work and take care of elders and children are more prone to spending less time at their jobs (Aazami et al., 2017). This is why individuals in such situations can meet difficulties in the work field.
There are also implications regarding social life and relationships. Lack of time, mental exhaustion, and emotional struggles can impact one’s social life and romantic/family relationships. Caregivers might direct emotional closeness and financial support towards the children while the parents receive more practical help. Both children and older parents can feel a lack of certain forms of attention, which leads to complications in their relationships with the caregiver.
Faith & Professional Perspectives
Several Christian principles highlight the importance of elderly care. Isaiah 46:4 clearly speaks to God’s promise to sustain and take care of the elders (New International Version, 1997). Isaiah 38:19 mentions the importance of parents in their children’s faith (New International Version, 1997). Parents are the primary learning tools that kids use to develop their own personalities. The teachings ingrained in the childrens’ memories will impact their future lives, choices, and characters.
Furthermore, there are multiple mentions of the parent-child relationship in the New King James Version. Tim 5: 4 & 8 amplifies the ethical significance of providing care for family members (New King James Version, 2001). Proverbs 22:6, 13:22 and 17:6 specifically mention that children who receive the proper guidance will stick with it forever (New King James Version, 2001). Ephesians 6:1-3 goes back to the first command and highlights the crucial ethical virtue of obeying and respecting one’s parents (New King James Version, 2001). Parental significance is one of the central premises in every Christian book, and its assessment is highlighted in many principles and biblical themes.
The sandwich generation can meet specific difficulties, which is why human services providers have to consider a few aspects. The first detail that must be analyzed is the client’s family and friends. If other family members and friends can direct the moral of physical help towards the individual in need, they must be contacted. Another family matter is the relationship between the caregiver and the elderly parents/children. Therapy and conversations may help diminish the potential difficulties. Providing moral and physical support can benefit all parties and lead to a better family dynamic.
Another vital detail is the background of the person in charge. A person who grew up in a loving family is more prone to having a sense of duty towards the elderly family. The community and culture also play crucial roles in helping people who fall under the notion of the sandwich generation. Certain cultures and communities have more pronounced family values and ethical commitments.
Resources
People affected by this problem can look for specific sources that analyze the struggles that the sandwich generation goes through. An excellent suggestion is The Sandwich Generation: Caught Between Growing Children and Aging Parents by Michael H. Zal. The author goes into detail and describes the stages of life that are present in this structure and mentions mental health problems that can occur due to this way of life.
Another excellent suggestion is Strength for the Sandwich Generation: Help to Thrive While Simultaneously Caring for Our Kids and Our Aging Parents by Kristin Bertini. This is a book written by a licensed psychologist that has helpful information regarding specific strategies that caregivers can use, financial advice in such situations, and ways to turn this complex experience into something enjoyable and rewarding for each member.
A helpful platform for caregivers is A Place for Mom, www.aplaceformom.com. It is a service that assists in finding aspects of care for an elderly parent. This includes housing, medical care, nursing staff, and other helpful tools. This website makes the research easier for the caregiver and provides all the needed information regarding facilities, staff, and medical practices that may be necessary for the older family member.
Health and Human Services, www.hhs.gov is another resource with plenty of accessible information about local providers and facilities that can help people with their medical concerns, emergency preparedness, and various social services. They cover different domains such as child care, food assistance, and other issues that individuals cannot cope with by themselves. Accessing Health and Human Services is a great way to find much-needed help.
Conclusion
Based on the evidence, the sandwich generation’s impact on the parent is undoubtedly present and significant in the human development field. This is a complex topic that has both negative and positive effects on the caregiver. On the one hand, they may find it difficult to attend to both parties, which can have an unfavorable implication on their mental health. On the other hand, it is a rewarding experience, and both religion and science suggest that caring for elderly family members is detrimental and can have positive effects on the individual in charge. Either way, this is an important topic, and people who are caught in this family structure need guidance and help from both family members and human services.
References
Aazami, S., Shamsuddin, K., & Akmal, S. (2017). Assessment of Work-Family Conflict Among Women of the Sandwich Generation. Journal of Adult Development, 25(2), 135–140. Web.
Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2014). The life span: human development for helping professionals. Pearson Education.
Gillett, J. E., & Crisp, D. A. (2017). Examining coping style and the relationship between stress and subjective well-being in Australia’s ‘sandwich generation.’ Australasian Journal on Ageing, 36(3), 222–227. Web.
New Testament: New King James Version. (2001). Thomas Nelson Bibles.
Steiner, A. M., & Fletcher, P. C. (2017). Sandwich Generation Caregiving: A Complex and Dynamic Role. Journal of Adult Development, 24(2), 133–143. Web.
The Holy Bible: New International Version. (1997). International Bible Society.
In most countries, women continue leaving college, jobs, or have reduced their working hours after childbirth. Thus, enhancing childcare provision is a major way of promoting maternal education and employment. Therefore, policymakers in many states have recommended the expansion of the coverage on this policy by either making it free or subsidizing its prices to encourage maternal mothers to return to work or college (Brewer et al., 2021). The study’s research question is, does free childcare enable parents to get back to work and college at ease? The importance of this topic is to ascertain why policymakers should promote free childcare to promote literacy levels and employment rates in society. The study is unique in that it assesses the impact of free childcare in aiding parents to get back to college and work, unlike existing literature that focuses on parental return to work only. This will be achieved by providing thorough background research of the topic, methodologies used in past research, the societal implication of the study, and the conclusion.
Background
Past research has been conducted in childcare by assessing its effect on education, unemployment rate, and child development. Past studies have confirmed the importance of childcare in a child’s growth since it is the initial phase of education system of a child. A child that misses childcare may encounter growth delays such as language development. Thus, access to free childcare boosts a child’s educational success. For instance, low-income families struggle with low earnings and limited resources to have their children join kindergartens, which makes them prone to education disparities before joining kindergarten.
Increased public childcare provision promotes the employment of mothers. Policymakers support this idea by arguing that money invested in free childcare is well-spent since it improves the human capital growth of playschool kids and boosts the female labor supply (Busse & Gathmann, 2018). Hence, free childcare policy is key to boosting the female labor force that promotes economic self-sufficiency, especially to economically disadvantaged families.
The high cost of childcare is a burden to most parents to discourage others from having children. The pivotal effect of childcare puts parents into a dilemma of incurring these costs or staying at home as the caregiver. Parents of young kids are younger and fresh in their careers, implying that they earn less. Besides, only a small percentage of parents focus on childcare costs of their children compared to the way they focus on college education. Therefore, their access to free childcare is monumental as it frees them from the financial stress associated with providing care to the young ones.
Numerous studies have highlighted that implementing a free childcare policy promotes social inequalities. For instance, Zoch (2020) opines that free childcare favors well-off families more than disadvantaged ones. The author further argues that less-educated parents have limited access to formal childcare. Besides, access criteria to such childcare centers will favor highly educated women who work more hours than their counterparts, leading to inequality. Both Hoskins et al. (2021) Zocha (2020) add that the free childcare policy aids children who least need it. This widens the existing social inequalities in contrast with the aims of the policy. Little research has been done on the way free childcare assists parents to go back to school or work, which is this study’s major focus.
Methodologies
Most of the studies on the effect of free childcare on maternal labor supply exploited quantitative methods. Most studies used government data on childcare coverage and mothers’ daily activities for ten years (Ruppaner et al., 2019). Using such data was effective since it allowed them to filter the data according to their desired criteria and acquire their ideal sample size. Past research demonstrates that childcare take-up is not randomly done; rather, it is based on personal and household characteristics, as indicated by the data (Zoch, 2020). Although most of the past literature focused on quantitative data across a big sample size, the current study will utilize mixed methods. The researcher will carry out quantitative analysis and qualitative one to understand the different views and experiences of participants regarding the efficiency of free childcare.
Societal Implications
It is important to assess the impact of free childcare provision on parents’ willingness to return to work or college. The current study is exceptional since it evaluates the societal and economic impact of promoting free childcare policy. The study also highlights the positive and negative impact of free childcare policy, from elevating the disadvantaged population to widening the gap between the well-off and economically challenged families. The research will inform existing research on the single parent’s readiness to go back to college. Lastly, the study will ascertain various techniques of promoting free childcare and controlling the existing hindrances of this policy.
The current research confirms that free childcare promotes women to return to work and college at ease, as confirmed in the existing literature. The study identifies the loopholes of this policy by pinpointing its drawbacks, such as promoting social inequalities. This follows a current trend where this policy benefits parents from well-off families. Thus, the study aims to set criteria that make the policy accessible to economically challenged individuals. This will ensure that young and unstable families get a chance to continue with college or get back to their job as a way of addressing the rising unemployment rate.
Conclusion
The current study promotes free childcare to enable maternal mothers to return to work or college. It is paramount to evaluate how free childcare policy can elevate the disadvantaged population by having them take their children to childcare at a tender age. Similarly, the policy lays a platform for promoting a rigid education system that boosts a child’s growth. Nevertheless, policymakers should be on the lookout for the efficiency of this policy in promoting social equality.
References
Brewer, M., Cattan, S., Crawford, C., & Rabe, B. (2021). Does more free childcare help parents work more? Labour Economics, 102100.
Busse, A., & Gathmann, C. (2018). Free daycare and its effects on children and their families. Web.
Hoskins, K., Bradbury, A., & Fogarty, L. (2021). A frontline service? Nursery Schools as local community hubs in an era of austerity. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 19(3), 355-368.
Ruppanner, L., Moller, S., & Sayer, L. (2019). Expensive childcare and short school days= lower maternal employment and more time in childcare? Evidence from the American time use survey. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 5, 1-14.
Zoch, G. (2020). Public childcare provision and employment participation of East and West German mothers with different educational backgrounds. Journal of European Social Policy, 30(3), 370-385.
Parents often have to leave their place of work indefinitely to look after their children. The scope of childcare services is of great importance for parents, being their parental support and replacing them for a while until the child grows up. In order to motivate mothers or fathers to return to work, many health insurance companies are subsidized by employers or states to provide free care (Brewer et al., 2022). However, detailed research is needed to understand how such services impact parents who want to return to work.
The relevance of such work is due to the need to understand whether the state should expand and promote initiatives for free care. Helping parents return to work can make a big difference in the economic situation and help many families. This, in turn, will create more comfortable conditions for the child in the current time and the future. Therefore, it is important to understand what factors can push parents to return to work and how free child care can affect this. The paper’s uniqueness is ensured by its evaluation of the effectiveness of existing measures to return parents to their jobs. The existing literature on related topics is more focused on the methods that can be implemented in free childcare.
The history of research on the chosen topic focuses on studying factors that could affect the child’s well-being, psychological state, and educational abilities. At the same time, the number of studies that analyze the impact of starting to work on parents is insufficient to understand this problem fully. Nevertheless, many scientists confirm the importance of caring for the child while the parents are at work (Gromada et al., 2020). Without the proper support of qualified specialists from educational and developmental aspects, it is impossible to fully form a child as a person. As a result, parents may be wary of caregivers as they are required to be qualified. Such assistance is even more needed and necessary for low-income families, as they cannot always afford to hire a caregiver. At the same time, having a free caregiver can improve the financial situation of parents and the child, as they can return to work.
To conduct the study, quantitative methods were used to look at statistics and analyze the impact of free care. The information source was taken from the registers of state databases on the coverage of companies providing childcare services over the past ten years. Thus, such a study would provide a suitable body of information to assess the impact of free caregivers on the return of parents to work. The study included a qualitative and quantitative approach to analyze the sample results and compare the data for a better understanding of the issue. In addition, the experience of participating in free care programs was considered to understand how much parents trust such a system.
Aspects that could negatively affect the social gap between wealthy and low-income families were considered. Free childcare reduces these inequalities and allows parents to focus on work. The paper makes recommendations for improving existing policies and ensuring their quality implementation. The results of the current study conclude that the provision of free care contributes to positive trends in parents’ return to work after the birth of a child. In addition, certain shortcomings of the current free care policy were identified. They are concerned with collecting money for petty expenses and preventing companies from fulfilling their obligations in this area.
In conclusion, it is important to point out that this study aims to identify factors that primarily influence the desire of parents to return to work. Examining the current policies in different companies and the mothers and fathers who most often use them reveals the target economic class. Recommendations according to the issue studied are about expanding the impact of the policy and in what ways it can improve the quality of services. Promoting social equity and monitoring child development are paramount to making free care a reality.
It is not in doubt that children should face disciplinary action incase of a misconduct. However, spanking, which is the most preferred disciplinary method, has aroused a heated debate on its effectiveness.
While some parents uphold spanking as the most appropriate mode of disciplining their children, others argue that inflicting physical pain to the child can lead to negative consequences in the future. Numerous studies have come to the conclusion that children who are spanked are more likely to develop both behavioral and emotional problems.
The proponents of anti-spanking further argue that these particular children suffer from depression and further experience low self-esteem as compared to those who are not spanked by their parents. This debate has left most parents confused as to the most appropriate mode of disciplining their children when they misbehave.
However, it is apparent that the argument posited by the anti-spanking proponents is flawed as it will be established in this paper. The paper will also point out the need for parents to spank their children when called upon by circumstances without having to feel guilty about it.
Most of the people against spanking do not differentiate the concept of spanking from beating. A bare-handed ‘swipe’ to a child’s bottom is not the same thing as hitting the child with a closed fist or any other mode of ‘discipline’ that is bound to leave the child with bruises.
Such kind of abuse is not advocated but a clear distinction should be drawn to differentiate the two. This issue has gone too far that it has allowed the children to run the show. The current generation has the ability to successfully lure the authority to believe that the parents actually ‘beat’ them while all they received was a slight spank.
Such situations have led the parents to shy away from disciplining them through spanking in order to avoid trouble. They tend to rely to other alternatives that have been proposed by the anti-spanking proponents such as withdrawing the child’s privileges or even allocating extra chores during their recession periods.
However, what happens when a parent has ‘grounded’ their child due to misconduct only to learn later that the same child defied the punishment by leaving the house without their parent’s consent? The opponents, in their argument, fail to consider such extremes which are interestingly prevalent in our current generation.
The current generation also seems to be inhabited by children with decayed morals. This is in contrast with the older generation who were brought up in the spanking culture. Take for instance the high rate of juvenile delinquency in the United States which seems to rise annually.
The studies that indicate harmful effects associated with spanking have been based on children who are spanked in their teenage hood. It should be noted that parents who begin to discipline their children who are already of age are likely to cause resentment in their children.
However, this should not be blamed on the effect of spanking but on the history of unproductive parenthood. On the other hand, the allegation that spanking is bound to lead to spouse abuse in future has not been proved. Although most cases of abusive partners claim to have been abused as children, this does not indicate that spanking, as opposed to abusive deeds, is the main cause of spouse abuse.
In conclusion, it is important for the anti-spanking proponents to explore the whole concept of spanking before coming up with their conclusion. The parents should be allowed to spank their children once in a while. The same should not be abused by the parents. Spanking should not be usedto instill fear in the child, but to correct their wrongdoing in a polite but stern manner.
Spanking, as a form of discipline, should therefore be administered at an early age and should never be motivated by rage. This ensures that a child respect their parents and will be ready to admit their wrong doing to avoid a confrontation that will likely lead to spanking.
The number of lone parents across the globe continues to increase. There are numerous factors that have been identified to contribute to this. Some of them include an increase in the number of divorces, employment, and the ability to access welfare support. Lone parents and in particular single mothers have experienced numerous challenges in bringing up their children. It has been hard for them to secure jobs and for those who happen to be employed; the salary they get is not sufficient (Sigle-Rushton & Waldfogel pp. 87-94). Different ideologies have been attributed to the existence of single-parent families. The belief about the “place” of women in society has subjected them to discrimination based on race, gender, and when it comes to employment. There are women who believe in a feminist ideology that they have the right to get babies with men of their choice and be supported by these men despite them not getting married. This has been strongly opposed by men leading to such women bearing the burden of bringing up their children.
As a way of assisting lone parents in bringing up their children, some policies have been established. Some of the policies seek to ensure that these parents get a well-paying job while others seek to ensure that employed lone parents have a flexible working environment that allows them to balance their parental duties with work.
Historical perspective on lone parents
Throughout the twentieth century, the number of households controlled by lone parents increased in the United Kingdom. This was reinforced by an increase in the number of divorces as well as people getting children out of wedlock. Despite the number of households comprising of lone parents going up, people still had the perception that children hailing from such families would suffer both economically and emotionally. To curb this rapid increase, most of the welfare officials in United Kingdom came up with legislations that made it hard for agencies to place children with single-parent families (Herman para. 2).
By midcentury, Freudian ideologies had pervaded the entire country. As a result, welfare workers used the ideas in conjunction with therapeutic technique to get homes for all children that were found not to have parents. For families to be conventionally accepted, they had to be headed by both parents (father and mother). The couples had to be married and had to have come into a consensus on the father providing for the family. This fact made it had for single-parents to be given children despite them applying for them (Silva 87). The main argument was that such parents did not really need children and that is why they were reluctant to get married. Welfare agents also feared that the children would be subjected to poor parenting as the parents would be engaged in activities aimed at providing for the family.
Generally, in people’s mind, married couples were perceived to be the biological parents of their babies and not adopters. Single-parents were greatly stigmatized leading to most of those who got children out of wedlock handing them to married couples. It was easier for these people to legitimize the birth of the child than the single-parents could. Most of the unwed mothers found it shameful having children out of marriage. Living with these children added shame to the mothers. Nevertheless, some lone parents still adopted children at the time. However, most of those who adopted children preferred to get them from their relatives than from people unknown to them.
The move to recruit lone parents surfaced in early 1960s. This was supported by people who called for rebellion against consideration of special needs during adoption. They argued that children who did not get married couples to adopt them also required to be brought up in a family. These included children that suffered from retarded growth, those that were mentally handicapped as well as those that were born by parents from different races. Getting adopters for these children was a big problem. This is because most of those that wished to adopted children looked for those that were healthy and that came from the white origin.
The first organised attempt to recruit single parents was conducted by Los Angeles Bureau of Adoption. The move sought to get adopters from the African American backgrounds for children from the same race that had not gotten an opportunity to be adopted by married couples. For a period of two years, the agency managed to secure homes for thirty nine children who were adopted by single-mothers. In addition, one child was adopted by a single-father. This number was insignificant in comparison to the number of African American children who needed to be placed under adoption. Later, the idea was extended to other countries across the globe.
Between 1990 and 2000, the number of households ran by single-parents in United Kingdom increased significantly. There are those who believe that this was intensified by the establishment of policies that made it possible for single parents to have access to welfare services. Such parents would have access to financial support and other benefits (Hederman & Sherk para. 1-4). As a result, bring up children in single-families was not a hard responsibility as the parent was relieved from the burden of having to look for employment to provide for the child. Nevertheless, today most of these benefits have ceased being extended to lone parents. This has not reduced the rate at which lone parent families are emerging in the country. There is a possibility that a number of social complexities such as the right for women to engage in employment and freedom are contributing to this increase.
Since time in memorial, single-parents have suffered from social stigma. In spite of how they got into this status, people have negative attributes towards single-parent families. This makes it hard for such parents to identify their roles in the family. For single-mothers, the problem is further intensified by the fact that it is difficult for them to secure jobs. This makes them suffer from role strain as they struggle to acquire jobs and at the same time attend to their parental obligations. Most of the single-parent families are from poor backgrounds (Fitzgerald & Ribar 243). As a result, the parents can not be in a position to pay for daycare facilities. The difference in wages paid to men and women in U.K. leads to the low income earned by single-mothers. This problem calls for establishment of public policies that would ensure equality with respect to wages paid to single-parents of both genders.
Ideological perspective
An unbalanced number of women running the lone parent families hail from the poor backgrounds. Most of these women are in most cases discriminated against with respect to sex, rank and race. The major challenge facing this group is financial handicaps. There are beliefs about the “place” of women in the society. These ideologies have incapacitated women who are single-parents making it hard for them to secure positions in the society and participate in workplaces. Generally, these women are classified as “others” in the society (Sands & Nuccio para. 1). Consequently, all the families that are headed by single-mothers are placed in the category of “others” when it comes to classifying the households. This classification has intensified the inequality experienced in lone parents’ households. Generally, it is difficult for these women to secure well paying jobs and they only turn to jobs that earn them meager wages. Such parents result to seeking assistance from welfares. The fact that most of the welfares have ceased operating makes it hard for the women to bring up their children.
Today, most of the women stick to a feminist ideology that asserts that women has the right to engage in a relationship with any man of their choice, get pregnant and bring up their children under lone parent families. They believe that through this approach, they can oblige men to support them in bringing up the children despite them not getting married to the men. Women believe that any person opposed to this ideology is an extremist (Ellwood & Jencks pp, 45-62). In spite of women trying to support their ideologies, they have been faced with strong opposition from religious leaders and open-minded egalitarians. There is a tag of war between male and females on who to dictate morality on the other. There are men who argue that the current rate of increase in the number of women heading single families calls for men to dictate morality on women. On the other hand, women believe that it is the high time that they forced men to support their families despite them opting to live as single parents. Some men argue that for equality to be there, they should also be given the right to choose from supporting or not supporting the single-mothers if they decline to get married.
The struggle by women to ensure that men comply with their opinions has intensified the gap between them. For decades, people have tried to fight the existence of inequality between men and women. However, this tag of war has led to more men abdicating their responsibilities after impregnating their partners. The ideology that men have to support their partners who opt to lead their life as single-mother has led to men declining to take the responsibility. Eventually, women who opt to live as single-mothers after getting children have ended up bearing all the burden of bring up the children.
Current policies
Due to increase in the number of single-parents across the globe, governments from varied countries have started coming up with policies aimed at alleviating the suffering experienced by children brought up in such families. Currently, United Kingdom’s government has come up with policies aimed at increasing the rate of maternal employment. This is to ensure that every single-parent regardless of gender secures a job so as to be able to provide for his or her children. The government has also come up with a government-supplied income transfer (Smeeding pp. 134-151). This is aimed at cutting down on child poverty in lone parents’ households.
In addition, there are policies that addresses income needs of single-parents. These are policies such as those that make it mandatory for the child to be supported by both parents despite them not living together (Edin & Lein pp. 253-267). This policy states that in case of divorce or a child is born out of the wedlock, both parents have the duty to maintain and support the child. The non-custodian parent; be it the father or the mother is bound to ensure that he or she offers all the required support to the child. This policy gives the minimum financial support that the non-custodian parent has to give to the child.
United Kingdom’s government has made numerous alterations on its welfare system. Welfare funding is currently determined based on previous year’s expenditures. The welfare agencies have been given the freedom to control the order in which these funds are disbursed to the relevant beneficiaries. It is expected that by the end of two years, every beneficiary has to have secured a job. No household is expected to benefit from the welfare for more than five years. This policy has significantly led to reduction in the amount of financial support that used to be provided to single-parent families in the country (Baker & Tippin 54).
It has been observed that more than 73,000 single-parent households belong to people who work in the military. This group of people comprise of employees with heavy responsibilities that they have been entrusted with by the state. It is difficult for them to have time with their children. The government understands the importance of parenting role and as a result it has come up with policies to help these parents manage their parental roles as well as their military responsibilities. For many years, this group of single-parents has been neglected when it comes to establishing and adjusting the available policies to help lone parents cope with their working and parental responsibilities (Wilson para. 2-7). Currently, the military has established support systems for lone parents working in the military. They have come up with child and youth centers. This has made it possible for them to increase the number of working hours to cater for military programs. There are also online facilities that help military children to tackle their assignments and tutorials. This has been of great significance to the parents who in most cases are occupied with other responsibilities and they have no time to help their children tackle their assignments.
Conclusion
From the research, it is very clear that a lot need to be done so as to ensure that families comprising of lone parents also lead a comfortable life. Since the government came up with policies that require lone parents to enjoy welfare support for five years, it has been hard for lone parents (especially single mothers) to bring up their children. The policies also led to the amount of financial support that was being given to this group being reduced. With more households emerging that comprise of lone parents, this fund has not been sufficient. There is need for the government and employers to come up with policies that will give these parents a flexible working environment so that they are able to balance their parental responsibilities with work.
Until the country strikes equality in employment for all lone parents, the current practice still appears to be oppressive. This is especially to single-mothers who are paid low wages compared to men.
Works Cited
Baker, Maureen & Tippin, David. Poverty, Social Assistance, and the Employability of Mothers: Restructuring Welfare States. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
Edin, Kathryn & Lein, Laura. “Work, Welfare and Single Mothers’ Economic Survival Strategies.” American Sociological Review 62.2 (1997): 253-267.
Ellwood, David T & Jencks, Christopher. “The Spread of Single-Parent Families in the United States since 1960.” Faculty Research Working Papers Series 245 (2004): 45-62.
Fitzgerald, John M. & Ribar, David C. Transitions in Welfare Participation and Female Headship. Washington: Centre for Economic Studies, 2004.
Hederman, Rea & Sherk, James. “Who earns the minimum wage – single parents or suburban teenagers?” 2006.Web.
Sigle-Rushton, Wendy & Waldfogel, Jane. “Motherhood and Women’s Earnings in Anglo-American, Continental European and Nordic Countries.” Luxembourg Income Study Working Paper Series 263 (2006): 87-94.
Silva, Elizabeth Bortolaia. Good enough mothering: Feminist perspective on lone mothering. Oxon: Routledge, 1996.
Smeeding, Timothy. “Government Programs and Social Outcomes: The United States in Comparative Perspective.” Luxembourg Income Study Working Paper Series 261 (2005): 134-151.
Wilson, Elaine. “Single parents juggle military, home demands.” American Forces Press Service. 2010. Web.
The notion statement: Should one of the parents stop working for a while to be with their children at home?
I would like to support the notion that one of the parents should stop working at least for some time to be with their children at home. As we very well know, a good family system helps to nurture children into responsible adults in the future. There is a great need for bonding, intimate child care and guidance more so during their infancy stages.
Times have changed and the world of today is so immoral and corrupt starting from homes to schools to social sites, media and websites are full of malice, violence and vulgar talks that may easily corrupt the young minds and if no adequate parenting responsibilities and discipline are reinforced onto the children during their early stages of development, they may easily fall prey of these vices.
There is a great need to foster unity and harmony in the family by having quality time together and bonding freely with each other. This will eliminate any fear or boundaries between parents and their children and will enable them to freely open up to their parents whenever they face challenging situations in their social, academic or even spiritual lives.
Another main reason is the need for prenatal and postnatal care more so for mothers who have given birth. If such parents are working, there is a great need to seek for maternity leave so that they can rest at home and take proper care of their babies. In the United States of America, there is a Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 which provides job security of up to twelve weeks for employees who have reason enough to keep them from work like pregnancy, child care or other pressing family issues.
One may also choose voluntarily to withdraw from work for some time just to be with their families more so for the young families to set the right foundation for their toddlers. One of the partners preferable the wife, may choose to stay at home while the husband goes to work to sustain the daily family needs.
At the end of the day they would have achieved much and covered milestones putting ethics and family matters in mind. Recent research has shown that most of the burglary and theft cases registered in the country have all to do with the victims’ background and family system hence erecting strong foundations in our family systems will go a long way to fight the many incidences of illegal practices and uncouth behaviors portrayed by our young generation.
When one parent stays back at home to attend to family matters, it fosters accountability between the partners as each one knows what is expected of them and works tirelessly towards meeting their responsibilities and at the same time complementing each other. It also avoids misunderstandings in the home since most of these conflicts arise when everyone seems to be too busy with their office work hence neglecting their responsibilities back at home.
Another advantage of one of the parents being at home with the kids is the certainty that their children are in safe hands under the custody of their mother as opposed to families that employ servants to keep watch of their homes and take care of their children. Most of these servants end up influencing the children negatively and in case of a misunderstanding between them and their masters, they may redirect their anger and frustrations to the children.
Some of them cause conflicts and misunderstandings between family members or even go to the extend of having affairs with one of the partners hence bringing down the marriage institution. Hence having a wife to take care of the home can really save a lot of drama and trouble in the family or marriage institution.
Despite all these pros about one of the parents staying back at home to take care of the family, there are also cons that come with it for example for families that are not well off financially may find it hard to cope with the ever rising cost of living which is to be shouldered by one partner while the other sits back at home to take care of the children.
In the case where both work, at least one supplements the other as they pull their resources or income together to meet all their family needs but when one partner takes up the responsibility of fending for the family, other special needs may go unattended for hence making life miserable. In such a case, it is only logical for both parties to be involved in fending for, and taking care of the family.
Parents should not stop working in order to take care of their children because of financial security purposes. Families where one of the parents is the sole breadwinner, stands a high risk of plunging into deep economic disparities should the breadwinner die or be incapacitated hence the need to have both parents working so that in case of a misfortune, the other partner will be able to stand in the gap and help meet the needs of the family.
In families where both parents work, there is some sense of respect for each other and no single partner seems superior over the other. This creates respect, harmony and understanding and also fosters appropriate decision making since both partners are involved before settling to do something.
In conclusion, a good family system should always be upheld so as to establish an appropriate foundation for their children for the way a child is raised will really influence or determine the course he or she will take in their future lives.
One also has to first examine the situation of his or her family before deciding the most appropriate way to handle family matters for what may work for one family may not be successful with the other. In my opinion, I support the notion that one parent should stop working for some time to take care of the family.
Society defines a parent as the two people who share a deep sexual intimacy that produces an offspring whom they spend the rest of their lives caring for. Being a parent is an act of guiding your child from the womb into adulthood and beyond. Parents and children share a deep emotional bond that is developed from the time that the embryo turns into a fetus.
However, there are quite several married, unmarried, and alternate sex couples who cannot bear children to fulfill their parental ambitions. That is why IVF conceiving methods were developed. It was designed to help childless couples experience becoming parents. However, along with the scientific privilege of becoming a parent comes the ethical and legal hazards of surrogacy.
The main question posed before those who use surrogacy is this: “Does it make one any less of a parent than the person who carried the child to term?” Those who use IVF face a different nightmare as they try to define the answer to the question: “Does a frozen embryo equate to an actual child and disposing of it mean an aborted child?”
In 2008, Denise Grady of The New York Times exposed the turmoil of parents who undergo IVF and have more embryos than they wanted, and what exactly happens to those embryos. According to Grady:
At least 400,000 embryos are frozen at clinics around the country, with more being added every day, and many people who are done having children are finding it harder than they had ever expected to decide the fate of those embryos.
We have to remember that embryos are eggs which as already fertilized. It is held in suspended animation through cryogenic freeze until the time that the mother is ready to breathe life into the embryo. Consciously, the people who paid to have the embryos developed already know that there is a life waiting to beat in those eggs. They created a life.
They are the parents of those embryos, which is why it is understandable for these people to be torn between having the eggs destroyed, donated to science, or given to strangers in need of embryos. Those are their unborn children, and they are the parents, the gods of the embryos. They have the power to bring it to life or end it. These IVF couples are a new generation of parents.
Then we come to the case of the surrogate mothers. Women who agree to carry an embryo to term because the mother is either incapable or unwilling to do so. The fertilized egg is not usually their child. They are are mere gestation pods as far as the “biological” parents are concerned. In the cases wherein the egg and sperm do not come from the couple, and a surrogate is used to carry the child, who is the real parent of the child?
The people whose sperm and egg came together to form the embryo or the woman who carried the child to term? This is a tough call. Legally, the parent is the one who has the direct DNA connection to the child. But when that is not possible to prove, as only the carrier is known, the state tends to uphold the surrogate as the rightful mother of the child and will protect her rights as the mother in any case.
Designer babies as these paid for births are coming to be known to redefine our ideas and definition of parenthood. What truly defines a parent has become a gray area for everyone involved in the process because they all share a part of that child in one way or another. And each of them is lucky to have been given a chance to become a part of that child’s life, no matter how small the contribution.
So what do I think truly defines parenthood these days? The mere existence of love for the child and the desire to protect him from harm. Regardless of who carried the child to term, or took the child home from the hospital. Sharing the same DNA does not assure the child of a loving parent. It only means that the child came from someone. The parent is whoever shows love, concern, and care for the future of the child.
It is difficult to conceptualize and apply the challenges related to maternal competence in great apes, as well as to parenting in primates in general. It is clear that some behaviors must be learned in order to be a capable parent, but the mechanisms of learning are yet unclear. A relatively small number of primate species have been used in many studies on parenting in primates. As a result, the focus of this essay is on the description of parental behavior in primates. Chimpanzee’s child rearing is different from Orangutan’s and Gorilla’s because they represent high maternal competence with sensitive responsiveness and the young ones are less frequently separated from their mothers during newborn, infancy, and juvenile stages.
Newborn Care
During the first thirty days of life, the chimpanzee infant and mother engage in continual ventral stream interaction. Chimpanzee neonates are just as dependent on their mothers for survival as are newborn humans. Mothers provide the majority of physical assistance during this time, but they rarely assist the newborn in sucking (Maestripieri 2018). The duration and frequency of feedings in young chimpanzees are erratic. During the first month, the newborn spends around 20% of his or her time nuzzling, rooting, and nursing. Most of the time, mothers just cradle their newborn babies, giving them the support they need to stay in physical touch. The maternal gaze plays a significant role in primate behavior. On average, chimpanzee mothers glance at their newborn babies for 12 minutes per hour (Bornsten 2019). When analyzing, exploring, playing, and grooming the newborns, half of that time is spent focusing on their faces.
The parenting styles of orangutans, and gorillas, differ from those of chimpanzees. Contrary to chimpanzees, newborn orangutans and gorillas appear to be more responsible. Mother orangutans rest frequently while caring for their young and do not go far from their babies (Fröhlich et al. 2022). Gorilla babies may cling to their mothers for up to three minutes without the mother’s help (Fröhlich et al. 2022). On the infant’s first day of life, maternal assistance may be inadequate, and the placenta may or may not be consumed
Infant Care
Chimpanzees are physically reliant on their mothers’ milk during infancy, which could be divided into two stages: the early stage and the later stage. The early stage is the phase in which there is no impartial movement, and the later stage is the phase in which there is some established movement (Bard et al. 2021). Chimpanzee mothers interact with their young ones in a number of ways throughout the first three months (Bard et al. 2021). Infants are frequently encouraged to practice their talents in this period. Maternal actions like holding newborns’ hands when they stand up enhance their motor development.
Infants are regularly and alternately encouraged by their mothers to support their weight first with their legs and then with their arms. Similarly, encouraging early crawling is achieved, and in the early weeks, mother-infant contact is seldom lost; hence, these stimulating activities are often done on the mother’s body (Bard et al. 2021). Mothers of chimpanzees help and promote their neurodevelopment, both physically and verbally. Chimpanzee mothers watch what their young ones eat and keep them from handling or consuming unpleasant food materials (Bard et al. 2021). Older infants learn termite fishing, tool making, plant scavenging, food processing, and locomotor activities from their mothers.
Infant chimpanzees commonly lose contact with their mothers, whereas orangutan newborns do not. To enable their children to play, chimpanzee mothers may accept being relatively near to other mothers (Fröhlich et al., 4). On the contrary, orangutans have fewer peers accessible to them for socializing from infancy up to age 5 (Fröhlich et al. 2022). Between the ages between 4 and 8 years old, orangutan newborns are weaned (Fröhlich et al. 2022). On the other hand, the motor development of gorilla infants is more advanced than those of chimpanzees. Gorillas start chewing food at two months old, cling to their mothers’ hair by two months, and start reaching for objects at an earlier age (Bornsten 2019). Before the child turns one, mothers spend time grooming the newborn and start to reject efforts at sucking. Infants begin to move independently at 2 years old, although they still have the white tail tuff that serves as a sign of a newborn until the third year (Morrison et al. 2021). As a result, gorilla mothers promote the growth of baby motor abilities in a pattern comparable to chimpanzee mothers.
Juvenile Care
During the juvenile stage, Chimpanzees spend extended periods of time away from their parents, and their coats may undergo color changes. The absence of the white tail tuft marks the end of infancy in chimpanzees (Bard et al. 2021). During middle juvenile age, the focus shifts from their mothers to peers (Bornsten 2019). Reduced maternal obligations for supplying milk are accompanied by an increase in parental responsibilities for fostering child independence. Both orangutans and gorillas wean from maternal obligations during the juvenile phase (Schuppli et al. 2020). Mothers groom their young daughters and sons, although daughters groom family members more frequently than sons.
Conclusion
In conclusion, maternal competence in chimpanzees, demonstrated even in interactions with young apes, represents sensitive responsiveness in which the mother interacts in contingent behavior and promotes the growth of newborn and infant capabilities. Rather than receiving skilled mother care, direct exposure to caring for a younger person appears to be the most important early experience for chimpanzees. In several primate species, maternal competence is not innate. In contrast to chimpanzees, orangutan and gorilla newborns are less frequently separated from their mothers and have highly developed motor skills.
References
Bard, Kim A., Keller, Heidi, Ross M. Kirsty, Hewlett, Barry, Butler. Lauren, Boysen. Sarah T., and Matsuzawa, Tetsuro 2021 Joint Attention in Human and Chimpanzee Infants in Varied Socio‐Ecological Contexts. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 86(4):1-228.
Berlin, Erin, Thurber, Mary I, and Lamberski, Nadine 2019 Review of Veterinary Intervention in Reproduction of Captive Western Lowland Gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) from 1996 to 2016. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 50(3): 539-546.
Bornsten, Marc H 2019 Handbook of Parenting. In Parenting in Nonhuman Primates, edited by Bard, Kim A. 3rd ed, pp. 78-122. Routledge, London.
Fröhlich, Marlen, van Schaik, Carel P., van Noordwijk, Maria A., and Knief, Ulrich 2022 Individual Variation and Plasticity in the Infant-Directed Communication of Orang-utan Mothers. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 289(1975): 1-10.
Maestripieri, Dario. 2018 Maternal Influences on Primate Social Development. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 72(8): 1–12.
Morrison, Robin E, Eckardt, Winnie., Colchero, Fernando., Vecellio, Veronica, and Stoinski, Tara S 2021 Social Groups Buffer Maternal Loss in Mountain Gorillas. Elife 10(1):1-22.
Schuppli, Caroline, Van Noordwijk, Maria, Atmoko, Suci U., and Van Schaik, Carel 2020 Early Sociability Fosters Later Exploratory Tendency in Wild Immature Orangutans. Science Advances 6(2): 1-7.