It is hard to disagree that, to understand most literary works, it is vital to pay attention to different levels of interpretation. Generally, a literary pieces main ideas are expressed directly, and additional efforts are not required from the audience to perceive the writers message. However, when the author wants to convey a more delicate or sacral meaning or refer to other literary works, religious, or historical concepts, they can use various literary devices. In this case, the message is only received by the most attentive readers. In The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe and Book IX of Paradise Lost by John Milton, there are numerous symbols that take these writings to another level. The purpose of the paper is to compare the use of symbolic roles of blood in the former and the wreath as the symbol of love and admiration in the latter.
The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus: Symbolic Roles of Blood
As mentioned earlier, the play is filled with different literary devices, including many symbols that play a great role in interpreting the writing. One such important element is the blood, which is mentioned throughout the play. Overall, one may say the blood is a symbol of the presence of supernatural and religious forces in the play, as well as sin, redemption, omen, and even revolt. All these symbolic roles are explored in detail in the following paragraphs.
The first scene to analyze is when Faustus wants to sign the contract and sell his soul to the devil. Having to sign with his blood, Faustus is surprised to see it congealed: his body revolts against such a sin (Ornstein 1380). Although he understands that this is most likely an omen of his actions being wrong, Faustus proceeds:
What might the staying of my blood portend? Is it unwilling I should write this bill? Why streams it not, that I may write afresh? FAUSTUS GIVES TO THEE HIS SOUL: ah, there it stayd! Why shouldst thou not? (Marlowe)
The symbolic role of blood here is to prevent the scholar from selling his soul and give him an opportunity to avoid this sin. Another scene to explore is the last night of Faustus when he sees the blood of Christ flowing through the air and being the symbol of repentance and redemption because, according to the religion, Christ redeemed mankind by spilling his own blood on the mountain of Golgotha (Tomi 22). Therefore, whenever blood appears in the play, it signifies a chance for Faustus to reconsider his actions and repent.
Book IX of Paradise Lost: Wreath as the Symbol of Love and Faith
Further, the epic poem by John Milton also includes numerous elements that have symbolic roles. For example, in Book IX, a wreath of flowers that Adam is willing to give Eve symbolizes his innocent, pure, and sincere feelings (Milton, lines 838-842). Adam realizes that he loves Eve, values her, and believes in her, which is why this wreath symbolizes the true concept of marriage and relationships:
Adam the while Waiting desirous her return, had wove Of choicest Flours a Garland to adorne Her Tresses, and her rural labours crown, As Reapers oft are wont thir Harvest Queen. (Milton, lines 838-842)
Nevertheless, the wreath also becomes a symbol of broken dreams, fading feelings, and disappointment. When Adam learns about Eves sin, the wreath falls from his arms, symbolizing the disappearing concept of relationships, love, marriage, and faith.
Comparing the Use of Symbolism
Further, it is possible to compare and contrast how these two different symbols are used by the authors. First, one may notice that the meaning of the blood in Marlowes play and the wreath in Miltons epic poem are colossal. Without them, the writers would not be able to convey such a deep meaning and indicate the changing atmosphere of the story or the negativity of the events. Both blood (redemption and sin) and wreath (faith) have religious meanings (Lewalski). Another similar trait of these symbols is that these common and almost ordinary elements are given these symbolic roles. Blood and flower wreaths are familiar to all readers, and they are unlikely to think about the religious or deep meanings of these elements.
As for contrasting Marlowes and Miltons approaches to symbolism, it is crucial to notice the nature of the message they convey. Blood is always seen by Faustus, and the character even manages to understand the omen and realize that this is indeed a sign for him. At the same time, the wreath, and especially its falling, is intended for the interpretation of the audience rather than for Adam and Eve (Carnes 523). Surely, Adam places his own meaning in the flower wreath, but it is for the readers to learn about the feeling of this character. Finally, while blood is mentioned often in the writing, the wreath appears only two times, but these symbols are equal in their power and significance.
Conclusion
To draw a conclusion, one may say that the analyzed symbols indeed play a great role in the two literary works. Marlowe uses blood to inform both Faustus and the readers about the nature of his actions and the opportunity for redemption. Milton gives Adam a wreath to show the audience his feelings for Eve, as well as the following death of his love and faith. These symbols have several noticeable differences and similarities but both indicate that this literary device is a powerful tool that makes a writings message deeper.
Works Cited
Carnes, Valerie. Time and Language in Miltons Paradise Lost. ELH, vol. 37, no. 4, 1970, pp. 517-539.
Lewalski, Barbara Kiefer. Structure and the Symbolism of Vision in Michaels Prophecy, Paradise Lost, Books XI-XII. Philological Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 1, 1963.
Milton, John. Book IX. The Argument. Paradise Lost, edited by Thomas H. Luxon. Trustees of Dartmouth College.Web.
Ornstein, Robert. Marlowe and God: The Tragic Theology of Dr. Faustus. Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, vol. 83, no. 5, 1968, pp. 13781385.
Tomi, Borna. The Occult Theory in the Elizabethan Age and Christopher Marlowes Doctor Faustus. 2022. University of Pula, PhD dissertation.
John Miltons poem Paradise Lost is one of the most read epic poems in history (Kean 34). The poem is religious and focuses on the relationship between man and God. To be specific, the poem sheds light on how mans fate was decided at the Garden of Eden. Precisely, this poem is a Christian poem that seeks to justify the actions of God, which may be unclear to man.
The poem has thousands of lines in the poems verses. The poem has been written in over twelve books, not mentioning the original ten book version that was initially written. The review of Book 1 of the poem will highlight the age of the poem. Moreover, the review will provide information about the poet and a thesis statement. A substantive summary of the book will be done with a conclusion.
Age of the poem
This poem was published in the year 1667, but was first initialized by the poet in the 17th century (Lewalski 686). This was the first edition of the poem, which consisted of ten books. Later, the poem was redone as a second edition in the year 1674 and consisted of twelve books.
An in-depth analysis of the book reveals that the poem is ancient and was done, when the need to emphasis the validity of the Christian faith was questionable. This can be justified by the poems insistence in illuminating the Christian faith from a traditional point of view, particularly by focusing on God, Satan, first creations and man.
The poet
John Milton is a renowned poet, who is sometimes regarded as a polemicist. The poet was born on 9th December 1608 (Milton XI) and has written several religious and political materials in his career. Born in London, the young Milton oversaw a shift of his religious views after being abandoned by his father. This was because, the young Milton who was brought up as a staunch Catholic converted to Protestantism.
However, Milton started to write poetry in the 1630s, while undergoing his studies. Much of Miltons poetry can be traced in the various literary materials that focus on Christian religion and politics (XIV). Until his death on 8th November 1674, the English author was known of his contribution to British partisanship, which is still a contentious issue in modern Britain.
The poetic style known as the Miltonic blank verse style is named after John Miltons poetic style, which is still relevant in both epic poetry and contemporary poetry.
Thesis statement
The poem Paradise Lost is an epic encounter that illuminates the significance of the disobedience of man to God. The poems emphasis on God, Satan, angels, and other godly creatures is of importance for man to understand Gods actions. The poem validates Christianity and offers relevance to the Christian religion.
Book Summary
As indicated earlier, the poem is an epic encounter of the Christian faith. The poem trends along with the story of the fall of man as a creature endowed with free will, but weak in faith. This is evidenced in the poems first lines, which introduce the subject of the poem. The first lines of the poem indicate the disobedience of man, the cause of the disobedience, the consequence and mans redemption.
Of man first disobedience/ and the fruit of that forbidden tree/ whose mortal taste brought death into the world/ and all our woe/ with loss of Eden/ till one greater man restore us&. (Milton 1-5).
The mentioning of the muses in the sixth line of the first verse is an indication that the fall of man may have been pre-planned for a greater significance in the future. A focus on the mentioning of the muses would reveal that Milton is referring to the Holy Spirit.
Sing heavenly muse/ that on the secret top of Oreb/ or Sinai, didst inspire (Milton 6-7)
The poet also mentions the aspects that define mans failure in the presence of God. For example, the poet asserts his presence to hell with Satan. He refers to hell as a burning inferno, where there is chaos in the middle of nowhere. It is in the first book of the poem that the poet introduces the universe structure.
In this regard, the universe is created by God and consists of the earth, the stars, and other planets. The poet implies that the earth is beautiful to the extent that Satan is amazed by such creation, once he falls from heaven.
From the poems first book, the reader is introduced to the poems characters. Some of these characters are deeply mentioned in Holy Scriptures. An example of such is the mention of angels, archangels and Satan. It seems that the fall of man started from heavenly wrangles between God and Satan. This is attested by the poet who describes Satan as bewildered, once he is thrown out of heave and notices Beelzebub.
Together and some other angels, Satan also recounts on how they should attack God after losing in their first ordeal. In this occurrence, the disobedience of man to God is premeditated, once Satan and his counterparts want to revenge against God through man.
The poet description of Satan is that of a powerful evil that still posses some of the angelic features, such as feathers and monstrous physique. At one point, the poet describes and compares Satans shield to a big moon and his pear to a huge mast of a big ship. The rise and reign of evil begin at this moment when Satan summons his fellow fallen angels and counterparts and organizes them into various responsibilities.
The mentioning of the pagan deities in the Bible, particularly in the Old Testament is likened by the poet to the leaders of the organized satanic angels. Such deities can be likened to the idol worshipping by the Israelites as numerously mentioned in the Old Testament.
Some of the pagan deities mentioned by Milton include the Chemos worshipped as a non-Hebrew god, soon after the Israelites came from Egypt. Another deity was Moloch popular in Syria and Jordan. Another deity was the Ashtoreth worshipped by the Phoenicians. Milton mentions a lot of deities that were part of the fallen angels.
As mentioned earlier, the fall of man may have been premeditated. However, such would not come easy considering that God had already created man. By using fraud, man could be used as the means to an end. The poet tries to show how Satan and his legions still deceive man through the greed of the material wealth.
From another perspective, the poem Paradise Lost is initialized by a focus on the beginning of the world, which was intended to be a paradise. God intention was to make the earth a paradise for his creations. However, such was lost along the way after the fall of Satan from heaven. Nonetheless, the poet tries to be truthful by using the Holy Spirit to imply his allegations as truthful.
The Holy Spirit is described as the muse, which is intended to keep the information truthful. This is revealed by Miltons mentioning of the fallen angels by their names. This is an exemplary way of ensuring that his poem does not pass as a myth like any other epic poem with a Greek or Latin origin.
While Greek and Latin mythology focuses on heroic figures like Achilles, Miltons story of the Paradise Lost is a journey for all mankind. Miltons epic story is about the good against the evil, which is the most horrific battle that continues to date.
The large part of book 1 of the Paradise Lost poem is a description of the satanic character. The poet tries to explain the struggles of Satan and the eventful deception of man by Satan. At this juncture, the reader may be swayed to think that Satan is the hero of the story or the protagonist of the story. Satan whispers into the year of Eve and deceives her into eating the forbidden fruit.
The success of Satans deception may be likened to a character of a protagonist. Most protagonists struggle and emerge successful in their ambitions. The introduction of Adam and Eve in the story does not shift this perception that Satan might be powerful than man. This is evidenced when Satan is described not to have wavered in his evil quest. In fact, he takes pride and delight in evil rather than good.
Falling Cherub, to be weak is miserable
Doing or suffering, but of this be sure
To do ought good never will be our task
But ever to do ill our delight& (Milton 157- 160).
Satan becomes more optimistic of his plans, and at one point he envisions himself becoming the king in hell. Satan is powerful to understand the power of the mind. He knows that the mind can be corrupted to make a heaven out of hell or vice versa.
Nonetheless, Satan powers are unmatched to that of God. God demonstrates his immense great powers by lifting up the fallen angles from the burning inferno and unites them with Satan. God must have had a greater plan than Satan.
Perhaps, God had premeditated the fall of man and wanted to demonstrate his powers to redeem man from Satans evil plans. This can be evidenced by God choosing his son Jesus Christ to save man by grace. However, Satan does not seem to understand this plan and continues with his pride and thinks his intellects matches that of God.
Ironically, the poet description of Satan has certain shortcomings. The initial intent of the poet was to describe a powerful satanic force. The poet does so by using similes of the burning lake, the pandemonium, the big mast, and a hill.
Lay floating many a rood, in bulk as huge/ as whom the fables name of monstrous size& (Milton 196-197).
Such use of similes indicates that the size of Satan is relative. This description makes the reader to believe that Satan may not be that powerful, big or mysterious.
The book 1 of the poem Paradise Lost portrays Satan as a loser who was incapable of killing even a single angel in their initial heavenly battle. The poem also portrays Satan as a hero of destruction and only excels in acts that bring forth war and atrocities. In this context, mankind is advised against gong into war with Satan without Gods help.
The poet leads the readers to question their admiration of martial strength and the character of heroes who exist in literature. In so doing, the reader is prompted into understanding the virtues of the Christian faith. These Christian virtues entail being obedient, humble and patient in persevering temptations.
It is important to acknowledge that Miltons description of Satan is not to provoke admiration from the reader. Milton does not expect empathy from the reader.
However, the poet wants the reader to notice the irony that surrounds Satan success. In fact, the poet wants the reader to understand that Satan only succeeds because God wants him to, but just for a while. It seems that Satan efforts and actions are also premeditated by another superior power, which is God.
The poet through symbolism creates the city of hell known as pandemonium, which Satan wants to perfect as hells capital. The city, which is made of gold, represents the worldly desires harbored by man. Nonetheless, the city is later revealed to be a sinful place that is full of confusion and disorder. This is a perfect representation of illusions of both Satan and man.
Conclusion
Three main themes are traceable in book 1 of the poem. The first theme is the significance of obedience to God in the Christian faith. The first book of the poem describes the disobedience of man as a succession of Satans rebellion against God. At one point, man is warned by angel Raphael that Satan is a threat to mankind. This depicts that obedience is a moral principle that depends on free will for its execution.
When free will is unable to counter against disobedience, mankind is doomed to continue into sin and moral degradation. The significance of disobedience to God has its own significance, since through repentance man is forgiven by God. The lack of acknowledgment of sin and repentance leads to eternal condemnation by God. To date, the significance of seeking forgiveness from God and repentance is a fundamental principle in the Christian faith.
The second theme depicted in the poem is the structure and nature of the universe. The poet gives a layout of the universe in his poem by depicting how God is positioned above all other things. In this context, heaven, hell, and earth are given various proximities in the universe. In this universal hierarchy, the poet positions various creations about Gods proximity. With each level of proximity, certain aspects of power are given to the same creations.
Above all, God is the Supreme Being of all and the creator of all other beings positioned in the universal hierarchy. Gods son Jesus Christ is amongst the top in the hierarchical commands, followed by angels and then a man and ultimately animals.
The positioning of Jesus Christ as superior to all angels prompted the rebellion of Satan and other fallen angels. In this respect, it is important to note that man can only remain obedient by respecting this hierarchy. To this very day, the Christians give allegiance to the Son Jesus Christ in respect to being obedient to God.
The final theme depicts disobedience to God as partly fortunate. After the revelation of the savior of humankind, Adam is happy and sees mans fault as a means to a happy ending. Through the fault of man, God can show his mighty power in redeeming the sinner.
Moreover, his love is depicted to be forever unending. Such Christian values are the foundation of the Christian faith that salvation comes from the Son of God. Basically, the fall of man is a plan of God to reveal his powers and love for mankind.
Works Cited
Kean, Margaret. John Miltons paradise lost: A sourcebook. New York: Routledge, 2005. Print.
Lewalski, K. Barbara. The life of John Milton: A critical biography. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2008. Print.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost, Books 1 and 2. California: CUP Archive, 1958. Print.
Milton, John. Paradise lost: A poem, in twelve books. The author John Milton. Oxford: Oxford University, 1746, p. 1-798. Print.
It is hard to disagree that, to understand most literary works, it is vital to pay attention to different levels of interpretation. Generally, a literary pieces main ideas are expressed directly, and additional efforts are not required from the audience to perceive the writers message. However, when the author wants to convey a more delicate or sacral meaning or refer to other literary works, religious, or historical concepts, they can use various literary devices. In this case, the message is only received by the most attentive readers. In The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe and Book IX of Paradise Lost by John Milton, there are numerous symbols that take these writings to another level. The purpose of the paper is to compare the use of symbolic roles of blood in the former and the wreath as the symbol of love and admiration in the latter.
The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus: Symbolic Roles of Blood
As mentioned earlier, the play is filled with different literary devices, including many symbols that play a great role in interpreting the writing. One such important element is the blood, which is mentioned throughout the play. Overall, one may say the blood is a symbol of the presence of supernatural and religious forces in the play, as well as sin, redemption, omen, and even revolt. All these symbolic roles are explored in detail in the following paragraphs.
The first scene to analyze is when Faustus wants to sign the contract and sell his soul to the devil. Having to sign with his blood, Faustus is surprised to see it congealed: his body revolts against such a sin (Ornstein 1380). Although he understands that this is most likely an omen of his actions being wrong, Faustus proceeds:
What might the staying of my blood portend? Is it unwilling I should write this bill? Why streams it not, that I may write afresh? FAUSTUS GIVES TO THEE HIS SOUL: ah, there it stayd! Why shouldst thou not? (Marlowe)
The symbolic role of blood here is to prevent the scholar from selling his soul and give him an opportunity to avoid this sin. Another scene to explore is the last night of Faustus when he sees the blood of Christ flowing through the air and being the symbol of repentance and redemption because, according to the religion, Christ redeemed mankind by spilling his own blood on the mountain of Golgotha (Tomi 22). Therefore, whenever blood appears in the play, it signifies a chance for Faustus to reconsider his actions and repent.
Book IX of Paradise Lost: Wreath as the Symbol of Love and Faith
Further, the epic poem by John Milton also includes numerous elements that have symbolic roles. For example, in Book IX, a wreath of flowers that Adam is willing to give Eve symbolizes his innocent, pure, and sincere feelings (Milton, lines 838-842). Adam realizes that he loves Eve, values her, and believes in her, which is why this wreath symbolizes the true concept of marriage and relationships:
Adam the while Waiting desirous her return, had wove Of choicest Flours a Garland to adorne Her Tresses, and her rural labours crown, As Reapers oft are wont thir Harvest Queen. (Milton, lines 838-842)
Nevertheless, the wreath also becomes a symbol of broken dreams, fading feelings, and disappointment. When Adam learns about Eves sin, the wreath falls from his arms, symbolizing the disappearing concept of relationships, love, marriage, and faith.
Comparing the Use of Symbolism
Further, it is possible to compare and contrast how these two different symbols are used by the authors. First, one may notice that the meaning of the blood in Marlowes play and the wreath in Miltons epic poem are colossal. Without them, the writers would not be able to convey such a deep meaning and indicate the changing atmosphere of the story or the negativity of the events. Both blood (redemption and sin) and wreath (faith) have religious meanings (Lewalski). Another similar trait of these symbols is that these common and almost ordinary elements are given these symbolic roles. Blood and flower wreaths are familiar to all readers, and they are unlikely to think about the religious or deep meanings of these elements.
As for contrasting Marlowes and Miltons approaches to symbolism, it is crucial to notice the nature of the message they convey. Blood is always seen by Faustus, and the character even manages to understand the omen and realize that this is indeed a sign for him. At the same time, the wreath, and especially its falling, is intended for the interpretation of the audience rather than for Adam and Eve (Carnes 523). Surely, Adam places his own meaning in the flower wreath, but it is for the readers to learn about the feeling of this character. Finally, while blood is mentioned often in the writing, the wreath appears only two times, but these symbols are equal in their power and significance.
Conclusion
To draw a conclusion, one may say that the analyzed symbols indeed play a great role in the two literary works. Marlowe uses blood to inform both Faustus and the readers about the nature of his actions and the opportunity for redemption. Milton gives Adam a wreath to show the audience his feelings for Eve, as well as the following death of his love and faith. These symbols have several noticeable differences and similarities but both indicate that this literary device is a powerful tool that makes a writings message deeper.
Works Cited
Carnes, Valerie. Time and Language in Miltons Paradise Lost. ELH, vol. 37, no. 4, 1970, pp. 517-539.
Lewalski, Barbara Kiefer. Structure and the Symbolism of Vision in Michaels Prophecy, Paradise Lost, Books XI-XII. Philological Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 1, 1963.
Milton, John. Book IX. The Argument. Paradise Lost, edited by Thomas H. Luxon. Trustees of Dartmouth College.Web.
Ornstein, Robert. Marlowe and God: The Tragic Theology of Dr. Faustus. Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, vol. 83, no. 5, 1968, pp. 13781385.
Tomi, Borna. The Occult Theory in the Elizabethan Age and Christopher Marlowes Doctor Faustus. 2022. University of Pula, PhD dissertation.
Ramayan and Paradise lost deal with the theme of mythology. The ideas, events, and characters portrayed in these epics have a significant basis in reality. These myths that the authors write about were about tales that served as the basis for two very different cultures.
Dealing with these myths and symbols especially those that go beyond merely personal and that comprise of some connections to the wider ethnicity, it will be relevant to refer to the theory of archetypes which sees myths as originating from symbols stored in the collective unconscious. In this paper, women play a major role in the lives of their male counterparts. In Paradise Lost, Eve is seen as strong and props up Adam while In Ramayana, the women are subservient to their men.
John Miltons epic poem Paradise Lost gives women a lot of credit for the male accomplishments. All the female characters in this epic were created by their male counterparts through loyalty, inspiration or submission, and were empowered. It was only through the females that their males characters were subsequently empowered to be able to create or make use of the creations they possessed (Empson 65). This is what differs with women in Ramayana.
The distinctive character that Eve portrays is seen as one of the signs acting as an embodiment from unconscious. This shows that the females were like the soul of the male beings which gave them life. With the souls plays of cunning illusions, the females lure into life the inert matter which is not keen on living and thus comes up with numerous snares to make man fall. This is seen when Eve in the Garden of Eden does everything possible to convince Adam of the righteousness of the forbidden fruit.
With the archetype of the woman, enters the realm of which everything she associates with becomes dangerous, magical, and taboo. Eve is characterized by the serpent existing in Adams safe haven with proper and honest intentions. Here, Eve succeeds in making Adam unconsciously succumb to her whims through her charming effects into the mans silence that did not need awakening (Lewis 45).
The portrait of Eve in Miltons Paradise lost is a literary portrait that represents one mans conscious effort with a knowledgeable and definite personality and system of beliefs. Her decision to eat the fruit is connected with the wish for knowledge.
However, these attributes of isolation and individuation brings her out more than just a cultural sign. Milton expects that the man must be in the high position within the male and female relationship but he also concedes that with the absence of women, men would be without powers needed to execute the actions that are necessary for their development.
On the other hand, the female characters in Ramayana are seen as meek and submissive to their husbands. Even though their husbands were insensitive and acted according to will, the women remained loyal to them (Brockington 58). A case is when Urmila spent fourteen years feeding an oil lamp with oil to keep the flame burning.
She was afraid that if the flame was extinguished, then her husbands life would end too. Throughout the story, the role of the female characters is that of love and compassion to the males. Both Kausula and Kaikeyi are portrayed as loving mothers to their sons Rama and Bharata.
They go out of their way to see that their sons live happily. They always prayed for their sons success and safety and praised them when they made bold decisions. In Ramayan, Sita is the central character. However, her role is in sharp contrast to that of Eve. She is a clear archetype of fertility. The nature of the epic can make as easily classify Sita as the ideal type of female character who is fully individualized. In her introduction, Sita is referred by the writer as faithful.
This is a description which is further applied to her regularly in the epic. It foreshadows her resistance and trials to Ravans overtures. Her comparison to her husbands shadow suggests that wives were inextricably linked to their husbands and that the wives were given a secondary role to the masculine substance (Dutt and Trans 101).
In Ramayana, women are portrayed as very vulnerable and unprotected by their husbands and such vulnerability led to Sita being kidnapped by Rama. Just like in Paradise Lost, there is that illusory desire to do good and the evidence that when a woman is separated from her protector, she becomes vulnerable to temptation and incarceration.
Both epics therefore illustrate that a womans desire for something else other than the highest good is engendered and results to terrible consequences such as the loss of the Garden of Eden in Paradise Lost and a horrific war in Ramayana. Most importantly, both essays speak of the vital role women play in the lives of men.
Works Cited
Brockington, Jerry. Righteous Rama: The Evolution of an Epic. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984. Print.
Dutt, Richard., and Clay, Trans. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata. London: Dent, 1910. Print.
Empson, Wilson. Miltons God. London: Chatto & Windus, 1961. Print.
Lewis, Scott. Preface to Paradise Lost. New York: Oxford University Press, 1942. Print.
John Milton was born on the date 9 December 1608 and died on 8 November 1674. He was a known and successful English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He great works include at a time of religious flux and political upheaval, and is best work of all time is his epic poem Paradise Lost written by him on the year 1667, written in blank verse.
Milton’s poetry and prose reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self-determination, and the main issues and political problems of his day. This piece of art is written in English, Latin, Greek, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica (1644)—written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship—is among history’s most influential and impassioned defenses of free speech and freedom of the press.
Introduction
John Milton has achieved many things and written great pieces of literature over his life span but Paradise Lost is kind of the big kahuna of his work. It rises above all his other works in various aspects. It in fact is one of the most known and recognized piece in the world of English literature. Milton and Shakespeare are recognized as the most known and important figures in the world of English literature. It was published in 1667, and Paradise Lost is the recreation of the Biblical story of the ‘Fall of Man,’ mostly taken from the Book of Genesis, and it’s through the lens of Greco-Roman epics like
Decades and centuries after being published critics are still arguing about the most basic aspects of the work, which is fitting – all of his writing inspired controversy. His books made people rethink and change their perception over different things
As we mentioned, Paradise Lost was published in 1667. It’s 10,000 lines long, so it’s an undertaking if you want to read the whole thing. It’s blank-verse, so it doesn’t rhyme, and it’s broken up into ten books. Actually, later editions of it broke it into 12 to try to mimic The Aeneid, which is the Latin poet Virgil’s major work.
Paradise lost was released by john Milton near the end of his life, that concludes that paradise lost was written by Milton when he had no sight to his aid and was also out of political favor. In fact it is believed that he was wanted by the authorities during that time. He wrote exemplary piece of literature by dictating it to his daughter because he was unable to see.
Paradise Lost follows two strands of narrative. In one strand he talks about Satan who’s the rebellious angel, also known as Lucifer, who was thrown out of heavens and into Hell. In the epic we can also see the setting of Eden’s garden where he mentions about the familiar resident couple, Adam and Eve, as Satan switches from Greek-tinged anti-hero to antagonist and tricks them into committing the Original Sin. It bears repeating that the plot outline of Paradise Lost is basically in the Book of Genesis.
Milton has used language so skillfully to dramatize the biblical story in a whole new and compelling way. Actually in such a compelling way, in such a long-lasting way, that a lot of our understanding of Genesis is actually influenced by Paradise Lost. So they kind of become synonymous in the way that we think about the creation story.
Themes of Paradise Lost
Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas described in a literary work. Milton chose Biblical theme for his epic, the fall of man from paradise on account of his sins. The following are the main themes:
Theme of Jealousy in Paradise Lost
The theme of jealousy us evident in the whole epic, Satan is jealous over the fact that a creature weaker than him , made out of soil and not fire gets to enjoy the luxurious life of heaven when he himself in abandoned and thrown in hell. Jealousy may also be attributed to Eve who falls in to the hands and schemes of Satan only because of her own free nature and free will. But she puts the blame on Adam for her fall and fears that Adam will continue to enjoy the fruit and bliss of heaven and she will be left alone. She is jealous of Adam’s happiness in Heaven if he is left alone.
Theme of Revenge and Forgiveness
Satan and his partakers wishes to get his revenge. While forgiveness is sought by man alone for a sin which was committed by them under illusions and false colouring. Satan, a fallen angle would not seek repentance while man is willing to bow before God for His grace.
Theme of Fate and Free Will
Fate and free will are major and important topics in The Paradise Lost. God reveals to them that he knows what will happen to Adam and Eve in the upcoming future, but resolutely denies that there is any such thing as fate. God knows what will happen (that Adam and Eve will disobey him) just like we know the sun will rise tomorrow and the moon will come out every night. So it might seem sometimes like Adam and Eve never had a chance, but according to Milton, that’s just not true. After all, it’s not God’s fault that he can see everything that will happen as if it has already happened.
Theme of Love
Love is the basic human feeling and the most discussed since creation. Love is something everyone strives for. Milton has presented love on two levels, and these two levels of love are human and Godly; this is the type of love Adam has for Eve, which forces him to share the punishment and consequences with her. He is not happy with Eve for having fallen to Satan but he still commits the crime by sharing her lot and eats the fruit of forbidden tree. On the other hand, God is angry with mankind yet he would not abandon them. He would bestow his grace upon them: ‘Man shall not quite be lost, but saved who will, yet not of will in him, but grace in me”.
Theme of Pride and its Role in Paradise Lost
Satan is full of pride and considers himself wise and powerful. He rebels under the same illusion of his might and get destroyed by God in a single moment. Satan, though lost and hurled into the abyss of hell, still considers himself superior and attributes the superiority of God to His sceptre without which He would not defeat Satan. God humiliates man but he does not surrender before God and decides to fight forever.
Theme of Innocence
Paradise lost takes place basically in a time and place when pass away, immoral act, and lying didn’t exist. In other words it deals with a time when people of this world were very virtuous. While Milton is a very good painter and paints the picture of decency.
Theme of Lies and Deceit
In Paradise Lost, Satan is a good deceiver. He told lies to Eve, telling her that all the Forbidden fruits has the power. But actually it doesn’t. Beyond that, he is able to agree a third of the angels that God is unfair. He deceive people and convince them to leave the heaven.
Explanation: The theme of Paradise Lost is vast universal. It covers and highlights the fortunes not of a city or an empire but also the whole human race, taking a particular incident from history that sealed our fate and destiny.
Which of These Concepts are Major Themes of Paradise Lost?
The story of Paradise Lost is Biblical and theme falls into three parts, the major themes of this epic are the theme of disobedience, manifestation of Eternal Providence, and justification of Divine ways. All these themes are complete and support each other.
The first part of the theme focuses on the obedience to God’s commandments is imperative at all costs. Clearly stating gods rule and words rise above all odds and are unchangeable. In Paradise, God only warns Adam and Eve not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge. Only one condition was imposed on them. The prohibition is not so much a matter of fruit of a tree as it is obeying God’s ordinance. By not obeying God’s commandment, Adam and Eve brought calamity and destruction into their lives, and the lives of all mankind and all of humanity.
Milton’s theme of Paradise Lost, however, does end with the idea of disobedience. Milton says that he will assert Eternal Providence. If man had never disobeyed God, death would have never entered the world and Man would have become lesser angel. Because Adam and Eve gave into temptation and disobeyed God, they provided an opportunity for the manifestation of God’s love, mercy and grace so that fall ultimately produces a greater good than would have happened otherwise.
“Milton’s heart was not in that sort of justification, whatever he might have consciously thought.”
Those critics condemn Milton that by using word justify, Milton is arrogantly asserting that God’s motives and actions seem so arbitrary that they need vindication and explanation. However Milton’s theme of justifying God’s ways is not as arrogant as some critics think. Milton uses the word justify in the sense of showing justice that underlies an action. Moreover because of Satan’s allegations, Milton is compelled to speak God’s case to us or in his own words to “justify the ways of God to men”.
It is easy to fall victim to the idea of how limited, in the sense that we constantly feel restricted by society’s standards. Yet, we are reminded of our existence and expectation that God has for us. Religion – easily summarized as the study of life and faith further solidifies our existence. It focuses on how God brought the world into physical and chemical structures, our function, development, and evolution. It also reminds us of the reasons the human race disconnected from God. Furthermore, this essay is going to concentrate on the similarities and differences between Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise. Dante and Milton are two unique individuals who have several views several on God, Satan, Hell, and Heaven. Both works inspired readers to view religious from a very different perspective. In Milton’s Paradise Lost Satan’s appearance is deceiving. On the other hand, Dante simple depicts Satan as his own obstanch.
The figure of Satan in the Christian convention has constantly spoken to a beast that is just equipped for homicide, debasement, homosexuality, brutishness, and mercilessness. Be that as it may, in Milton’s Paradise, the job of Lucifer is portrayed uniquely in contrast to the real evil spirits in the Christian convention. In contrast to Dante, Milton’s Satan is unified with remarkable attributes. Satan is at first displayed as an overcomes, and solid legend who was endeavoring to oust God to give him and the other angels freedom. Satan was kicked out of heaven because he raises an army against God. Milton’s Satan still has power, wings, and scaly skin. This illustrates that Satan still has the freedom and authority to do whatever he wants. The appearance of Satan is inspiring and magnificent. As a reader, it is very easy to sympathize with Satan. Satan is presented as an innocent character who is being victimized by God. For example, In chapter two of Paradise lost, Mammon stated that “this must be our task in Heaven, this our delight; how wearisome eternity so spend in worship paid to whom we hate” ( Paradise Lost pg.49 line 246). This statement make it seem like God is this authoritarian figure, that is controlling and inconsiderate. God is described as a bossy king who has absolute powers and he is using it to condemn his subjects. Unlike the Catholic tradition, Milton provides space for Satan to appear as something other than what he actually is.
In addition, Milton portrays hellfire as a dim spot with copying flares. Hell is presented as one of the worst places but Satan chooses to stay there and to build his own kingdom. Satan wants to be like God and ruled over people. According to Milton satan states that “ we can make a heaven of hell, a hell of heaven. Here at least we shall be free, here we may reign secure, and in my choice…” Paradise Lost pg 17 line 250 ). This statement introduced Satan as a rebellious being. He is refusing to repent and submit to God authority. Instead, he is planning on how to make hell heaven and successful convicting the angels to make him their king. Following Satan goes as far destroying mankind to get revenge on God. Although Satan is introduced as a hero, and he represents temptation that people need to resist because he is smart and dangerous. Satan might appear like a hero but his behavior is manipulative and conning.
On the other hand, the description of luciferin Inferno by Dante was very different from Paradise Lost by Milton. Dante presents Lucifer as a weak animal that is stuck amidst the universe; hanging tight for the day of Judgment. According to Dante “ figure of Lucifer frozen in the ice at the very center universe, can they hope to make their way out”( The portable Dante pg. xxxiii) The ice signifies that Satan is bound and he lacks the ability to freely move around. Dante guarantees that the beast had spirits of individuals in his mouth, and he has around three heads assault on his body. This demonstrates Satan’s dominion over hell. Dante specifies that Satan was expelled from paradise however Satan was for the most part in damnation since he was a double crosser. Satan sold out and gadget many individuals including Caesar.
The Hell we find out about in Paradise Lost is not the same as the first damnation that Dante detailed in the inferno. Dante portrays hellfire as a spot that had both murkiness, and light. Hell was separated into various areas, and it was portrayed as a spot that was separated relying upon the transgressions submitted. Dante report hell as a place that represents justice. Each sinner is placed in an area based on their crime and they are dealing with their punishment until they repent and relocate to another place that is more closer to light or God. In hell, the circle determines how righteous and weak the souls are. Dante identifies the souls base on the circles. While Satan is the head of the nine circles, he is helpless and only used his cold wings to constantly freeze the sinners, so that makes it impossible for the sinful soul to move up to a higher level. Dante states that “ I am in the third circle, in the round of rain eternal, cursed, cold, and falling heavy, unchanging beat, unchanging quality” ( The portable Dante pg. 32). The organization of the nine circle consists of limb, lust, gluttony, greed, anger, heresy, violence, fraud, and treachery. Satan was placed in the last circle and everyone is trying to repent and at least make it to purgatory but satan is making it difficult for them.
Another important thing that set Dante apart from Milton is the idea of purgatory. Milton did not believe in purgatory or the idea of predestination. However, Dante was not a righteous person and he needed spiritual growth. Purgatory was a place where Dante experience a different level of pain, it allows him the opportunity to spiritual growth and gives him the hope of going to paradise. Furthermore, Dante and Milton also have different spiritual individualities and political views. It is proper to say that Milton had a better relationship with God than Dante. Milton was already in a position that made him spiritually ready. Dante has to go to hell in order to get to paradise. Secondly, Milton was a priest, and he did not support the monarchy. His reason for rejecting the form of government that gives power to one individual is because he believed that no human being deserves to be given the position of God. Milton strongly believed that the only person who deserves to rule with the question is the almighty God, as he is the creator of the universe, therefore, he has the full right to be king and ruler. For example, in paradise lost Milton’s states that “ now had the almighty father from above, from the pure Empyrean where he sits high throned above all height, bent down his eye, his own works, and their works at once to view” ( paradise lose pg.81: line 55). Milton statement proves that God deserves to have all the power because he has the ability to be everywhere. He is eternal and has no limit but he also does not have an effect on what goes on in human being life. God give his creation the freedom to love, hate, do good or the desire to do bad.
Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise Lost have some interest similarities. They both agree that a hell is a place that sinners go to face consequences. They also explained that Satan was kicked out of heaven because he wanted to be like God and have control over the world. Both individual also considers paradise to be heaven. The location of paradise is pointed on top. It is also described as a place of light, peace, wonder, and the presence of God is there. Both individuals presented satan as an agent of evil. This similar are important because it show how believes with different religious background have similar ideas about the afterlife.
Overall, Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise Lost raise up a very good point which is still relevant in today’s society. However, Dante’s Inferno is more relatable because it makes readers to understand that God is a God of justice, he is just not bossy or controlling. Milton’s Paradise Lost lack the ability to make the reader understand right from the start that God just want the right thing for his creation. Although Milton’s Paradise Lost differentiate God and Satan, Heaven and Hell; he confuses his reader by presenting Satan as the hero first. Last but not least , Dante’s Inferno and Milton’s Paradise Lost clarify that having a good relationship with God is based on having good characteristics such as: being humble, having good nature, obeying God laws and most importantly not have too much pride.
An analysis of Milton’s use of dreaming as a crucial motif and idea throughout Paradise Lost, especially in the four books preceding the fall, is one of the most revealing ways of analysing the reasoning and events leading to the Fall. Dreams, specifically Eve’s Satanically inspired dream in Books VI and V, have been the subject of fairly extensive critical debate, particularly surrounding the dream’s implications with relation to the fall. Where mid- 20th century critics such as Tillyard argue that “the first stage [of the fall] is Eve’s dream” (11), more recent criticism tends to attribute more agency to Eve, a contrast I shall explore in this essay. The importance and thus the precedence of ideas received in sleep, and in dream form, is reflected in Milton’s own views and experiences.Writing in the Times Literary Supplement, John Carey references Milton’s invocation of Urania, the heavenly muse of astronomy and navigation, in the first 40 lines of Book VII. My interpretation of this, is an explanation for Milton’s use of sleep and dreaming to impart supernatural information in this section of Paradise Lost. If Urania’s “celestial song” (VII.12) is imparted to Milton in his sleep, and enables him to “sing with mortal voice” (VII.24), then we can naturally draw parallels between this. Likewise, in his introductory invocation (I.1—26), he implores to his Muse: “What in me is dark/Illumine, what is low raise and support;/That to the heighth of this great argument/I may assert eternal providence,/And justify the ways of God to men” (I.22—26). Aside from being one of the most important lines in the poem — as it clearly sets out Milton’s stated aim — the idea that dreams are able to inspire clarity, illuminate Man’s internal psyche, and ultimately bolster Milton’s “argument”, is pivotal to my critical reading of Paradise Lost. Furthermore, this concept is again referenced preceding the pivotal events of book 9 — “Her nightly visitation unimplored,/And dictates to me slumbering” (IX.22—23). In this particular invocation, it is clear that Milton feels in order to fully articulate the pre/post-lapsarian shift, he must be inspired in sleep. Of Milton’s use of dreams, Carey argues that it reveals the existence of both a conscious and subconscious poem. From this, it is not untenable to argue that when dreams and sleep are used as devices in Paradise Lost, they are able to subvert the explicit meanings in the text.
Dreams are not simply, to Milton at least, manifestations of a fancy that can only appear in sleep — they are voices from other planes, with the aim of impacting reality. Thus, if Milton receives divine inspiration through dreams, we can apply the same idea to the supernatural dreams received by Adam and Eve. In this essay, I shall argue that, following Satan’s defeat and fall, the way in which he exacts his revenge on mankind is primarily through the usage of dreams and sleep. This is illustrated not only by the dreams he invokes, but the use of all kinds of dreaming throughout the poem. The battleground changes from a physical one, to a mental one in the minds of Man.
In Book IV, we see Satan’s reasoning behind creating Eve’s dream — namely, that God’s command to stay away from the Tree of Knowledge provides “Oh fair foundation laid whereon to build/Their ruin; hence I will excite their minds” (IV.519—520). Additionally, we later see him “Squat like a toad” (IV.798), caught in the act by Gabriel. Satan’s role in Book IV is markedly different to the soldier portrayed in the first 3 books — he becomes a spy, hence the use of the image of a squatting toad. He is able to lose all semblance of an angel, instead resembling a base animal, foreshadowing his transformation into a serpent. It is in this form he utilises dreams to influence Eve — his change in stature reflects his changing methods and his changing aims. At the end of Book IV, Satan’s transformation appears to be complete. He chooses not to challenge Gabriel physically — and instead “fled, murmuring” (IV.1014—1015). McColgan takes this argument further, asserting that “This dream, then, is not an indication of what Eve is but rather of what Satan has become” (142), an idea that strengthens the argument that the dream is Satan’s, not a manifestation of Eve’s intrinsic desire to be tempted. Benet agrees, arguing that the human propensity to sin comes from a Satanic invasion. She does concede, that in a balanced contextual and textual reading, this is another form of determinism, and Eve does still have “causal agency” (49). Put more simply, the existence of the dream provides an interpretive ambiguity apparently at odds with the seemingly straightforward explicit message of the poem. Wiznura describes this as the “problem of interpretation” (108) created by the varying perspectives of the dream. It lacks clarity and is itself a metaphor for the counter-Edenic chaos it appears to present.
The recounting of the dream itself, bears a different tone to that of an external perspective. Millicent Bell argues that “the rehearsal of the temptation presented in Eve’s dream already moves her across the border this side of innocence” (867). The lack of agency ascribed to Eve is interesting in this interpretation — she is simply a victim of her own unconscious weakness. Though I see merit in the idea that the dream represents a removal of Eve’s innocence, it appears that the dream merely offers the possibility of temptation. On the tone of the recounting in Book V, Bell also argues that “we relive with Eve the amazing night in which a gentle male voice (‘I thought it thine,’ she says to Adam) calls her into the moonlit woods” (871), arguing for an explicitly romantic tone. This is compounded in Eve’s description of the sounds in the dream — “the night-warbling bird that now awake/Tunes sweetest his love laboured song” (V.40—41). A fundamental function of the dream is that Adam is not there — instead the romantic (and secular, as McColgan points out: “formation of the sacred into the secular in Eve’s dream” (141)) connection is made between Eve and Satan, and by extension Satan’s defining character trait: disobedience. Bell argues that the blame is placed on Eve for her susceptibility (871), and agrees with Tillyard in that the dream (the reception of which Eve is blameless) is the first indication of the inevitability of the fall. Of this, Petty argues that “Regardless of how well one may think it works, Eve’s dream spans the chasm between innocence and knowledge” (43), and with this I certainly agree. Both Tillyard and Bell take this argument further, arguing that the dream symbolises a loss of innocence, but it simply opens up the possibility of knowledge and loss of innocence, hitherto unknown.
McColgan, on the other hand, argues that “the script is Satan’s, not Eve’s who helplessly plays the role in which she is cast” (142), and my analysis of the opening of Book V concurs broadly with this assertion. Adam’s immaculate sleep helps to articulate Eve’s restlessness and evil dreams — a concept that theoretically contrasts with idea of “paradise”. Contrasts in language arise, as “When Adam wakes, so customed, for his sleep/Was airy light from pure digestion bred/and temperate vapours bland which th’ only sound/Of leaves and fuming rolls, Aurora’s fan/Lightly dispersed” (V.3—7) — an intensely Edenic and flawless portrayal, contrasts heavily with Eve’s awakening: “of offence and trouble which my mind/knew never till this irksome night” (V.34—35). The simple fact that Eve immediately awakens in a restless state provides textual evidence suggesting that her subconscious has not fallen into temptation. However, the dream does open possibilities previously unrealised — “much fairer to my fancy than by day” (V.53). Robert Wiznura argues that “The dream Satan implants forces Eve to entertain the possibility of disobedience” (Wiznura 109), and I agree. Wiznura argues that Eve’s reaction to the dream indicates a conscious rejection of the temptation proposed in the dream, and on this point, I agree. Though the dream evidently foreshadows the actualisation of the vision, it is by no means prophetic — Eve appears to have free will to a certain degree. Adam’s reassurances compound this, as he philosophises that “Evil into the mind of God or man/May come and go, so unreproved, and leave/No spot or blame behind” (V.117—119). Though Adam does not necessarily have knowledge of Evil thus far, his words nonetheless clearly absolve Eve of blame for having had the dream incepted into her. Thus, the only possible agency she is granted is in her reaction to the dream, and as previously discussed she consciously chooses to reject its message.
A key idea that works in tandem with dreams, is that of “fancy” — in this context, as a contrast to “reason”. Adam’s interpretation is:
“But apt the mind or fancy is to rove/Unchecked, and of her roving is no end;/Till warned, or by experience taught, she learn,/That, not to know at large of things remote/From use, obscure and subtle; but, to know/That which before us lies in daily life,/Is the prime wisdom” (VIII.188—194).
Bell argues that the idea of “fancy” put across in these words contrast with his reassurances to Eve about Evil — if it is her fancy that is wandering in these dreams, then surely it is her own mind that is wandering, not simply a Satanic invasion. She argues that Adam’s logic is fundamentally flawed; “His speculations on the wandering action of the Fancy during the hours when sleep overcomes the Reason are wide of this particular mark”. On the other hand, Wiznura argues that “Fancy appears as something of a manifestation of the chaotic, of the mixture, of a return to the indistinguishable and uninformed matter that preceded creation. Fancy is the home of possibility, of multiplication, duplication, conjugation, and endless permutations. Fancy reflects an order distinct from creation and reflects the order/disorder of pre—creation, or chaos” (Wiznura 115). Combining these ideas, it appears that Eve’s dream simply introduces the concept of self determination, through the usage of “roving Fancy”. Indeed, it is her “roving fancy” that leads to a physical manifestation of the dream — the symbolic separation at the beginning of Book IX. Their debate culminates in Adam’s acceptance of her suggestion to divide their labours — “Go in thy native innocence” (207). Yet, if her “Fancy” has previously entertained the possibility of disobedience without Adam, then her wandering away from him will lead to temptation. Satan tempts Eve through her dream, and this thus leads to the mindset where she is comfortable working away from Adam. Diane McColley, however, argues that the dream “allows a growth in moral understanding and the proper use of fancy that might have proceeded in innocence” (41). This again reinforces my argument that Eve still has a certain amount of agency, and has not necessarily fallen.
The dream is also pivotal as it subverts the foundation of Adam and Eve’s relationship. Eve recalls that “I rose at thy call but found thee not” (V.47), implying that in the dream scenario, Satan has essentially replaced Adam as the one that dictates Eve’s actions (allegorised by control of her waking and sleeping). Contrasts do arise in her recounting of the dream — the fact that she feels “high exaltation” (V.89) having eaten the fruit lends credence to the arguments of Bell and Tillyard, in that due to the dream format, Eve subconsciously links the forbidden fruit to “exaltation”, even if when awake she rejects this message. However, on balance, this is less a case of prolepsis and more evidence of Milton’s desire to show Satan’s cunning, especially when the option of physical battle no longer exists. Though the dream does not directly suggest that Eve was predestined to have fallen, utilising other dreams as foils to her Satanic dream indicates the asymmetric information delivered to the couple. The motif of hands is an important one used throughout, especially with respect to relationships. Adam “Her hand soft touching, whispered thus. Awake” (V.17), and with Eve “Thus talking, hand in hand alone they passed” (IV.687). Likewise, in Adam’s recounting of his post-creation dream (which serves as a foil to Eve’s Satanic dream), “So saying, by the hand He took me raised,/And over fields and waters, as in air/Smooth-sliding without step” (VIII.300—302). Even in dreams, the importance of this physical connection is stressed — implying the hierarchal nature of Eden. God leads Adam, and Adam and Eve go hand in hand. However, a contrast with Eve’s dream is that she is not physically “led” anywhere. Eve’s dream is a subtle, nuanced temptation, induced by Satan, whereas Adam’s divine dream is didactic, as he is literally taken by the hand. Both the language, and framing (God first speaks to Adam and Satan first speaks to Eve, in dreams) used is strikingly similar, and the effect of this is essentially to elicit comparison. Eve describes “The pleasant savoury smell/So quickened appetite that I, methought,/Could not but taste” (V.84—86), and Adam describes “Loaden with fairest fruit that hung to th’ eye/Tempting stirred in me sudden appetite/To pluck and eat” (VIII.307—309). Both describe an apparently involuntary biological reaction, yet as Eve is tempted where Adam is led, Eve’s dream is seen as a sign of her inherent flaws. Adam is allowed to succumb to his temptation, whereas Eve is forbidden from her temptation. Likewise, Adam describes “a dream/Whose inward apparition gently moved/My fancy” (VIII.292—294), yet when Eve’s fancy is moved, it is seen as sinful, further highlighting the ways in which dreams can be used to analyse the unequal prelapsarian gender dynamics. In addition to this, as Eve is ostensibly inferior, then it has been apparently deigned that she will not receive celestial dreams. This is shown even when Raphael is commanded to appear to Adam, for fear that “how disturbed/This night the human pair, how he designs/In them at once to ruin all mankind” (V.226—228). Not only does this indicate God’s awareness of the precedence of the impact of dreams in the determination of mankind, he follows with “Converse with Adam” (V.230), and “Lest wilfully transgressing he pretend/Surprisal” (V.244—245). In God’s conversation with Raphael, Eve isn’t even mentioned — thus, he places the burden of saving Eve, from what Benet refers to as Satan’s “poison” (41), on Adam, who only had access to the dream through Eve. Here, Eve is denied agency to deal with the dream — thus we cannot blame her for later being influenced by a dream which deliberately separates her from Adam.
Directly following the Fall, sleep changes from a poetically beautiful concept to one linked to Sin — a clear representation of the postlapsarian shift. Having “taken their fill of love” (IX.1043), “dewy sleep/Oppressed them” (IX.1044—1045), a clear contrast to Adam’s previous sleeps in particular — namely, his “love dream” containing the creation Eve, and his initial “creation dream”, where he receives divine inspiration. Dreams are described — “grosser sleep,/Bred of unkindly fumes, with conscious dreams/Incumbered” (IX.1049—1051). This inversion of the dream motif bears a clear link to Eve’s Satanic dream, yet more severe, and importantly, not inspired by a higher power. The dreaming is entirely the product of their own free will. It is following this episode of dreaming, that postlapsarian Eden truly manifests itself, and the ramifications of the Fall become clear. However, the final instance of dreaming in the poem comes in Book XII, and indicate that irrespective of their result, dreams provide Adam and Eve with access to planes of understanding inaccessible when awake. Eve’s statement “God is also in sleep, and dreams advise/Which he has sent” (XII.611—612), seems to imply that Michael’s explanation of the future of humanity to Adam has had the same effect as God’s explanation to Eve in a dream. Of this, Webber posits that “Although both attend to lectures, Eve is more responsive to dreams: the work of reeducating her after the Fall thus is much less laborious than that of teaching Adam” (16), and this ties into my previous arguments. Similarly, McColgan argues that “this statement, emphatically placed near the end of Book XII, brings to closure an important theme of Milton’s poem, that both God and Satan work through dreams” (135), further reinforcing the idea that dreams are able to illuminate, in the same way that they inspired the writing of Paradise Lost itself. Adam and Eve receive differing treatments throughout, yet when dreams are utilised, they appear to symbolise a higher understanding, through fancy, instead of reason. This unification is symbolised in their final image — “they hand in hand with wandering steps and slow/Through Eden took their solitary way” (XII.649). This is the final way in which dreams are able to illuminate reality — the solitude and possibility for self-determination of Eve’s Satanic dream combines with the unity espoused in the dreams sent to Adam, and the pair are able to move forward, out of Eden, with free will intact.
To conclude, then, it has been clearly established that, as Petty asserts, ‘the function of the dreams is to lend credibility, realism, and naturalness to the flow of events” (46), as well as adding another plane of understanding with the opposition of Fancy and Reason. Additionally, the usage of the dream by Satan introduces complexity to the character of Eve, by offering her the possibility of disobedience. The visions and dreams following the Fall, in Book XII, provides hope for a future in a way that other mediums cannot. With respect to free will, Benet argues that “Paradise Lost directly addresses readers who attribute too much power to Satan: ‘Happiness [is] in [man’s] power left free to will / Left to his own free Will’ (5.235-36). But it also addresses those who attribute too little power to the apostate” (50), and this is an argument similar to mine — the existence of dreams in the narrative indicate the possibility for free will, yet Satan’s influence is clear and deliberate.
In Paradise Lost, John Milton attempts to fill in the theological and literary gaps in the Bible. One way that Milton does this is by expanding on the idea of the seven deadly sins; the sins include pride, wrath, sloth, greed, envy, gluttony, and lust. In the epic poem, a certain devil represents a specific sin. Satan, for example, displays the sin that leads to most other sins: pride. When he is under God, he grows jealous and feels he deserves more than what God bestowed to him. He gathers other angels and leads a rebellion; for this act of treason, God cast them all to Hell as punishment. Milton uses Satan and the devils’ need for revenge to showcase how they advocate for sin. In Book 2, Milton uses Moloch, Belial, and Mammon to represent the deadly sins wrath, sloth, and greed.
In Book 2, Satan gathers his army in Pandaemonium to hear ideas on how to get revenge against God. Moloch is the first to speak; he suggests that they go to war and use the weapons that they have gathered in hell against the “Torturer” God (Milton). He reasons that their lives cannot get any worse, so why not try to at least disrupt the peace of heaven and possibly wound God. In Moloch’s plan they still get revenge, even though they may not gain victory. The “strongest and fiercest Spirit that fought in Heav’n” wants to fight it out until the end (Milton). Moloch was one of the most belligerent warriors in the war, so it is fitting that he represents the sin wrath. He does not hide his anger towards God; because of this, his immediate reaction is to become violent.
Belial is the next to suggest an idea which contradicts that of Moloch. Belial’s plan is to simply stay put and do nothing. He argues that God is too well guarded and if they fight what are the chances that God can make it worse. He points out that they are currently sitting and peacefully debating instead of being chained to the lake of fire. So, if their “present lot appears for happy though but ill, for ill not worst,” why should they ask for more trouble by angering the “almighty victor” (Milton). Belial is a well-spoken devil and uses his witty way with words to try to get out of doing anything. He is a good example of the sin sloth because his plan may sound nice, but it is lazy for a warrior to want to do nothing.
After Belial, Mammon says that his idea for revenge is to stay put, but he suggests they can make a “Heav’n of Hell, a Hell of Heav’n” by redecorating (Milton). He argues that there is no point of fighting because they could end up back in heaven and face oppression once again. He agrees that it is “better to reign in hell than to serve in heaven,’’ which is what Satan told Beelzebub in Book 1 (Milton). Mammon believes that they should focus on making the best of the power and riches that comes with Hell; he likes that they have freedom even if it comes with a price and he is not willing to give up anything, so the sin he best represents is greed. He believes that by redecorating Hell they can have both freedom and a nice place to live.
In attempt to fill in the theological and literary gaps in the Bible, Milton dives into each character and gives the reader a descriptive vision to provide a glimpse of how the devils think and feel. Milton makes the antagonist, Satan, one of the most dynamic characters in the poem. He gives the readers a chance to see how and why Satan accomplishes the fall of man. Milton uses the devils distinctively to personify the sins, providing the readers with an impression of what each sin looks like, and to warn them to try not to fall into the same mind set as the devils in the poem. By filling in those gaps, Milton attempts to answer questions people, himself included, have wanted to know since they first heard the stories from the Bible.
William Shakespeare’s play Twelfth Night and John Milton’s epic poem Paradise Lost, challenge the traditional conservative views of women. Twelfth Night demonstrates a radical and powerful presentation of women as they control and dominate the actions of the characters and plot line. Paradise Lost provides an interpretation of the Biblical text of the fall of man, as the poem presents Eve as a heroic figure willing to sacrifice herself for the greater good. However, Twelfth Night and Paradise Lost fail to fully complete the task of presenting women as no longer inferior to men, as the female characters remain in a subordinate and oppressive state.
Literature shapes society’s values and attitudes by often challenging or reinforcing the ingrained beliefs about how one should act or feel. One of the most discussed topics in literature is how we think of women and gender relationships, with some writers providing an alternative perspective to the traditional conservative assumptions of women’s position within society, whilst others support the inferior status of women. In modern day society, we continue to strive towards obtaining gender equality for all; thus, by examining classic works such as Twelfth Night and Paradise Lost, we can assess how literature has progressed over the years, or determine if it has remained conservative. Although Twelfth Night and Paradise Lost are not seen as a natural pairing to compare due to their drastically different contexts, it is important to assess if Milton offers an interpretation on women and gender relationships that follows along the same lines of thought pioneered by Shakespeare.
Throughout this essay, I wish to show that both texts present a radical interpretation of women’s position in society by challenging traditional stereotypes and gender roles. However, Shakespeare presents a more progressive view as the play not only confronts traditional stereotypes of women, but also sexual relations and women disguising themselves as men. In comparison, Milton was confined to the restrictions of the Biblical text, as he could not drastically alter the events of the fall of man and the role of women.
In Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, there are three main female characters who perform a leading role in the plot development: Viola, Maria and Olivia. Literature prior and during the Renaissance period portrayed women with a lack of power and agency over the plot line, as men performed the leading roles and influenced the outcome of events. Women were viewed as inferior objects controlled by men who held little purpose other than the production of offspring. Women’s lack of social status and authority was reinforced by societies’ perception regarding their lack of intelligence and incapability to perform the same roles as men. However, Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night challenges traditional beliefs of women’s social status by establishing the female characters with power and influence over others (including men), as the female characters are the main motivators of actions and the most complex. Shakespeare’s descriptions of women in Twelfth Night can be deemed as radical due its demonstration of a society in which women are no longer oppressed and instead hold power and authority.
Shakespeare provides Maria (a maiden at Lady Olivia’s household) with agency to construct the subplot of the play, driven by her hatred and animosity towards Malvolio, which led to his downfall. The scheme engineered by Maria reveals Malvolio’s intentions for falling in love with Olivia, as she wrote a letter addressed to Malvolio that tricked him into believing that Olivia had written a love letter expressing her feelings towards him. When Malvolio receives the letter he does not question whether he is being deceived by someone, and most definitely not a woman. Malvolio expresses his excitement after reading the letter “Remember who com- / ended thy yellow stockings and wish to see thee ever / cross-gartered” (2.5. 143–145). Malvolio’s desire to receive love and affection from Olivia stems from his powerful ambitions to become a member of the noble class. Maria’s affectionate letter fills Malvolio with hope of a better life, “I will wash off gross acquaintance, / I will be point-device the very man” (2.5.152-153). Maria demonstrates her power to persuade and control Malvolio’s emotions with the intention to make Malvolio suffer. The complexity of the sub-plot deepens as Maria collaborates with Feste to persuade Malvolio he is in a state of insanity. Maria locks Malvolio in a small dark chamber and Feste declares him a madman “Then you are mad indeed, if you be no better in your wits than a fool” (4.2. 88–89). Maria’s ability to control and manipulate a male character’s emotions and actions, emphasizes the radical change that Shakespeare suggests for women’s position within society. A society in which women are the agents of change and can exert power over those men who have dominated and caused women to live in a subordinate position.
Shakespeare describes Viola as a complex female character who challenges the gender identity norms by disguising herself as a man who works for the noble class and educates Orsino who resembles societies stereotypes regarding female inferiority by demonstrating the true nature of women as intelligent and powerful. Viola conceals her true identity to obtain work for the prestigious upper class, requesting the Captain to “Conceal me what I am, and be my aid / For such disguise as haply shall become / The form of my intent. I’ll serve this duke. / Thou shalt present me as an eunuch to him.” (1.3. 51-54). Women disguising themselves as men, and vice versa, was not heard of nor pursued in the Renaissance period; thus, Shakespeare contests the role that gender performs in one’s identity and worth, as Viola becomes respected in her male disguise. Orsino represents the derogatory perceptions of women that society holds, as he expresses that women are unable to love and are inferior to men. Viola refutes the belief of female weakness by claiming “We men may say more, swear more, but indeed / Our shows are more than will; for still we prove / Much in our vows but little in our love” (2.4.116-118). Viola expresses that men make grand gestures and flatter women into falling in love, but their love is not sincere, nor more worthy than the love women express. Viola educates Orsino by refuting the belief that men are superior in love and courtship, as their love is no more genuine than women’s, thus, they are more equal than Orsino believes.
Shakespeare challenges the traditional gender relationships by proposing a society in which same-sex relationships could transpire. After the large climax of the play when Sebastian and Viola are reunited and the misunderstandings are resolved, Orsino confesses his love for Viola (Cesario). He declares his love and willingness to wed Viola “If this be so, as yet the glass seems true, / I shall have share in this most happy wrack. / Boy, thou hast said to me a thousand time / Thou never shouldst love woman like to me.” (5.1. 265–266). The gender confusion between Viola and her disguise as Cesario remains as Orsino addresses her as “Boy” in his love declaration, implying that he is attached to Viola’s masculine qualities that he is familiar with. Shakespeare has structured this into Orsino’s speech for the reader to question who he is in love with, the beautiful young man Cesario, or the beautiful young women Viola. For a man to fall in love with another man would be abhorrent and frowned upon by Renaissance society as same-sex relationships were not accepted nor explained in literature. Therefore, Shakespeare proposes a society in which there are same-sex relationships, confirming that Twelfth Night is a progressive text that defies conservative societal life.
Twelfth Night assesses the power of gender roles and relationships within courtship through the actions of Viola, Olivia and Orsino. During Viola’s (as Cesario) first encounter with Olivia, she is instructed to repeat the prepared speech by Orsino. Instead, Viola (as Cesario) tells Olivia what she would do if she was in love with her: “Make me a willow cabin at your gate / And call upon my soul within the house, / Write loyal cantons of contemnèd love, / And sing them loud even in the dead of night; / Hallow your name to the reverberate hills,” (1.5. 254-258). Viola (as Cesario) is suggesting that she would be outside of Olivia’s gate day and night expressing her love. Shakespeare explores the rich implications of women understanding and dominating a relationship of love by demonstrating high levels of understandings of what women desire. This contrasts the initial representation of women’s capability to love and present passion towards men that Orsino expresses in the opening scenes. Shakespeare is reinforcing the possibility of same sex relationships, as with Orsino falling in love with Viola (as Cesario) in her masculine form, Olivia develops feelings for Viola (as Cesario) as her true identity being a female.
Furthermore, Shakespeare demonstrates Viola’s power to influence others with her ability to persuade Olivia to remove herself from a state of mourning and hiding. Based on Viola (as Cesario’s) request, “Lady, you are the cruel’stshe alive / If you will lead these graces to the grave / And leave the world nocopy” Olivia removes her veil and reveals herself (1.5. 227-229). This symbolic moment represents Olivia’s transition from grieving the death of her brother to being present in the living world. Shakespeare demonstrates the power and influence that women can have on others, that they are able to change the course of actions, and are not just mere unintelligent humans with the sole purpose to reproduce.
However, upon close examination of Twelfth Night, Shakespeare fails to end the poem in a progressive nature, as the women in the play return to their subordinate and oppressive state within society. In the final scenes of the play, it is revealed that Maria marries Sir Toby, Olivia marries Sebastian, and Viola marries Orsino. Although the female characters had a moment of freedom, during which they obtained power and control, escaping form their subordinate position, they eventually returned to an oppressive patriarchal institution that subordinate’s women into serving and being dominated by their husbands. Although, Shakespeare provides a radical and progressive view of women throughout the production of the play, the play returns to a conservative and oppressive position of women.
Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night and Milton’s Paradise Lost are both great works from the Renaissance era that open up non-traditional ways of thinking about the place of women within society. Twelfth Night is a play set outside of England in a fantasy world that is a parallel to the country and societal life by which Shakespeare experiments new ways of living and thinking. The imaginary setting of Twelfth Night permits Shakespeare to suggest new ideas about how one should live life and the possibility of new gender roles and relationships. In comparison, Paradise Lost is providing an alternative representation about one of the core ‘myths,’ meaning the story that we as a society believe in and use as a blueprint for our way of thinking and as guide to how we should act. Milton is dealing with charged material regarding the fall of man that he is unable to change; however, there is an attempt to divert society’s attention away from the conservative traditional thinking of women. Twelfth Night and Paradise Lost are bound together by their effort to raise awareness about the discriminatory and prejudiced views about the place of women within society. Women become empowered during certain parts of the play and the poem providing them with control and agency over others. Shakespeare pioneers an interpretation of gender roles and relationships that Milton has the opportunity to develop in the poem Paradise Lost. Shakespeare displays a society whereby women are categorized as smart, powerful and the agents of change. Olivia is smart and intelligent as shown in her ability to maintain order within her household and delegate the responsibility of work. Likewise, Maria and Viola embody their power and demonstrate their abilities to create change as Maria provides a subplot for the play and Viola exerts power over Orsino’s way of thinking. Therefore, by comparing Twelfth Night against Paradise Lost raises the question: does Milton provide a progressive piece of literature similar to the works of Shakespeare?
Paradise Lost details the events of Adam and Eve’s fall from the Garden of Eden, whilst presenting a different interpretation of the traditional Biblical text of the fall of man. Milton’s version of the fall of man challenges the conservative ways of thinking about the place of women and gender roles within society. Although Milton does not change the entire story of the fall of man, he evokes a new way of perceiving it. Paradise Lost provides a complex perspective regarding the culpability of Eve in the fall of man, as the in-depth analysis of the events mitigate her responsibility and reduce the blame worthiness of her actions.
However, Milton remains to represent the traditional stereotypes of women as inferior and subordinate to men due to their lack of intelligence and spiritual purity. Upon initial examination of Adam and Eve’s relationship, it is apparent that Eve is subordinate and inferior to Adam based on the circumstances from which they are created, which asserts the dominant position of man, as Adam was created from God’s image. Whereas Eve was created based on Adam’s request, “Of fellowship I speak / Such as I seek, fit to participate / All rational delight, wherein the brute / Cannot be human consort; they rejoice,” and God grants Adam’s desire of having a companion (8. 389-392). Eve is created from Adam’s rib, suggesting that she is already inferior as her creation was from man, whereas Adam’s is formed by God. It is also important to examine the awakening of Adam and Eve.
Adam recalls his awakening to Raphael “Soft on the flow’ry herb I found me laid / In balmy sweat, which with his beams the sun” (8. 254-255). He woke in the surrounding of sunlight and God aware of who he is and knowledgeable about Earth. Conversely, Eve woke up alone in the shade, “I first awakened, and found myself reposed / Under a shade of flowers, much wond’ring where” (4. 450-45). Evidently, God did not bestow upon Eve the same knowledge as Adam, as she is unaware of her identity and her surroundings; therefore, their awakenings reinforces the female inferior and subordinate position within society. Not only did Eve wake in the shade, whereas Adam in the sun, but her misunderstanding of the reflection she sees in the water, with which she becomes mesmerized with, demonstrates her vanity and foolishness. Eve’s depiction as described by Milton emphasizes the patriarchal society which operates to dominate women and label them as inferior.
Furthermore, Milton compares the importance of Adam and Eve, concluding that Adam holds more spiritual purity and importance in comparison to Eve, reinforcing her subservient position. Milton assesses the different roles that Adam and Eve acquired, “Not equal, as thir sex not equal seem’d; / For contemplation hee and valor form’d, / For softness shee and sweet attractive Grace, / Hee for God only, shee for God in him:” (4. 295–311). Adam is perceived to be more spiritually pure as he was created from God, in comparison to Eve who was created for Adam’s pleasure, suggesting that Eve is further away from God’s grace. Milton’s assessment implies that gender roles are unequal and imbalanced, further suggesting that the Bible promotes unequal roles by proposing that the female is of lesser importance, causing her to submit to man. Milton explicitly states that Eve is a subordinate figure to Adam, “Of nature her th’ inferior, in the mind / And inward faculties, which most excel” (8. 541-542). This inferiority and dominance that Adam holds over Eve is reinforced throughout Paradise Lost, however, there are moments that demonstrate an alternative way to address Eve’s position.
Upon close examination of Paradise Lost, it is apparent that Milton challenges and explores a different interpretation of the Biblical texts in regards to how we view women. Milton provides three different interpretations of Eve: Satan’s perspective, Adam’s perspective and Eve’s perspective on herself. Satan views Eve as inferior and subordinate to Adam’s command, by which he rules and dominates her actions. Satan claims that they are not equal as Adam governs Eve, “Not equal, as their sex not equal seem’d;/For contemplation hee and valour form’d,/ For softness shee and sweet attractive Grace,/ Hee for God only, shee for God in him;/ His fair large Front and Eye sublime declar’d/ Absolute rule”(4. 294–99). Milton includes the Satan’s view of Eve to highlight that this misogynistic wrong view of women is the product of the fallen mind. Milton provides Eve with the status of the first love poem writer on Earth which immediately grants her status and power. In this love poem it is implied that she sees herself as inferior to Adam, but is content in her status “to know no more / Is a woman’s happiest knowledge and her praise” (4. 637-638). However, Milton could be posing that the lower social status and importance that Eve has been provided leads her to believe she is of less worthiness in comparison to Adam.
In the closing two lines of her love poem, Eve questions what the stars are suggesting that she wishes to learn more “But wherefore all night long shine these, for whom / This glorious sight, when sleep hath shut all eyes?” (4. 657-658). Milton is implying that women are inquisitive and wish to become more knowledgeable, rejecting previous assumptions of women being incompetent and unable to acquire more information. Similarly, Milton provides Adam’s interpretation of Eve as he wishes to have an equal who he could share his thoughts and joy with and develop a companionship. He wishes to have a companion who he shares reason and intellect with, as the animals in the Garden of Eden do not possess such attributes. Therefore, Milton implies that Adam desires an equal companion but Eve’s qualities hold less importance in comparison to Adam due to their creation and connection with God.
Furthermore, Paradise Lost mitigates Eve’s culpability and blame regarding the fall of man, by suggesting that Adam persuades himself to eat from the Tree of Knowledge. Adam realizes that he cannot live without Eve and begins encouraging himself to join her in sin, “From this delightful fruit, nor known till now / True relish, tasting; if such pleasure be / In things to us forbidden it might be wished, / For this one tree had been forbidden ten.” (9. 1023-1026). As Adam decides to eat from the Tree of Knowledge with little influence from Eve, Milton suggests that we cannot blame women for the entire destruction of the fall of man and we cannot continue to blame women for our setbacks in life, as Adam performed the same role as Eve in their sins. Paradise Lost presents Eve as a resemblance of Jesus’s sacrifice earlier in the poem, as she is willing to give her life in redemption for eating from the Tree of Knowledge, demonstrating her strength, power and selflessness. Milton depicts Eve as a heroic figure as she wishes to accept full responsibility and blame as she recognizes her choices of disobeying God “On me, sole cause to thee of all this woe, / Me me only just object of his ire” (10. 935-936). In doing so, she is prepared to receive God’s anger and punishment to prevent Adam from suffering. However, it is possible that Eve’s desire to eat from the Tree of Knowledge was rooted in her characteristics of inferiority and naivety. God gave her these characteristics which developed her vulnerability to be persuaded by Satan to eat from the Tree of Knowledge. Satan uses his flattery “A goddess among gods, adored and served” to gain Eve’s trust and manipulate her into disobeying Gods wishes (9. 547). Therefore, it is suggested that if Eve were a man, she would not have eaten from the Tree of Knowledge as she would not have been so naive to give into temptation.
To conclude, Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night and Milton’s Paradise Lost represent the progressive views of gender roles and relationships, through the embodiment of the character’s actions and descriptions. Twelfth Night provides a radical interpretation on challenging the traditional and conservative views that oppress women and confine them to a subordinate position. Shakespeare pioneers his work to allow other writers to expand upon his presentation of a society in which women have more equality and control. Milton’s Paradise Lost attempts to incorporate the characteristics of women being smart, intelligent and the agents of change, as presented in Twelfth Night, but is restricted to elaborate due to the confinements of the Biblical texts. Therefore, although Paradise Lost can be seen as a progressive text, there is still an apparent chain of command regarding certain attributes of Eve’s descriptions and actions that remain conservative and traditional. Overall, Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night remains the most progressive due to its radical and challenging nature of traditional gender stereotypes.
Works Cited
Milton, John. Paradise Lost. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2018.
Shakespeare, William. Twelfth Night. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2018.
The instinct to control others is indeed natural for characters in John Webster’s ‘The Duchess of Malfi’ and John Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost’. Both Webster and Milton explore the control one exerts over women through Ferdinand and Adam’s desire to control the females, the control of those at a lower status illustrated through the religious figureheads of both works, the Cardinal and God. However, it can be argued that the instinct to control is not a natural inclination especially for women, but rather their desire to break free from patriarchal restraint is more of a defining characteristic in both works. Overall, it is clear that, Webster and Milton explore the ideas of control and authority in a variety of ways.
One of the most fundamental aspects of both Webster and Milton’s works is their presentation of the dominant, controlling force of patriarchy, which during the 17th century, illustrating the control of women to be a natural course of action to take. In ‘The Duchess of Malfi’, women were seen to be “cursed creatures” who were “unequal in nature” with their “heart so far upon her left side”. As far back as the Zohar, a foundational text of Jewish mysticism, Judeo-Christian religions attributed the left with femininity and inferiority, as Eve appeared on and developed from Adam’s left side. From the beginning of the play, Ferdinand and the Cardinal attempt to prevent the Duchess from marrying again, telling her that “those must luxurious will wed twice”, so that she would remain in obedient to them instead of another man. Ferdinand, upon realizing that the Duchess disobeyed her brothers and re-married, calls her a “strumpet” and is shown to actively criticize her, with the derogatory language stemming from his inability to successfully have the Duchess under control. The play, as Jankowski outlines, illustrates the “conflicting claims of the Duchess’ body natural and body politic”, and this is illustrated in Ferdinand’s irrational, obsessive desire to control the Duchess. His anger, despite being primarily motivated by lust and incestuous obsession, perhaps reflects the dissent of the parliamentarians who, in light of the ascension of female rulers such as Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I, were dissatisfied and doubtful as women, who were considered to be “weak, frail, impatient, feeble and foolish”. Knox (1558) were placed above them as the monarch. An example where physical control is exerted over the Duchess is during her imprisonment, whereby her words “Pity! With such a pity men preserve alive pheasants and quails, when they are not fat enough to be eaten”, expresses her frustration towards her inferior stance as a female that leads to the control that her brothers are able to exert over her. Whilst Webster explores control exerted over an actively defiant female, Milton presents instances where men are criticizes for not being able to exert control over women. In ‘Paradise Lost’, Adam is described to have been “in delight both of her (Eve’s) beauty and submissive charms” and “smiled with superior love”. Adam, in accordance to the Great Chain of Being, was placed above Eve in the hierarchy, and therefore, his inability to control her and guide her as the more rational and superior gender incites criticism from God. He, when Adam was “fondly overcome with female charm”, tells Adam: “Thou didst resign thy manhood, and the place wherein God set thee above her made of thee”. Despite Milton’s emphasis of having “intimate and speaking help”, and the benefits of a “ready and reviving associate in marriage’ in ‘A Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce’, he was not advocating for equality, instead suggested that this “reviving associate” was illustrated under the basis of women still inherently being inferior to men. Female inferiority is established in God’s words after the Fall: “to thy husband’s will, thine shall submit, he over thee shall rule”, and his emphasis on the gender hierarchy illustrates the complete control and authority men have over women, but for Adam, God’s words could also serve as a reminder for Adam to exert his proper control and authority over Eve to prevent further corruption and destruction taking place. Overall, it can be argued that the control and authority exerted over females was a typical course of action to take during the 17th century as men believed this to be their natural right in light of their intellectual superiority over females.
Another way in which Webster and Milton depict control and authority in their works is by illustrating the control and authority that religious figureheads seem to hold within both works. Webster sheds light on the power that the Cardinal holds, as a religious figurehead who somewhat parallels God in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’. The Cardinal, throughout the play, contrasts with Ferdinand in showing his calm but manipulative character, that Antonio describes as “plum trees” that “lay crooked over standing pools which are rich, and o’erladen with fruit”, whereas “none but crows, pies and caterpillars feed on them”. The Cardinal’s corrupt character is expressed in his manipulation of Julia, where he tells her: “thy curiosity Hath undone thee: I knew thou couldst not keep my counsel, I have bound thee to’t by death”, and killing her with a poisoned Bible. Antonio comments that the “Prince’s court” is “like a common fountain” and “if’t chance some cursed example poison’t near the head, death and diseases through the whole land spread”. This notion can be relayed onto Webster’s illustration of the Cardinal, who, as the ‘cursed example’, was created by Webster to embody the stereotype of cruel, hypocritical, corrupt Catholics as articulated in Martin Luther’s ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ in 1517. There were great conflicts over Catholicism during Webster’s lifetime such as the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and King Charles’ fight against Catholic powers in Europe before 1630. Catholic priests would take in the tithing money and keep it to themselves. Whilst Webster illustrates the power and authority a corrupt religious figure has, Milton sheds light on the power of God, who, despite not being human, acts as the divine authority who is able to control and judge his creations. God’s role as the divine authority in ‘Paradise Lost’ is presented in an interesting way, especially in light of the Fall of humanity caused due to their free will. The God of Christian theology is viewed as an omnipotent, omniscient being, and his power is exemplified through his illustration as a figure behind ‘clouds’ with a shrouding ‘light’, magnifying his divine authority that distances himself from humans. God’s authority over Satan, the catalyst of the Fall, is illustrated as Satan and his followers turn into serpents who create a “dismal, universal hiss” after recognizing that “a greater power (God) now ruled him”. God’s power over Satan through his metamorphosis is demonstrated. Whilst his punishment of Satan may be just, it can be questioned to what extent God is able to exert his authority over his creations, and whether this authority is justified at all. Milton presents a complex, seemingly just but questionable image of the divine authority, and to a more secularized, contemporary audience, the illustration of the dissent towards God’s authority and control can be justified, especially in light of the debate between free will and determinism. Milton’s portrayal of God, at times, reflects his views on the monarchy itself, as his belief in the freedom of speech, often conflicted with Charles I’s extremely constrictive, restraining rule where he limited Parliament’s access to the King and limited the Church in their spendings and services. Instead of portraying God to be an infallible authority figure, Milton’s interesting illustration of God, perhaps reflecting his critical views on the Divine Right of Kings that James I emphasized: “Kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth, but even by God himself they are called Gods” (1609). As Milton expressed his dissent towards the monarchy, ‘Eikonoklastes’ was written as a rebuttal of Charles’ Eikon Basilike, where Milton argues that if the King does not portray attributes of a ‘good’ king, then the people have the right to take him down from the throne. Milton claimed in ‘Eikonoklastes’ that all monarchs had the potential to become tyrants, no matter how benevolent they may appear, contrasting with the sympathy that was aroused through Charles’ Eikon Basilike that illustrated the monarch to be a noble martyr. ‘The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates’ in 1649 (which was not published until after his death) urged the abolition of a tyrannical kingship and the execution of tyrants. Milton echoed this argument consistently throughout his time, and in his ‘Defense of the English People Against Salmasius’ (1651), he carries forward the notion that the execution of a monarch is supported by authorities from Classical antiquity to the early modern era, and the tyrannical nature of Charles I’s sovereignty justified his death. Whilst Milton wrote ‘Paradise Lost’ to ‘justify the ways of God to man’, it is evident that, in his portrayal of divine authority that conflicts with free will, his depiction of God can be considered as an alternative interpretation to the omniscient, all-perfect God of Christian theology. Overall, Milton and Webster’s interesting portrayals of powerful, authoritative religious figureheads demonstrate that the instinct to control free beings is indeed natural.
However, it can be argued that Webster and Milton present an alternative illustration of authority and control, presenting their females, such as the Duchess and Eve, to not actively seek for control but to break free from male control. The Duchess pursues freedom from her brothers’ control by marrying Antonio in secret, telling him, “Do not worry”, and that the tempest, being her brothers, shall reside. It can be argued that the Duchess’ pursuit of freedom offers a utopian alternative of social transformation against the scandalous marriage between Princess Elizabeth and Prince Frederick in 1613. Though dependent on context and reception, it can be argued that contemporary audiences are more likely to view the Duchess as a feminist icon, proving that ambition may be noble. The English Civil War and the Interregnum also that prompted female royalists and revolutionists to take on new roles in absence of husbands. The Duchess’ active desire for freedom through rem-marriage parallels’ that of Elizabeth I’s exertion of power by her refusal to marry, declaring that “I am already bound unto a husband which is the Kingdom of England”. This was an example of her commitment to ruling the country and her refusal to follow the traditional ideas about womanhood, where marriage was seen as natural and obligatory. Elizabeth’s words that, “I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman but I have the heart and stomach of a king”, parallels Bate’s notion that the widow, then was the joker in the pack, the wild card who was not obliged to play by the sexual and social rules. In Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, this character is a free agent. She acts instead of being acted on; she delights in setting a plot, where both women are shown to exert their control and declare their freedom through sexual autonomy. Similar to the Duchess’ active defiance of the control and authority exerted on her, Eve’s desire for greater intellectual capacity can be translated into her attempting to overcome the natural control that Adam is able to exert over her through intellectual inferiority. Eve, after eating the fruit, contemplates and asks whether she should “keep the odds of Knowledge in my power without Copartner?”, and despite her desire for power partially coming from her desire to gain Adam’s affection, she believes that by eating the fruit herself it would “render me (her) more equal”, which is “a thing not undesirable, sometime superior”, adding “For inferior who is free?”. Eve’s defiance of Adam is also highlighted in her words, “Was I to have never parted from thy side? As good have grown there still a lifeless Rib. Being as I am, why didst thou the Head command me absolutely not to go?”, which illustrates Eve’s acknowledgement of Adam’s greater power.