Different Types of Cellular Respiration and Their Role in The Body

Here is an explanation of how the different types of cell respiration, aerobic and anaerobic, can be used by skeletal muscles during exercise. Moreover, after this I’ll discuss how multiple body systems normally work together for oxygen to enter the body and reach cells.

To begin with, it’s needed to know that the key systems that work hand in hand to provide cells with oxygen are circulatory and respiratory system. The intake of oxygen is crucial in cellular respiration. The process of cellular respiration comprises breaking down of glucose in order to produce energy that can be used for cells themselves and surroundings. The waste product which is generated out of this process needs to be thrown out or taken out so that the wastage would not harm the cells themselves.

The respiratory system comprises breathing in oxygen into a body and throwing out carbon dioxide from a body. According to Sherwood during the inhaling process, oxygen goes through trachea, and then down into bronchi (narrower tubes). It further gets into bronchioles (smaller extended tubes) and finally reaches alveoli (small air sacks). A cluster of capillaries is present around alveoli. Red blood cells, which contain haemoglobin, can be found in these capillaries. The oxygen which is pumped in, travels from the alveoli into the red blood cells and interact with the jhaemoglobin to produce oxyhaemoglobin. Then this oxygenated blood takes oxygen to different parts of body cells.

After the cellular respiration, the waste product, carbon dioxide will be diffused out of the cell into the capillary. Carbon dioxide, being with the blood in the capillary (deoxygenated blood) is transferred to venules and then to vena cava. Then this flow of deoxygenated blood reaches the right artrium of heart. Then after, it flows to the right ventricle and then to pulmonary artery, finally reaching the lung.

Skeletal muscle use different types of cell respiration: aerobic and anaerobic during exercise and this topic is discussed with terminologies and process. Aerobic respiration is a series of oxygen-requiring reaction that produces cellular energy which is used by ATP for muscular activity. During the process, pyruvic acid from glycolysis gets into mitochondria to break down food, thus oxidising to yield ATP, carbon dioxide, water and heat. It is the preferred method of ATP production by skeletal muscle cells due to the fact that aerobic respiration needs oxygen and can be sustained for a longer period of time provided that sufficient oxygen and nutrients are supplied. These nutrients comprise pyruvic acid accumulated from glycolysis of glucose, fatty acids from the splitting of of triglycerides in adipose cells and amino acids from the breakdown of proteins. In carrying out daily activities, of approximate 10 mins, aerobic cellular respiration provides ATP in a higher proportion or as needed.

On the other hand, anaerobic cellular respiration do not need oxygen and it is a series of ATP-producing reactions. However, during exercise, the respiration is still capable to generate energy, in a significant quantity. In this context, the anaerobic reactions changes a larger amount of pyruvic acid to lactic acid, where most of the lactic acid spread the skeletal fibres muscle into the blood. Then after, formation of glucose occur due to the conversion of lactic acid by liver cells. Thus glycolysis is able to produce about 30-40 seconds of maximal muscle activity. In the end result, anaerobic glycolysis generates ATP instantly to regulate muscle functioning for a few minutes. However, in the end, this respiration negatively impacts muscle activity , which is followed by muscle fatigue.

To sum up, the role of circulatory system is significant in transporting blood to cells. Firstly, the oxygenated blood flows from lungs through pulmonary vein to the left atrium (heart) and then to left ventricle. The ventricle is connected to aorta, a big artery, which distributes blood to different parts of the body, exerting pressure. The aorta or arteries circulate the oxygenated blood to arterioles (tiny vessels) and then transported to capillaries. These capillaries, ultimately distribute oxygen into cells of body to make cellular respiration. Overall, Aerobic cell respiration is averagely 18 times more efficient than that of anaerobic cell respiration because aerobic respiration produces much more ATP compared to anaerobic respiration. Better exercise need a lot of energy and this can be better fulfilled by aerobic respiration.

High-flow Nasal Cannula (HFNC) Oxygen Therapy

High-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen therapy comprises an air/oxygen blender, an active humidifier, a single heated circuit, and a nasal cannula. It delivers adequately heated and humidified medical gas at up to 60 L/min of flow and is considered to have a number of physiological effects which include: reduction of anatomical dead space, PEEP effect, constant fraction of inspired oxygen, and humidification.

HFNC has been gaining attention as an innovative respiratory support for critically ill adult patients. High flow nasal cannula is also gaining momentum because it extremely simple to setup and equipment is readily available. HFNC equipment need is: flow meter, air-oxygen blender, heated inspiratory circuit, active humidifier and nasal cannula because of the proper humidification and high flow HFNC washes out washes out carbon dioxide in anatomical dead space. Since tidal volume does not change while a patient is using HFNC and respiratory rate is reduced, minute ventilation is lower. It can also be assumed that alveolar ventilation, along with PaCO2, is constant. This evidence points to there being less dead space. HFNC is an open system, high flow from the nasal cannula works against some of the resistance of expiratory flow and increases airway pressure thus causing increase PEEP

Hypercapnic respiratory failure is a frequently problem seen in patients in the emergency room or ICU . Patients with this condition present a significant challenge to respiratory and critical care services, because mechanical ventilation wants to be avoided for these type of patients. Usually the first line of defense for these patient is non invasive ventilation (NIV). Poor mask tolerance is the main problem with NIV. Some studies have shown successful use of HFNC oxygen therapy to manage the hypercapnic respiratory failure of a patient unable to tolerate conventional NIV.

HFNC can also be used for pre intubation procedure. Before tracheal intubation we must enhance oxygenation, this can be done by using a non rebreathing mask. It is when the mask has to be removed during laryngoscopy procedure, the patient is deprived of oxygen. Because nasal cannulas do not interfere with the laryngoscopy procedure HFNC could be used to deliver oxygen during the apneic period of intubation. Obstructive sleep apnea upper airway collapse that can cause hypoxia, neurological dysfunction, and can increase cardiovascular morbidity The traditional treatment of sleep apnea is CPAP.

While CPAP is the most effective treatment patient compliance is suboptimal and a large number of patients are left untreated. HFNC delivery for OSA alleviated upper airway obstruction in both children and adults. OSA is also common among acute stroke patients and is associated with a decline in neurological function. Although CPAP is effective in treating sleep disordered breathing, with stroke patients, it is often abandoned due patient discomfort. It has been reported that HFNC was well tolerated and decreased the apnea and the oxygen desaturation, and increase of better quality of sleep was reported.

An Experimental Analysis of The Reaction Between Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Fire

The purpose of this experiment was to show the properties of hydrogen and oxygen gas reacting with fire. Both H2 and O2 were produced from reactions of other chemicals. H2 gas was produced from a reaction of hydrochloric acid and zinc, and oxygen was generated from the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. After each gas was produced, they were tested for combustibility and flammability, and the observations were recorded in this lab.

For the production of oxygen gas, 30 mL of a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution I. was poured into an Erlenmeyer flask, and a layer of yeast was added on top of the solution. The yeast acted as a catalyst in the decomposition reaction of H2O2, which decomposed into liquid water and oxygen gas III.. A wooden splint was ignited and shook out, leaving only embers. The heated end of the splint was placed into the neck of the Erlenmeyer flask, and the observations were recorded. For the preparation of hydrogen gas, 5 g of zinc was placed in a generating flask, and 50 mL of a hydrochloric acid solution of 3M I. was added to the flask. The reaction of zinc and HCl began to occur in the flask II., and it was sealed with a stopper. The tube of the generating flask was placed into a small water reservoir, and bubbles of H2 began to form and rise to the surface. A test tube was placed into the water, and all of the gas in the test tube was flushed out. Then, the tube end of the generating flask was placed into the upside down test tube. As the H2 bubbles rose, they displaced the water previously inside of the test tube. A glass plate was slid under the test tube to prevent all of the gas from escaping, and the tube of gas was taken out of the water. This process of filling the test tube with hydrogen gas was repeated three times; each time, a different property of the gas was observed. For tube #1, the mouth tube was quickly flashed over a flame, and the observations were recorded. For tube #2, the tube of H2 was combined with a tube of air, by putting both mouths of the tubes together and rotating it. The 2 mouths of both tubes were then flashed over a flame, and observations were recorded. Tube #3 had a wooden split with embers placed into a test tube with hydrogen gas, and the observations were recorded.

Results

Formation of O2: 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) III.

Formation of H2: 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) II.

Oxygen: The ember on the splint ignited into a flame and burned for a short period of time.

  • Tube #1: A small flame was produced for a split second, along with a soft pop sound.
  • Tube #2: A larger flame was produced for a split second, along with a louder pop sound.
  • Tube #3: The embers on the wooden splint was extinguished once it was put in the tube.

Discussion

These results show some of the properties of oxygen and hydrogen gas when exposed to a flame or ember. The splint ignited when placed in oxygen gas, but was put out when placed in hydrogen gas. This shows that oxygen supports combustion, but hydrogen does not. Also, hydrogen gas is flammable, but oxygen is not. If oxygen were flammable, then any flame would burn all of the O2 in the air. The hydrogen mixed with air produced a stronger reaction that just H2 itself because the flame from the hydrogen gas allowed the oxygen in the air to combust. Possible sources of error could have been leaks of gas from the test tubes.

Conclusion

This experiment was effective and accurately demonstrated the properties of H2 and O2 reacting with flames or embers. Since there was no quantitative data in this experiment, there is not percent error, but the results matched the expected results. This experiment showed that there is a difference between combustibility and flammability, two terms that could’ve perhaps been used interchangeably

Oxygen Dissociation Curve and Bohr Effect Using Haemolysate

Oxygen diffusion is essential for the survival of living animals. Differences in the surface area and relative thickness of respiratory surfaces among vertebrates have been shown to influence the rates of oxygen diffusion and the levels of aerobic activity (Gillooly et al., 2016). Different animals have developed specialized organs in which gas exchange can take place, such as the gills in fish and the lungs in humans. These specialized organs facilitate the transportation of oxygen molecules from the lungs to body tissues (Resource, n.d.). This transport system depends on the red blood cells or erythrocyte, which contains haemoglobin molecules.

Haemoglobins (Hb) plays an important role in the facilitation of diffusion and transportation of oxygen (Hsia, n.d.). In the blood, haemoglobin carry out the binding of oxygen molecules to the red blood cell (Resource, n.d.). One hemoglobin molecule has four heme, the iron-containing and oxygen-binding portion of the hemoglobin, and thus meaning that each haemoglobin molecule is capable of binding to a maximum of 4 oxygen molecules (Resource, n.d.). Since hemoglobin have a high affinity for oxygen, oxygen molecules are bound to hemoglobin as it diffuses into the red blood cells (Resource, n.d.). When oxygen is bound to hemoglobin, the hemoglobin molecule is now oxygenated, and it is now called oxyhemoglobin which possesses a bright red-colour (Resource, n.d.). On the other hand, deoxygenated hemoglobin possesses a darker, purplish- red colour. This difference in colours can be detected using a spectrophotometer which measures the reflection and transmission of light in solutions.

Factors such as temperature, pH, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and 2,3-BPG can affect the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen. When the concentration of compounds such as carbon dioxide increases, this can cause a decrease in the blood pH and as a result, a decrease in the amount of oxygen molecules bounded to hemoglobin (Riggs, n.d.). This is referred to as the Bohr effect. This effect causes the sigmoid-shaped display of the oxygen dissociation curve (Hsia, n.d.).

In this experiment, the % transmittance of sheep blood (haemolysate) during the process of gradual deoxygenated is measured using the spectrophotometer. Oxygen dissociation curves, where the % saturation is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2), are created to show the relationship between the effect of the changing PO2 on % oxygen saturation of hemoglobin and the effect of pH on the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen molecules (Hsia, n.d.). P50 on the curves is defined as the oxygen tension during which the hemoglobin-oxygen binding sites are 50% saturated (Hsia, n.d.).

As a result of the Bohr effect, it is hypothesized that as the pressure of the vacuum increases, the blood or haemolysate will become more deoxygenated, meaning that there is now a reduced affinity to oxygen, and thus causing a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve. Furthermore, it is predicted that as the pressure of the vacuum increases, the % transmittance of the blood would decrease as a result. The Hb Saturation (%) is predicted to increase as the partial pressure of oxygen (mmHg) is increasing.

Methods

This experiment involves four parts and the experiment is performed as described in the BIO202 lab manual. As stated in the lab manual, half of the class will perform the experiment using the haemolysate buffered at pH 7.4 and the other half will test the haemolysate buffered at pH 6.8 in groups of 4 (pH 6.8 was collected as a group with: Sarah Boganee, Divya Sharma, and Sze-nga Cecilia Yeung; data for pH 7.4 was collected from Manaal Ali and Fahad Ahmed).

Before starting the experiment, the procedures to using the vacuum properly should be practiced. While using the vacuum, it should be noted that if the vacuum valve is opened too quickly, an overshoot of the target reading can occur. When this happens, the vacuum should be turned off and the stopper should be removed from the side arm test tube to reduce the vacuum pressure. If the vacuum is opened too quickly, this can also cause haemolysate to bubble up in the side arm tube. To prevent this from occurring, the vacuum should be increased slowly, and the side arm tube should be placed in an upright position, until the haemolysate becomes deoxygenated or darker in colour, before tilting the tube.

Part 2 of the experiment is to collect data for creating the oxygen dissociation curves. To prepare, the spectrophotometer should be plugged-in and turned on during the preparation of the other materials. The spectrophotometer is set to measure the & transmittance (%T) and the wavelength is set to 625nm. Following, label 9 clean test tubes for the reference blank and each vacuum pressure level that will be tested: buffer (blank), 0 mmHg, 300 mmHg, 400 mmHg, 500 mmHg, 550 mmHg, 600 mmHg, 650 mmHg, and 700 mmHg. To avoid any mistakes, any condensation and/or fingerprints sitting on the outside of the sample tubes should be wiped with paper towel before placing into the spectrophotometer. Furthermore, using 2.5 ml of the buffer, appropriate for the corresponding pH, blank the spectrophotometer. This should only be done once. Then, transfer 2.5 ml of the haemolysate into the 0 mmHg tube and allow it to go to room temperature before taking the % transmittance reading. Additionally, transfer 2.5 ml of fresh haemolysate to the side arm test tube. Note that before starting the vacuum, turn on the manometer and ensure that the stopper has been placed in the top of the test tube. Following, set the vacuum to 300 mmHg and maintain it for 5 minutes while another student shakes the sample tube. Shaking the tube will expose the maximum amount of blood surface area to the vacuum. After having exposed the sample to the vacuum for 5 minutes, turn off the vacuum, remove the stopper, and using a pipette, transfer the sample to the appropriately labelled test tube and measure the % transmittance from the spectrophotometer. This step should be done carefully to avoid creating any air bubbles while pipetting and quickly because the blood will begin to re-oxygenate once the stopper has been removed. These steps of placing the haemolysate into the vacuum and recording the % transmittance is then repeated for each vacuum setting (400, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700) by using a fresh haemolysate sample each time.

After all the data has been collected, part 3 of the lab is to convert the manometer readings to the partial pressure of oxygen using the formula given in the lab manual: Partial Pressure O2 (mmHg) = 0.21 (D-W-M). This is done because the % saturation is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen in an oxygen dissociation curve. The temperature and barometric pressure of the lab room should also be recorded from the barometer provided in the room. Using this temperature, the water vapour pressure, or W, can be determined from Table 2 in the lab manual. Refer to the appendix for the calculation steps.

Finally, part 4 of the experiment is to convert % transmittance to % oxygen saturation of Haemoglobin. Refer to the appendix for the calculation steps. To create the oxygen dissociation curve from the data collected, standard curves involving the % oxygen saturation of haemoglobin to the % transmittance for each pH tested should be plotted first. The data for this standard curve is provided in the lab. Last but not least, clean up by removing all the labels from the test tubes used, place the used test tubes and stoppers in the containers by the sink, dispose of the Haemolyssate down the sink, turn-off and un-plug the spectrophotometer, turn off the manometers, return any used materials to their original positions, wipe the bench and wash your hands before leaving the lab.

Results (Figure):

P50 for pH 7.4 P50 for pH 6.8 (where Hb saturation is 50%)

Figure 1 Oxygen Dissociation Curves plotting partial pressure of oxygen (mmHg) vs. % saturation of Hb. Substance used: sheep blood. Data is obtained from part 2 of the experiment with the use of the vacuum and the measurements from the spectrophotometer.

Results

For the % transmittance, both pH 6.8 and 7.4 share similar values during each manometer readings. Additionally, from the data collected, as the pressure of the vacuum increases with each reading (0, 300, 400, 500, etc.), the % transmittance of both pH 6.8 and pH 7.4 decreases. The partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) in mmHg also decreases as the pressure of the vacuum increases. Furthermore, for the Hb saturation (%) of both pH 6.8 and 7.4, the values decrease as the PO2 decreases. The P50 of the trendline of pH 6.8 has the value of ~88 mmHg, and the P50 of the trendline of pH 7.4 has the value of ~93.04.

Discussion

The partial pressure of oxygen plays an important role in the determination of the degree of oxygen molecules binding to hemoglobin and oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin (Resource, n.d.). The affinity of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin increases as more oxygen molecules are bound and as a result, the oxygen dissociation curve shows that as the partial pressure of oxygen increases, the % saturation of Hb also increases (Resource, n.d.). This trend can be seen in Figure 1 and thus it can be interpreted that the results of the experiment support the hypothesis/predictions in which it was hypothesized that a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve would occur, and predicted that as the pressure of the vacuum increases, the % transmittance of the blood would decrease as a result and that the Hb saturation (%) would increase as the partial pressure of oxygen (mmHg) increases.

Considering the structure of the hemoglobin and the fact that it is composed of 4 heme units in which oxygen binds in sequences (one after the other), a conformational change can occur when the first oxygen molecule binds. This conformational change allows the second oxygen molecule to bind more effectively (Resource, n.d.). When all 4 heme units are bound to oxygen, the hemoglobin molecule is said to be saturated. The more the oxygen molecules that are bound to hemoglobin, the more saturated it comes and therefore, an increase in the partial pressure of oxygen would cause an increase in the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin.

The pH also plays an important role in the overall shape of the oxygen dissociation curve. Referring back to the Bohr effect, the Bohr effect shows the relationship between pH and the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen (Resource, n.d.). This means that the lower and the more acidic the pH, the higher the oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin (Resource, n.d.). When oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin is high, this will result in a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve due to the low pH and the loss of affinity of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin. The opposite is also true in which a higher, more basic pH will result in a left shift of the oxygen dissociation curve.

Additionally, the oxygen dissociation curve also plays a role in the automatic control mechanisms which regulate the amount of oxygen that is delivered to the tissues throughout the body (Resource, n.d.). This is essential in oxygen reserves during immediate situations where body tissues require more oxygen. In highly active tissues such as muscles, oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin is higher and thus more oxygen molecules enter the tissues (Resource, n.d.). On the other hand, in tissues with lower metabolic rates, less oxygen is used and thus the partial pressure of oxygen within these tissues are relatively high and as a result, there’s less oxygen molecules dissociate from hemoglobin (Resource, n.d.). The body can therefore benefit from the Bohr effect in which the Bohr effect allows for more efficient transportation of oxygen throughout the blood and this is useful in situations such as an increase amount of oxygen being available in highly active muscles such as exercising skeletal muscles.

Finally, although the results provide support of the original hypothesis and predictions, there are a few improvements that could be made to the overall experiment. One improvement that could be made would be to properly shake the test tube during data collection to ensure no bubbles were created in the sample. Another improvement that could be made would be to conduct the experiment using a wider range of pH to account for the differences and influences that the pH could bring onto the oxygen dissociation curves.

The Role of Oxygen in The Work of The Respiratory and The Circulatory Systems

The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to deliver oxygen to cells of the body (the lungs through air exchange, and the circulatory system by delivery of haemoglobin containing red cells to the capillaries where oxygen is released into the tissues) and removal of carbon dioxide.The circulatory system delivers nutrients absorbed through the walls of the small intestine to other organs (such as the liver, muscles, brain, heart), and delivers oxygenated blood to the digestive system.You breathe in oxygen into your lungs.

The oxygen diffuses across the thin walls of the alveolar in the lungs and the thin walls of the blood vessels in the lungs into the bloodstream. Here it attaches to the haemoglobin molecules inside red blood cells.The red blood cells are carried by the blood vessels to all parts of the body. The haemoglobin releases oxygen in the periphery, and picks up carbon dioxide(CO2). The CO2 attached to the haemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells is then transported to the lungs, where it diffuses across the walls into the alveolar, andis breathed out.When your blood gets to your lungs, the oxygen from your lungs get put into your bloodstream. Then it goes back to the heart, with the oxygen-enriched blood being delivered to all parts of your body.

Essentially, the respiratory takes in the air, and the circulatory circulates it around the body. We breathe in air, which contains oxygen, and this oxygen is carried by our red cells around the body. If our respiratory systemThe respiratory system would not function without the circulatory system, and vice versa. The circulatory system requires oxygen, and it only gets this oxygen when the blood passes through the lungs and collects oxygen to bring to the rest of your body. The respiratory system uses blood to replenish itself within the lungs, continuing its normal function.

The heart pumps blood into the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. The blood is then returned to the heart and the newly oxygenated blood is circulated to the rest of the body. is poor, our oxygen would not be enough, we would become breathless etc. the respiratory system gives oxygen to the blood cells in the circulatory system. Also, they both contain the lungs and gives blood. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the blood. The Circulatory system carries the oxygenated blood throughout the body, keeping cells(and you) alive and functioning well. When you breathe in air it goes in your lungs and the oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream via the capillaries. Then the oxygen is carried throughout your body as needed.

Air Pollution as a Danger to Humanity

Air is the ocean we breathe, air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our bodies to live. However, human activities can release particles into the air, of which can cause problems such as smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and holes in the ozone layer. Each of these problems has serious problems for our health and well being as well as for the whole environment. Therefore, preventing air pollution is not only the duty of an individual but also the responsibilities of all people who are living in this earth. Of great concern is “emissions” caused by traffic and industries. The negative effects resulting from these emissions are undeniable and there is need to get a lasting solution to the problem. Uses of eco-friendly modes of transport such as bicycles or public electric trains are some of the solutions in solving emissions caused by transport systems.

There are other gases such as greenhouse gases that have also been of great concern in the recent past. When released to the air, they are both harmful to human beings and plant life. These gases have been proven to be a cause of global warming which has resulted in increased droughts. In turn, these droughts have been a major cause of fires that increase air pollution.

Carbon dioxide is a good indicator of how much fossil fuel is burned. Including how much of other pollutants are emitted as a result. Carbon dioxide is a perfect example of air pollution, the average family in the United States causes air pollution in the following examples transportation, electricity, other home fuel uses and goods and services we buy. The average amount of pollution a average family uses each year is (CO2) eighty five pounds, Nitrogen Oxides three hundred and twenty five pounds, Sulfur dioxide or acid rain four hundred and eleven pounds. The health effects on the air pollution on humans is critical as well. Exposure to emissions of lead, mercury, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and ozone-forming nitrogen oxides are hazardous to public health. Toxins like mercury and lead can poison organ systems and can lead to brain damage and death. Other pollutants in the ozone can cause respiratory and other health problems, particularly in children and the elderly. Air pollution can even lead to either a wide range or a short range of health effects. Over the past thirty years researchers have studied a vast of health effects which are believed to be associated with air pollution exposure. In the respiratory system diseases including asthma and changes in lung function cardiovascular diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes and even death. Nearly two point five million people die from air pollution each year from outdoor and indoor air pollution.

The cause of long term air pollution can last for years or for an entire life time. They can even lead to a person’s death. The health effects from air pollution include heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases. Air pollution can also cause long-term damage to people’s nerves, brain, kidneys, liver, and other organs. Scientists suspect air pollutants cause birth defects. Young children and older adults whose immune systems tend to be weaker, are often more sensitive to pollution. Conditions such as asthma, heart disease, and lung disease can be made worse by exposure to air pollution. The length of exposure and amount and type of pollutants are also factors. In parts of the country where lakes and waterways have been contaminated with mercury from electric power plants, fish are no longer safe to eat because they, too, are contaminated with heavy metal pollutants. Like people, animals, and plants, entire ecosystems can suffer effects from air pollution. Haze which is similar to smog, is a visible type of air pollution that obscures shapes and colors. Hazy air pollution can even muffle sounds. Air pollution particles eventually fall back to Earth. Air pollution can directly contaminate the surface of bodies of water and soil. This can kill crops or reduce their yield. It can kill young trees and other plants. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide particles in the air, can create acid rain they mix with water and oxygen in the atmosphere.

These air pollutants come mostly from coal-fired power plants and motor vehicles. When acid rain falls to Earth, it damages plants by changing soil composition. Degrades water quality in rivers, lakes and streams, damages crops and can cause buildings and monuments to decay. Like humans, animals can suffer health effects from exposure to air pollution. Birth defects as well as diseases, and lower reproductive rates have all been to air pollution.

The reduction of air pollution is a major situation that people need to know about, on how to reduce the pollution and make the environment much safer and healthier. Anybody can take easy steps to compact and make air pollution reduce. Millions of people every day make simple changes in their lives to do this. Taking public transportationinstead of driving a car, or riding a bike instead of traveling in carbon dioxide-emitting vehicles are a couple of ways to reduce air pollution. Avoiding aerosol cans, recycling yard trimmings instead of burning them, and not smoking cigarettes are others. Many people have adapted to using eletronic cars or eletricty to live thier lives besides burning fossil fuels and emitting air pollution into the air.

The Combustion Or The Burning of Fuels, as an Example of Oxidation and Reduction

The combustion or the burning of fuels, is perhaps the most common and obvious example of oxidation and reduction. Combustion is also that process which converts the potential energy of fuels into kinetic energy (heat and light). Most fuels (gasoline, diesel oil, propane, etc.) are compounds comprised primarily of carbon and hydrogen. These hydrocarbons represent an excellent source of potential energy which is released as heat during the combustion process.

A common example is the oxidation of propane, the fuel used for gas ranges: C3H8 + 5 O2 —–> 3 H2O + CO2 + HeatAs propane burns in air, its carbon atoms are oxidized when they combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. In turn, molecular oxygen is reduced by the hydrogen atoms, forming water. The heat produced can be used directly such as in the cooking of foods or to cause the expansion of the gaseous products produced to perform mechanical work such as in an internal combustion or steam engine.

DISCUSSION Many other substances besides hydrocarbons can be used as fuels. For example, the alcohols, such as methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (CH3CH2OH) are often used in racing cars. Ethanol mixed with gasoline, called gasohol , is currently being explored as a substitute for gasoline. Among the simplest fuels is molecular hydrogen (H2) which readily reacts with oxygen forming water as shown: 2 H2 + O2 ——> 2 H2O + EnergyThe simplicity and “nonpolluting” aspect of this oxidation-reduction reaction, the amount of energy produced, and the relative abundance of both hydrogen and oxygen in our environment, makes hydrogen a very attractive alternative fuel source. Research efforts are currently focused on further developing the technology to broaden its use as a source of energy.

FOSSIL FUELS:The primary use of fuel combustion is energy. The most common fuels used for the production of energy are fossil fuels, which are made up of ancient, decomposed organic matter. Oil, coal, and natural gas are three of the most common fossil fuels used in fuel combustion reactions. The energy produced when these fuels are combusted can be used to power vehicles anything from cars to normal household appliances.

TYPES OF FEL USED IN FUEL COMBUSTION:Solid fuels: Solid fuels burn in three phases·Preheating stage: In the preheating stage, their temperature increases until they reach their flash point and begin to release flammable gases.

Distillation phase: In this distillation phase, the gases released from the solid are burning, flames are often visible, and an extreme amount of heat is released. Charcoal Phase: The final stage is the charcoal phase, in which the solid does not contain enough flammable gas to burn consistently, instead it simply glows and smolders.

Liquid fuels: Liquid fuels are likely to burn only in the gaseous phase. They are heated until they begin to evaporate, and the vapor catches fire. Gas fuels: Gases tend to burn quickly and easily as they are already in an energized state and their particles are far apart, allowing them to mix with oxygen and react easily. USES OF FUEL COMBUSTION:.·Most of the electricity produced worldwide results from the combustion of oil, coal and natural gas. Natural gas(methane, CH4) is a relatively clean fuel and coal is the dirtiest.·The primary use of fuel combustion is energy which is used for various purposes. Rocket engines, internal combustion, or piston engines, and jet engines all depend on the burning of fuel to produce power.

Why Do Germinating Peas Consume More Oxygen: Research Essay

Respiration Rates of Germinating and Non-Germinating Peas

Introduction

For the purpose of this experiment, it is essential to have background information on what cellular respiration does and how it works. Cellular respiration, in simple terms, is the process by which sugar is broken down into a form that is readily usable by the cell to form its various functions. According to Hill (2014),

“For animals, energy is made available for life processes via respiration—the slow combustion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins through which the chemical energy in food is captured in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) or released as heat.”

However, in plants, according to Brown and Schwartz (2008),

“Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are interconnected as the two processes combine to provide energy for use by the plant. Photosynthesis transforms radiant energy from the sun into chemical bond energy within the carbohydrate molecule. The chemical bond energy is transformed into a smaller unit of energy within the ATP molecule. The energy within the ATP molecule produced during cellular respiration allows photosynthesis to continue.”

As one can see, the processes for cellular respiration are essential for the life of an organism. In this experiment, the purpose was to determine if the state of germination has an effect on the rates of CO2 and O2 respiration. Using Vernier CO2 and O2 Gas Sensors, a BioChamber 250, and LabQuest software, the levels of gasses emitted by peas, leaves, and insects were measured and recorded. It is predicted that germinating peas will have a higher rate of respiration than non-germinated peas.

Materials and Methods

For this experiment, the goal was to test the different levels of gas respiration by peas by using an enclosed chamber connected to gas sensors that are monitored by an outside source. To do this, these materials were used:

  • Vernier CO2 Gas Sensor
  • LabQuest
  • Thermometer
  • Vernier O2 Gas Sensor
  • LabQuest App
  • 25 germinated peas
  • BioChamber 250
  • Refrigerator
  • 25 non-germinated peas

The initial setup of this experiment was as follows:

  1. Set the CO2 Gas Sensor to the Low (0-10,000) setting.
  2. Attach both gas sensors to LabQuest.
  3. Select New from the File menu.

In testing the germinated peas, 25 germinated peas were placed into the BioChamber 250. The CO2 Gas Sensor was then placed horizontally into the neck of the chamber, while the O2 Gas Sensor was placed vertically into the top of the chamber. After 2 minutes, the collection of data was started. This process was also used for the testing of cold germinated peas, non-germinated peas, leaves in light, leaves in dark, and insects.

  • 25 Germinated Peas
  • 25 Cool Germinated Peas
  • 25 Non-Germinated Peas
  • Leaves in light
  • Leaves in dark
  • Insects

Time

  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments
  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments
  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments

Concentrate

  • PPM
  • PPM
  • PPM= Parts per million

Results

During the experiment, it was found that germinated peas did have a higher rate of respiration than the non-germinated peas as shown in Figure 1. The results show that as CO2 increased, O2 decreased for the germinated peas. On the other hand, non-germinated peas’ CO2 decreased as the O2 increased. As the leaves and insects were a side test for comparison, it showed that leaves exposed to light had much higher rates of respiration than the leaves in the dark as shown in Figure 2. However, both sets of leaves showed signs of CO2 conversion to O2. For the insects, a living creatures, the PPM levels started at a much higher rate as they consumed O2 and released CO2 as shown in Figure 3.

Peas

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97099
  2. 3 min 97099
  3. 6 min 97018
  4. 9 min 96851
  5. 12 min 96851
  6. 0 min 2039
  7. 3 min 2152
  8. 6 min 2267
  9. 9 min 2374
  10. 12 min 2433

Non-germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97767
  2. 3 min 97848
  3. 6 min 97929
  4. 9 min 98015
  5. 12 min 98096
  6. 0 min 829
  7. 3 min 820
  8. 6 min 817
  9. 9 min 817
  10. 12 min 808

Germinating Peas, cool temperature

  1. 0 min 99423
  2. 3 min 98760
  3. 6 min 98177
  4. 9 min 97762
  5. 12 min 97676
  6. 0 min 899
  7. 3 min 1071
  8. 6 min 1203
  9. 9 min 1315
  10. 12 min 1478

Leaves

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Leaves in Light

  1. 0 min 97894
  2. 3 min 97894
  3. 6 min 97813
  4. 9 min 97727
  5. 12 min 97727
  6. 0 min 961
  7. 3 min 942
  8. 6 min 933
  9. 9 min 920
  10. 12 min 908

Leaves in Dark

  1. 0 min 97311
  2. 3 min 97479
  3. 6 min 97560
  4. 9 min 97560
  5. 12 min 97646
  6. 0 min 1055
  7. 3 min 1061
  8. 6 min 1071
  9. 9 min 1049
  10. 12 min 1049

Insects

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Insects

  1. 0 min 99925
  2. 3 min 99677
  3. 6 min 99342
  4. 9 min 99094
  5. 12 min 99094
  6. 0 min 1162
  7. 3 min 1246
  8. 6 min 1309
  9. 9 min 1375
  10. 12 min 1440

The initial prediction for this experiment was supported as the germinated peas had a higher rate of respiration than the non-germinated peas. It was also found that temperature does have an effect on respiration as the cool germinated peas had much lower and slower respiration rates.

Discussion

Due to the fact that the germinating peas had a higher rate of respiration than non-germinated peas, the hypothesis was proven correct. Germinating peas, after 12 minutes, had a respiration rate in both CO2 and O2 that surpassed that of the non-germinating peas. This was supported by the results gathered from the experiment using the Vernier Gas Sensors and the LabQuest technology. A few issues were raised due to the LabQuest software stopping intermitted during the collection of data. This was solved by careful observation of these intermitted stops over the 12-minute collection time so that the data was uninterrupted. This experiment could have been improved if the LabQuest software had no glitches. These issues also could have affected the accuracy of the data by missing the 3-minute increments that were being tested. The results are shown below, in Figure 1, to confirm the hypothesis.

Peas

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97099
  2. 3 min 97099
  3. 6 min 97018
  4. 9 min 96851
  5. 12 min 96851
  6. 0 min 2039
  7. 3 min 2152
  8. 6 min 2267
  9. 9 min 2374
  10. 12 min 2433

Non-germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97767
  2. 3 min 97848
  3. 6 min 97929
  4. 9 min 98015
  5. 12 min 98096
  6. 0 min 829
  7. 3 min 820
  8. 6 min 817
  9. 9 min 817
  10. 12 min 808

Germinating Peas, cool temperature

  1. 0 min 99423
  2. 3 min 98760
  3. 6 min 98177
  4. 9 min 97762
  5. 12 min 97676
  6. 0 min 899
  7. 3 min 1071
  8. 6 min 1203
  9. 9 min 1315
  10. 12 min 1478

Conclusion

This lab showcased the relationship between gas laws, temperature, and the effect of germination on cellular respiration. The levels of CO2 and O2 tested and recorded were able to confirm that germination and temperature do, in fact, have an influence on the respiration rates of peas. Through the experiment, it was found that putting the specimen in different conditions yielded different results in respiration. If the experiment were to follow the pathway respiration typically does, the germinating peas and the cold germinated peas would have consumed the most oxygen because they were undergoing respiration even with varying temperatures. On the contrary, non-germinating peas are dormant and require very little respiration as they are not active. Furthermore, the cold peas displayed a decrease in the reaction rate of respiration due to a decrease in oxygen consumption. Higher temperatures typically do produce faster reaction rates, assuming the temperature is not extremely high or out of the organism’s functioning capacity.

References

  1. Brown, M. H., & Schwartz, R. S. (2009). Connecting photosynthesis and cellular respiration: Preservice teachers conceptions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(7), 791–812. doi: 10.1002/tea.20287
  2. Geoffrey E. Hill, Cellular Respiration: The Nexus of Stress, Condition, and Ornamentation, Integrative and Comparative Biology, Volume 54, Issue 4, October 2014, Pages 645–657, https://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2147/10.1093/icb/icu029

Why Do Germinating Peas Consume More Oxygen: Research Essay

Respiration Rates of Germinating and Non-Germinating Peas

Introduction

For the purpose of this experiment, it is essential to have background information on what cellular respiration does and how it works. Cellular respiration, in simple terms, is the process by which sugar is broken down into a form that is readily usable by the cell to form its various functions. According to Hill (2014),

“For animals, energy is made available for life processes via respiration—the slow combustion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins through which the chemical energy in food is captured in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) or released as heat.”

However, in plants, according to Brown and Schwartz (2008),

“Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are interconnected as the two processes combine to provide energy for use by the plant. Photosynthesis transforms radiant energy from the sun into chemical bond energy within the carbohydrate molecule. The chemical bond energy is transformed into a smaller unit of energy within the ATP molecule. The energy within the ATP molecule produced during cellular respiration allows photosynthesis to continue.”

As one can see, the processes for cellular respiration are essential for the life of an organism. In this experiment, the purpose was to determine if the state of germination has an effect on the rates of CO2 and O2 respiration. Using Vernier CO2 and O2 Gas Sensors, a BioChamber 250, and LabQuest software, the levels of gasses emitted by peas, leaves, and insects were measured and recorded. It is predicted that germinating peas will have a higher rate of respiration than non-germinated peas.

Materials and Methods

For this experiment, the goal was to test the different levels of gas respiration by peas by using an enclosed chamber connected to gas sensors that are monitored by an outside source. To do this, these materials were used:

  • Vernier CO2 Gas Sensor
  • LabQuest
  • Thermometer
  • Vernier O2 Gas Sensor
  • LabQuest App
  • 25 germinated peas
  • BioChamber 250
  • Refrigerator
  • 25 non-germinated peas

The initial setup of this experiment was as follows:

  1. Set the CO2 Gas Sensor to the Low (0-10,000) setting.
  2. Attach both gas sensors to LabQuest.
  3. Select New from the File menu.

In testing the germinated peas, 25 germinated peas were placed into the BioChamber 250. The CO2 Gas Sensor was then placed horizontally into the neck of the chamber, while the O2 Gas Sensor was placed vertically into the top of the chamber. After 2 minutes, the collection of data was started. This process was also used for the testing of cold germinated peas, non-germinated peas, leaves in light, leaves in dark, and insects.

  • 25 Germinated Peas
  • 25 Cool Germinated Peas
  • 25 Non-Germinated Peas
  • Leaves in light
  • Leaves in dark
  • Insects

Time

  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments
  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments
  • 12 minutes in 3-minute increments

Concentrate

  • PPM
  • PPM
  • PPM= Parts per million

Results

During the experiment, it was found that germinated peas did have a higher rate of respiration than the non-germinated peas as shown in Figure 1. The results show that as CO2 increased, O2 decreased for the germinated peas. On the other hand, non-germinated peas’ CO2 decreased as the O2 increased. As the leaves and insects were a side test for comparison, it showed that leaves exposed to light had much higher rates of respiration than the leaves in the dark as shown in Figure 2. However, both sets of leaves showed signs of CO2 conversion to O2. For the insects, a living creatures, the PPM levels started at a much higher rate as they consumed O2 and released CO2 as shown in Figure 3.

Peas

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97099
  2. 3 min 97099
  3. 6 min 97018
  4. 9 min 96851
  5. 12 min 96851
  6. 0 min 2039
  7. 3 min 2152
  8. 6 min 2267
  9. 9 min 2374
  10. 12 min 2433

Non-germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97767
  2. 3 min 97848
  3. 6 min 97929
  4. 9 min 98015
  5. 12 min 98096
  6. 0 min 829
  7. 3 min 820
  8. 6 min 817
  9. 9 min 817
  10. 12 min 808

Germinating Peas, cool temperature

  1. 0 min 99423
  2. 3 min 98760
  3. 6 min 98177
  4. 9 min 97762
  5. 12 min 97676
  6. 0 min 899
  7. 3 min 1071
  8. 6 min 1203
  9. 9 min 1315
  10. 12 min 1478

Leaves

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Leaves in Light

  1. 0 min 97894
  2. 3 min 97894
  3. 6 min 97813
  4. 9 min 97727
  5. 12 min 97727
  6. 0 min 961
  7. 3 min 942
  8. 6 min 933
  9. 9 min 920
  10. 12 min 908

Leaves in Dark

  1. 0 min 97311
  2. 3 min 97479
  3. 6 min 97560
  4. 9 min 97560
  5. 12 min 97646
  6. 0 min 1055
  7. 3 min 1061
  8. 6 min 1071
  9. 9 min 1049
  10. 12 min 1049

Insects

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Insects

  1. 0 min 99925
  2. 3 min 99677
  3. 6 min 99342
  4. 9 min 99094
  5. 12 min 99094
  6. 0 min 1162
  7. 3 min 1246
  8. 6 min 1309
  9. 9 min 1375
  10. 12 min 1440

The initial prediction for this experiment was supported as the germinated peas had a higher rate of respiration than the non-germinated peas. It was also found that temperature does have an effect on respiration as the cool germinated peas had much lower and slower respiration rates.

Discussion

Due to the fact that the germinating peas had a higher rate of respiration than non-germinated peas, the hypothesis was proven correct. Germinating peas, after 12 minutes, had a respiration rate in both CO2 and O2 that surpassed that of the non-germinating peas. This was supported by the results gathered from the experiment using the Vernier Gas Sensors and the LabQuest technology. A few issues were raised due to the LabQuest software stopping intermitted during the collection of data. This was solved by careful observation of these intermitted stops over the 12-minute collection time so that the data was uninterrupted. This experiment could have been improved if the LabQuest software had no glitches. These issues also could have affected the accuracy of the data by missing the 3-minute increments that were being tested. The results are shown below, in Figure 1, to confirm the hypothesis.

Peas

  • O2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)
  • CO2 Respiration Rate (ppm/s)

Germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97099
  2. 3 min 97099
  3. 6 min 97018
  4. 9 min 96851
  5. 12 min 96851
  6. 0 min 2039
  7. 3 min 2152
  8. 6 min 2267
  9. 9 min 2374
  10. 12 min 2433

Non-germinating Peas, room temperature

  1. 0 min 97767
  2. 3 min 97848
  3. 6 min 97929
  4. 9 min 98015
  5. 12 min 98096
  6. 0 min 829
  7. 3 min 820
  8. 6 min 817
  9. 9 min 817
  10. 12 min 808

Germinating Peas, cool temperature

  1. 0 min 99423
  2. 3 min 98760
  3. 6 min 98177
  4. 9 min 97762
  5. 12 min 97676
  6. 0 min 899
  7. 3 min 1071
  8. 6 min 1203
  9. 9 min 1315
  10. 12 min 1478

Conclusion

This lab showcased the relationship between gas laws, temperature, and the effect of germination on cellular respiration. The levels of CO2 and O2 tested and recorded were able to confirm that germination and temperature do, in fact, have an influence on the respiration rates of peas. Through the experiment, it was found that putting the specimen in different conditions yielded different results in respiration. If the experiment were to follow the pathway respiration typically does, the germinating peas and the cold germinated peas would have consumed the most oxygen because they were undergoing respiration even with varying temperatures. On the contrary, non-germinating peas are dormant and require very little respiration as they are not active. Furthermore, the cold peas displayed a decrease in the reaction rate of respiration due to a decrease in oxygen consumption. Higher temperatures typically do produce faster reaction rates, assuming the temperature is not extremely high or out of the organism’s functioning capacity.

References

  1. Brown, M. H., & Schwartz, R. S. (2009). Connecting photosynthesis and cellular respiration: Preservice teachers conceptions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(7), 791–812. doi: 10.1002/tea.20287
  2. Geoffrey E. Hill, Cellular Respiration: The Nexus of Stress, Condition, and Ornamentation, Integrative and Comparative Biology, Volume 54, Issue 4, October 2014, Pages 645–657, https://libproxy.library.unt.edu:2147/10.1093/icb/icu029