Category: Ottoman Empire

Introduction

During the 15^th and 16^th centuries, three major Muslim empires were formed and established namely; the Mughal empire, which dominated the greater India, Safavid which ruled the greater Iran, and the Ottoman Empire which ruled much of the Middle East. These served as the foundation of the discoveries about gunpowder and a more organized structure of ruling the territory. However, the three empires had their downfall in the 19^th century and the last empire to decline was the Ottoman.

Initially, Mughal Empire was an imperial power that dominated almost all the subcontinent of India during the era of the 16th up t the middle of the 19th century. And it was a Persian- speaking Islamic imperial power and originally it was a Turkic clan. It was one of the greatest empires that India has ever had though and ruled a lot of people for about hundreds of millions. It is said that India owed its having a huge colony to the ruling of the Mughal Empire, as well as having an organized system of economy and politics.

During its dominion, the Mughal Empire maintained its power for about 150 years under Akbar, and other successors are Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb (Richard, 1993). The time of Akbar left a highly centralized administration that was associated with various regions while Aurangzeb, a later ruler, changed the current set- up of India during that time and operated the country in a manner of parity to the Indian people. However, the dynasty declined through the British Empire after the rebellion of Indians in the year 1857.

The Safavids on the other hand were Iranians that ruled Persia. It established a great empire as well like the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. The dynasty originated from Safawiyyah that was established in Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region of Iran. It controlled the whole of Persia and fixed the Iranian identity of the region. Consequently, it became the first national dynasty after having the combined state of Iran. Regardless of their downfall in 1722, the Empire has left its markdown to the present-day era by establishing and spreading the religion in the major portion of the Caucasus and West Asia (Tapper, 1974).

The Ottoman Empire was a Turkish state which differs from the two Empires (Cleveland, 2004). The Empire was founded in the late part of the 13^th century and failed in the early 20^th century. It had been the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. It controlled a huge area that stretches through the Balkan Peninsula to the Middle East and North Africa. Unfortunately, it was abolished and the Republic of Turkey took the power as it was proclaimed officially in the year 1923.

Discussion

Mughal Empire

The establishment of the Mughal Empire started when Babur, which was a Timurid prince, took control of the Doab and Eastern regions of the Khorasan and the valley of the Indus River. And by this began the power of dominion of Babur in a much larger territory. The son of Babur who was Humayun altered him in the year 1530 however experienced major opposition from the power of Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and successfully lost the hatchling empire before it could result away from a small regional state. After ten years, Humayun became a cast-out leader and reached the court of the ruler of Safavid in 1542where his forces still controlled some fortifications and minor regions.

Though the dominion started with a great leader the successors were more effective as they made the Empire developed and progress in the sense of culinary culture in the subcontinent of India. It got its food influences to form Europe, Middle East, China, and India as well. The Mughals were also known to be a great consumer of foods and tagged as having a vomiting sense of eating since the era of Babur and Humayun.

The religion that dominated the Mughal Empire appeared to be an Islamic preference. Throughout the entire history, before the time of Emperor Akbar, the people were obliged to convert to be Muslims and pay their taxes but in the latter part of the history, there appeared to have freedom on what religion the people wanted to opt to choose. The language that is used in the court was Persian while Urdu was used as their spoken language. In addition, Akbar made his dominion a great thing for the Empire because it made the people acquainted with its culture, know what their potentials as individuals were and be familiar with their homeland more.

The policy that Akbar accepted became the standard guiding principle of other Emperors after him. Thus, it appeared a lot to the music and art of the Mughals (Richard, 1993). The policies that were pushed by Babur and Humayun were indeed liberal but unfortunately, it did not last for a long time so it was not able to shape the toughness of the proclaimed policies. It opened the minds of the people about the freedom of expressing their thoughts and ideas as what the paintings depicted under the conformist Islamic Laws.

Safavid Empire

Safavid Empire was not like any other dynasties that were founded by the warlords and military chiefs which was one of the unique aspects of the Empire in post-Islamic Iran. It is sad that being an exceptional empire made Safavids become incomparable to the pre-Islamic Sassanid dynasty. One of the major problems of the Safavid Empire was the Ottoman Empire which was considered as the active recruitment of the tribes of Turkmen in Anatolia and this resulted in a major threat for the Safavid (Minorsky, 1942).

The Empire was ruled by a military force and appeared to be dominant because of the military influences of having a martial power among any other rulers. The official religion in Iran at that time was Shia Islam and that was also the man religion that was being accepted by the people of the Safavid Empire.

The progress of the Safavid Economy was influenced by the great civilization in Europe through the west, India, and Islamic central Asia up to its East and North. The trading aspects during that era have been improved and became widely known to other countries. The architectural development for the period of the Safavid Empire appeared to be healthy and politically unwavering as it thrived the expansion of knowledge about theological sciences. The conventional architecture changed in its patterns and technique parting its results on the subsequent era. It retained its cultural sense in a way that the artists made use of the natural elements within their vicinity.

The language used in the Empire had been Persian as it won over the standard Turkish language because Safavid did have many influences on the side of Persian culture. To be able to sort out the state, they used Persian bureaucrats to collect taxes and establish a religious union. The succeeding emperors did a great job of making policies that would generate a benefit for the entire system of the state. Promoting an independent state won through and the religious aspects remained which had been the way in achieving a unified society.

Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire was considered to be a threat for Safavid and conquered other Turks because they had the most advantageous position. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire also had the influences of Europe, just like what happened in Safavid, and the Eastern Mediterranean. It was also driven by the military forces of the Ottoman and progressed in the trading sense during the era of 1453. Ottoman got the most power when it comes to innovations in technology and emerged into a wealthy economy because of their successful trading industries (Shaw, 1976). The military forces were the driving forces that made the way of success came into the Ottoman Empire. Another colony perhaps looked up to them or maybe was afraid to battle out with them because of the said reason.

Being one of the three Muslims Empires, Islam was also the religion that governed the state. The whole Empire had been blatant in their religion though, but still, they tolerate other religions and non- Muslim religions for the people. Thus, the Ottoman possessed a liberal Empire which had been more advanced among the other Empires.

Conclusion

Generally, the comparison among the three Empires favored the latest Muslim Empire that ruled the Turkish. The most significant, powerful, and dominant empire was determined by the success of the Ottoman Empire though it still declined during that era. Trading emerged with the help of European civilization and was able to develop different kinds of techniques that made innovations for the Empire. The role of religion had been greatly dominant and needs to be the first thing to consider because it served as their guiding principles through the entire run of the system. Political structures also seemed to have a pattern of passing through generations of the rulers.

The status of women in the Ottoman Empire became very unfair for the feminine side. Still, women were sold to be treated as slaves and were not given privileges to handle such big work to become rulers (Cleveland, 2004). The conquest of lands became very easy for the Ottoman Empire because they handled their people with a tolerance of what they like but still appearing to respond to the policies that were imposed for the benefit of all.

A vivid example of this is having the group called Millet that has been tolerated by the rulers to do what they wanted to consider the principles of the Ottoman Empire. Also, the lifestyle of Ottoman people has had an assortment of western and eastern influences. It depicts the parted beliefs of people and independence to choose and patronize what they think and believe is right. The Empire’s legacy focused on the passage of thrones and the construction of statues for the successful rulers.

References

Cleveland, W. L. “The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis” in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp. 37–56.

Richard, J. F. The Mughal Empire. Vol. I, Part 5, of the New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Minorsky, V. The Poetry of Shah Ismail, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 10, No. 4. (1942), pp. 1053.

Tapper, R.. “Shahsevan in Safavid Persia”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324.

Shaw, S. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol I; Empire of Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1290–1808. Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Introduction

The Ottoman Empire was one of the most influential entities in the world. The territorial possessions consisted of the European, African, and Asian countries. Moreover, the army was indeed strong and won a huge number of bloody wars. In addition to the territorial and military superiority, the empire had immense treasure possessions concentrated in the hands of sultans. However, despite these strengths, the Empire was destined to fall apart for various reasons.

The Government and Society

It is worth noting that the Ottoman Empire gained increased power in the XVI century. Its prosperity rooted in the success of its predecessors, and the accumulation of wealth. The rulers of the empire were able to consolidate the previous gains and resolve conflicts within the country to ensure complete stability. Regarding, the internal organization, the military-feudal system was established, and the land was owned conditionally because the Sultan had the principal right of proprietorship of all the conquered lands. It is important to note that social life was built in such a way that the ruling class existed mainly due to the exploitation of the peasantry.

However, private serfdom was not present in the state. The Ottoman Empire was a feudal despotism. Sultan had, in addition to the land proprietorship, the unlimited state, and spiritual power (Cleveland and Bunton 45). The great vizier performed some of the functions of the head of the state.

The religious communities were of great importance in the life of society. Muslims and members of other religions facilitated the social differentiation within the Ottoman Empire. It should be noted that religious communities took part in political and social life. For instance, they exercised jurisdiction over coreligionists (except criminal authority), and collected levies from the population including government revenues (Cleveland and Bunton 45).

In general, non-Muslim communities made a significant contribution to the development of society. Mainly, the representatives of other religions (non-Muslim) have contributed to the preservation of national and cultural traditions and heritage. A distinctive feature of the empire that differed from other countries was that the conquest of the territories was simultaneous with the establishment and development of the administrative structure of the state. By the end of the XVI century, the Ottoman Empire was a state with a rich ethnic and religious structure, and various parts were mainly involved in farming. All regions showed weak economic ties and interaction with each other but, overall, it was a political community (Cleveland and Bunton 45).

Such a rich background demanded the centralization of the vertical power, which was the main objective of the Sultan as mentioned above. Moreover, despite the well-built vertical, Sultan performed supervision over all aspects including military, financial, tax, administrative, political, judicial, and Muslim, and non-Muslim forensic activities. Regarding the religious communities, one of the Sultans established the system of millets, which were self-governing religious communities (Cleveland and Bunton 46). When the non-Muslim populations have adopted this status, they were integrated into the social and political structure of the Ottoman society and became part of it.

The Weakness of the Ottoman Empire during 1700 – the 1800s

The decrease in the power of the Ottoman Empire originated at the end of the previous century; however, the most obvious signs of destabilization were visible from the beginning of the 1700s. The state still had a territorial advantage and possessed the important trade routes. The empire occupied a strategic position and had strong leadership; nevertheless, there were reasons inside the state itself that contributed to its weakening.

The empire did not have internal unity in terms of national, ethnic, religious, and social backgrounds. Moreover, such heterogeneous fragmentation implied the dependence on the central government. Also, the domination over the conquered peoples was maintained by military force solely while the military power, in its turn, was on the decline (Cleveland and Bunton 46). The system of land tenure was not conducive to the strengthening of feudalism but rather undermined it. Despite the attempts by government officials to regulate the processes in the country through the discipline, taxation, and other measures, the Ottoman Empire was experiencing short-term improvements. Moreover, there was a new balance of power, and the empire had to meet the opposition in the global stage.

Conclusion

In the period of prosperity of the state, the Ottoman Empire had a social and political structure, which was regulated by the concentration of power and rigidity within the state apparatus. The religious and social background was varied, and non-Muslim representatives were united in a community to preserve the identity. As a consequence, the populations became isolated from the perspective of economic and social relations, which contributed to the fragmentation within the empire.

This situation has stimulated the predominance of an autocratic regime. The result of the internal structure of the state and its policies since the beginning of the XVII century led to the fact that the country was in a state of decline and the growing internal crisis. The international arena has changed, and other countries took a strong position, which allowed foreign colonizers to enter the lands that were under the control of the Ottoman Empire.

Work Cited

Cleveland, William, and Martin Bunton. A History of the Modern Middle East. 6th ed., Westview Press, 2016.

Introduction

The Ottoman Empire was among the most influential geopolitical entities in the history of the Arab World. Despite its power and influence, it showed a trend of decline followed by the fall in the early twentieth century. One of the popular views attributes the fall of the empire to the severe military underperformance in its latter years. The following paper presents evidence of the involvement of the numerous economic, political, and ideological factors that contributed to the event and played at least an equally significant role. Also, an overview of the impacts on the Arab World is provided to enhance the understanding of the issue and its significance for the region.

Military Events

One of the prevailing views on the matter suggests that the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed either solely or mostly to the increased rate of internal and external military activity. This point is convincing for several reasons. First, the military performance of the empire was in a noticeable decline by the end of the nineteenth century. Historically, the state was known for its exceptional characteristics as a military power and maintained high-profile warfare.

Nevertheless, with the Age of Exploration and the emergence of the New World, the European countries obtained an outstanding resource base and began to accumulate wealth. This change is inevitably reflected in the state of the military complex, with the key players in the European theater demonstrating an outstanding rate of development of warfare-related technologies. As a result, starting from the seventeenth century, the balance of power shifted away from the Ottomans. The situation was further aggravated by the emergence of leaders whose governing capacity was insufficient for enabling the region’s potential.

Second, as a direct consequence of the described setting, the military operations from as early as the seventeenth century often ended in defeat. These events correlate with the most widely accepted dates of the fall of the empire. Several conflicts are cited as the most influential in the described pattern. The first is a series of conflicts with Habsburg forces. These include the battle of Mohacs and the battle of Zenta, during both of which the empire lost to far better trained and equipped forces.

These events also have a direct impact on the Ottoman Empire’s decrease of influence in the Eastern European region. The second event was the success of the Egyptian campaign of Napoleon. Napoleon’s victory had a major impact on the perception of the power associated with the empire for Europeans and compromised their authority in the region. The subsequent reform by Mohammad Ali further strengthened the country’s position and undermined the Ottomans’ influence.

The third event was a series of conflicts between the empire and Russia from 1768 to 1774. The eventual victory of Russians prompted the signing of the Kukuk Kaynarca treaty, which had several important effects. Most notably, it resulted in the loss of Crimean military forces and the disruption of monopoly over the Black Sea. Some of these losses were later reversed, but the net effect was negative for the Ottoman Empire.

The fourth most cited event was the declaration of independence by Greece in 1830. The event was accompanied by a series of devastating military losses in Greek revolts and set off a trend among Christian states to seek independence from Muslim governance.

Despite the evident correlation between the military underperformance and the overall decline of the Ottoman Empire, it would be unreasonable to limit the scope to a single domain. Fist, it can be argued that the complexity of the geopolitical and cultural setting pertinent to the issue suggests that the economic, ideological, and political factors cannot be excluded from the analysis as their combined effect was probably at least as significant as that of the events described above.

Second, the descriptions of both the prerequisites and the outcomes of the events in question contain numerous elements that align with the assumption, which suggests that additional inquiry might reveal other significant factors. Therefore, it is suggested that economic, ideological, and political factors play at least a significant role in the fall of the Ottoman Empire.

Economic Factors

One of the most significant turning points that changed the economic landscape of the empire was the Age of Exploration – a phenomenon associated with the emergence of the New World and resulting in the rapid development of the naval power worldwide. As was mentioned above, it had an indirect impact on the buildup of military power among European countries, which, by extension, transpired in the relative weakness of the Ottomans.

However, it also had a much broader effect on the economic influence of the state. First, the improvements made by Europeans in the naval domain allowed them to expand their trade routes on an unprecedented scale. For the Ottoman Empire, this meant that Suez, which was among the world’s most significant trade hubs before the seventeenth century, became virtually irrelevant as Europeans started trading with Asia directly through the sea.

Second, the sudden influx of silver from the New World seriously decreased the price of the metal compared to gold. The monetary system of the empire relied heavily on silver, so the decline in price immediately undermined its financial stability. Third, the industrial revolution put additional pressure on several key industries in the region, including the textiles and metallurgy. The latter two had a cumulative effect since the financial instability contributed to the decrease in prices of the raw materials, which expanded the opportunities of the European manufacturers. While the resulting goods could rarely compete in quality with those produced by local craftsmen, their abundance became the and, by extension, low price became a decisive factor in the suppression of local businesses.

Another significant economic change was related to the growing presence of firearms as an essential component of the battlefield. For the population of the empire, such change meant the change in a taxation system that created a growing pressure on the farmers. As the military power declined, taxes continued to grow, leading to the deterioration of the country’s agriculture. Eventually, such a setting created a shortage of food and made the region even less attractive for traders from Europe. The resulting financial instability slowed down the country’s development and contributed to the fall of the empire.

Political Factors

The economic decline and resulting inflation had an overwhelming effect on numerous areas within the empire. For instance, the Janissaries, who served as one of the cornerstones of the country’s military might, were directly impacted by financial instability. As soon as the government lost the ability to provide monetary compensation for their services, their determination and discipline quickly deteriorated. The majority of troops had to seek alternative sources of funding and often found them by adopting the civil lifestyle. This also meant that they abandoned the principles of celibacy, married, and had children, who were subject to hereditary recruitment.

The blending of the Janissaries with the urban population shifted the political power in favor of the latter, who now could make more decisions. Besides, the emergence of the heredity factor essentially created an influential political party that had influence sufficient to threaten the governing elite. On several occasions, such as the decision to decline the Sultan Selim II’s right to the throne, this power was successfully put into practice.

Another important political aspect that must be acknowledged was the gradual decentralization. Over the seventeenth and the early eighteenth century, political power moved from Sultan to the local viziers, who often pursued their interests and agendas. While initially viziers were loyal to the ruler and pursued common interests. However, as the military expenses rose and the central authority was unable to fulfill its obligations, the viziers started abusing the taxation system by withholding a certain percentage of the collected funds. By the end of the nineteenth century, this behavior resulted in major gaps in state revenues, with more than three-quarters of the funds remaining in the hands of local elites. As can be seen, both factors had a similar deteriorating effect on the authority and influence of the central power in the country.

Ideological Factors

The lack of technological and scientific development was among the core causes of some of the described military, economic, and political issues. While there is no single cause for such discrepancy, it can be traced to the ideological context. For instance, the sense of superiority over the Christian world that formed after the victory over the Byzantine Empire contributed to the inhibition of the progress offered by the Western World. The phenomenon was grounded in conservative suspicion and adversely impacted several important technological advancements by preventing their timely adoption.

Next, the newly emerged movements played a significant role in the loss of the Sultan’s power. The first was a revision of the existing religious system known as Wahhabism, which suggested that the Sultan was not a true leader and therefore could be disobeyed. The second was a result of the external influence and was brought into the empire during Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt. The ideas communicated by the movement aligned well with the economic and social state of life in the country, for which reason nationalism quickly gained a significant following. It should also be noted that it resonated in the citizens of those parts of the country who were less loyal to the Sultan, further disrupting the integrity of the empire.

Impact on the Arab World

As a result of the combination of military, economic, political, and ideological complications, the empire disintegrated in the early twentieth century, leaving behind several attractive territories and resources. This setting immediately triggered a reaction of the Western countries that attempted to impose their rule in the region. Naturally, such a highly dynamic and unpredictable environment had a direct effect on the development of the country. However, it should be noted that while many of the past events are related to the fall of the empire, it is also possible to connect some of the modern-day phenomena to it.

The immediate and most prominent outcome of the Ottoman Empire’s decline was the introduction of the Western players into the Arab World. The British Empire was interested in obtaining control over the natural resources of the vacant territories, and a pressing competition from the other European countries prompted it to act as quickly as possible. Under such conditions, caution remained among the least significant priorities, and the cultural context was excluded from the equation almost always.

Simply put, the Western powers established their governance guided mostly by their material interests and operating within the frameworks adopted from the European setting. Since the territories of the former Ottoman Empire consisted of territorial entities with a distinct cultural background, such strategy has led to the creation of the improbable combination of highly diverse components.

At this point it should be acknowledged that the late Ottoman Empire shared some of the features with the resulting entity – specifically, it had disagreements within the country that led to internal tensions and, in some cases, open conflicts. Nevertheless, the unique style of governance that relied on local authorities and decentralized management, as well as the understanding of the cultural specificities of the region greatly reduced the possibility of disagreement between parties.

Therefore, the fall of the Ottoman Empire essentially created the setting where numerous territories became the subject of attention of the powerful force that could not govern it appropriately. One example of the consequences experienced by the Arab World is the dispersion of Kurds over several nations during the process of region division by the Western powers following the empire’s disintegration.

The aftermath of the situation can be observed as far as the recent years, when the Kurds continue to seize land in the region, such as the Iraqi territories containing oil fields. The social and ideological turbulence that emerged as a result of the materialistic approach to the Arab World territories governance also impacted the development of certain countries, with Iraq being the easiest example.

The country was initially identified without acknowledging its complex history of occupation by various authorities, making it vulnerable to the almost century-long instability. To a certain degree, the same outcome is observed in Syria, a country that suffers from the vicious civil war. Finally, the emergence of ISIS can be traced to the ideological vacuum created by the attempt to introduce a poorly fitting neoliberal reform without acknowledging the ideological requirements of the population. Since the latter is essentially a trend established soon after the fall of the empire, it is possible to assume that the consequences of the Ottoman Empire’s fall are still observed today to a significant degree.

Conclusion

The importance of the Ottoman Empire is unquestionable. It played an important role in numerous aspects of the region’s development. Therefore, a clear understanding of the reasons for its decline is crucial for obtaining a complete profile of the Arab World. Despite the popular assumption that the fall of the empire can be directly connected to its poor military performance, the available information suggests that a complex interconnection of the economic, political, and ideological factors collectively contributed to its decline. While most of the direct consequences of the fall occurred immediately after the event, some of them transpired into long-term effects, and few can be traced in the contemporary world today.

Bibliography

Black, Antony. History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011.

Hanssen, Jens, ed. Arabic Thought beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Mather, Yassamine. “The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and Current Conflict in the Middle East.” Critique 42, no. 3 (2014): 471-485.

Stanton, Andrea, ed. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.

Sugar, Peter, ed. Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. Vol. 5. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2014.

Van der Steen, Eveline. Near Eastern Tribal Societies During the Nineteenth Century: Economy, Society, and Politics Between Tent and Town. New York: Routledge, 2014.

The history of the Asian countries presents special interests for study. The principles and traditions according to which European political life developed in the past were inapplicable for Asia, as there the authority and the supreme absolute power of the head of the state were undoubted. Accordingly, the politics was much dependent upon the personal preferences of the statesmen rather than on rational considerations (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005). Evidently, there were considerable differences and similarities in the development of the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire in India, and this paper will focus on their consideration and explanation.

To begin with, it is necessary to state that the Ottoman Empire takes its roots from c. 1281 when Sultan Osman founded “the Ottoman Dynasty” (Brummett et al., 2006, p. 350). Descending from the Middle Eastern Arab tribes, the Ottomans soon spread their influence over the whole Middle East and directed their attention at Europe. In 1453 they captured the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, and established themselves as one of the most serious powers in world politics (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005). To prove their status, the Ottomans used military force and propaganda: “[Osman’s] dynasty, like the tree, did endure and expand to control many and prosperous territories.

As the dynasty grew more powerful, the Ottomans also falsified the genealogy linking them to the prophet Muhammad” (Brummett et al., 2006, p.350). With its development, the Ottoman Empire acquired new possessions and authority internationally. The military development was accompanied by the cultural rebirth of the Arabic art: “Ottoman success resulted in a vigorous cultural renaissance, most evident in the monumental architecture and decorative tile work” (Brummett et al., 2006, p.356).

As contrasted, the Mughal Empire in India displays certain differences and similarities with the Ottoman Empire. Starting with the differences, the major one among them was the status of the Empire in the international arena. While the Ottoman Empire was a dominant player in world politics, the Mughal state influenced only India, Persia and a part of the modern territory of Afghanistan (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005). Moreover, the timeframe of the Mughal Empire is smaller than that of the Ottoman Empire (1281 – 1923), as the Mughal state existed from the middle of the 16^th century, when Babur captured Delhi and founded the kingdom, till 1857 when the failure of the Indian Rebellion against the British rule resulted in the exile of the last Emperor of Mughal, Bahadur Shah II (Stearns, Gosch, & Grieshaber, 2005).

However, the Mughal Empire is similar to the Ottoman Empire in its being the highly developed Muslim state of great riches, especially under Shah Akbar (1556 – 1605): “Akbar’s capital at Agra, for example, housed 200, 000 people – twice the population of contemporary London” (Brummett et al., 2006, p.364). Culture was also on the rise in the Mughal Empire that developed literature, sculpture, and architecture: “In 1632 the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, commissioned the building of the resplendent Taj Mahal as a memorial to his late wife” (Brummett et al., 2006, p.364). Thus, the economic and cultural development of the Mughal Empire can be equaled to that of the Ottoman Empire, while the political authorities of the two states were rather different.

To conclude, the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire were the two powerful states of medieval Asia. The Ottoman Empire was more powerful in the political and military senses, while the cultural and economic development of both Empires was on the similar level. Despite the fact that the Mughal Empire was destroyed almost a century before the Ottoman Empire, both states left a considerable trace in world history.

Works Cited

Brummett, Palmira J., Robert R. Edgar, Neil J. Hackett, George F. Jewsbury, Barbara S. Molony. Civilization: Past & Present, Volume II: From 1300. Longman, 2006

Stearns, Peter N., Stephen S. Gosch, Erwin P. Grieshaber. Documents in World History: The Modern Centuries, Volume 2 (From 1500 to the Present). Longman, 2005.

Introduction

Mimar Sinan was among the greatest Ottoman architects. The buildings he set up include the most renowned familiar sights of the Turkish Empire. He is the head of the architect of the Ottoman Empire and he built at least 300 buildings. Sinan is among the men of art as well as science that formed up the main Ottoman civilization. He had been in the capacity of the head architect of the era that was most successful of the Ottoman Empire. He plays a very critical part in building up the Ottoman classic architecture style and taking this style to its highest point. The renovations he carried out, that brought in adjustments to the approach of the architecture of the whole world using the influence he had, remains to give guidance to the contemporary architecture also. This paper is going to look at the life of this prominent person, his works and style, and his architectural heritage in general.

The Life of Mimar Sinan

According to Anonymous (Biography: Kodja Mimar Sinan Kodja Mimar Sinan, Para 2), Kodja Mimar Sinan was born on the fifteenth day of April the year 1489. His place of birth was Kaisaraya, Anatolia. The name of the father is not clearly known. At some point in his early life, Sinan converted to Islam and he turned out to be a Janissary. While in this famous military service, Sinan distinguished himself. According to Anonymous (Forcibly conscripted Mimar Sinan was the Ottoman’s chief architect and an Orthodox Christian, Para 5) at this time, he was more than twenty-one years old and therefore he was sent to an auxiliary school instead of being admitted in the imperial Enderum School in the Palace of Topkapi.

Among the records that have been kept, there are those that present claims that Sinan might have been in service as a trainee of the Ibrahim Pasha school. There is a possibility that he might have received the name Sinan, which is an Islamic name, while in this place. Originally, Mimar Sinan learned carpentry as well as mathematics. But over time, because of the intellectual qualities and determination he had, it did not take long before he got involved in assisting the leading architects and at this point, he had an opportunity to acquire training as an architect (Anonymous, Forcibly conscripted Mimar Sinan was the Ottoman’s chief architect and an Orthodox Christian, Para 5).

According to Anonymous (Biography: Kodja Mimar Sinan Kodja Mimar Sinan, Para 3), Mimar Sinan became chief firework operator following the campaigns that took place between the years 1521 and the year 1522 against Rhodes and Belgrade. In the course of the war that was there with Persia in the year 1534, Sinan contravened a creative ferry operation for the victorious carrying of troops across Lake Van.

Sinan always acquired promotions time and again. In the course of a Turkish invasion that took place in the Danube Valley, he was a police magistrate. This was the same time he set up a bridge that went over the river and following this effort, he was able to achieve great fame. More so, as a result of this achievement, he turned to engage in the architectural activity on a full-time basis (Anonymous, Forcibly conscripted Mimar Sinan was the Ottoman’s chief architect and an Orthodox Christian, Para 5).

Beginning from the late 1530s up to the time he died which was in the year 1588 on the 15th day of July, Mimar Sinan carried out his work all through the Ottoman Empire, setting up more than three hundred public structures. Among these structures were the mosques and among the mosques are four great mosques that enabled Sinan to be most famous. These four mosques include the Roxelana that was set up in the year 1539, the princes that were set up in the year 1548, the Suleimaniye set up between the years 1550 and 1556 and Selim which was set up between the years 1551 and 1574.

The works and accomplishment of Mimar Sinan

Mimar Sinan is an architect who lived in the magnificent era of the Ottoman Empire and he is one of the artists who contributed to this period with the works he produced. Different sources state that this person was an architect of more than 350 structures and among these structures are 84 mosques, 51 small mosques, seven schools for those who recite the Koran, fifty-seven schools of theology, three hospitals, 48 inns, seven aqueducts, forty-six baths, and 35 palaces among other major structures (Yolsecenhani.Biz, Para 2).

Mimar Sinan served in the position of the palace’s chief architect. This implied that, as the senior manager of the work of construction in the Ottoman Empire for more than fifty years, Sinan worked with the assistants that formed a large team. These assistants are composed of master builders as well as architects.

Three major works mark the developmental and maturing stages of Mimar Sinan. The first two major works are in Istanbul. These are Sehzade Mosque that he referred to as his apprentice period work. This is the first grand mosque that Sinan ever set up. Suleymaniye Mosque is the qualification stage work and Selimiye Mosque is of the masterly stage.

There was the completion of the Mihriman Sultan Mosque in the same year the Sehzade mosque was completed and this mosque has a design that is quite original. This mosque possesses three domes that are the main ones. At the time he approached his 70th birthday, he was through with the Suleymaniye Mosque as well as the complex.

This building is among the symbolic monuments of the period. It is located on one of the Istanbul hills and faces the Golden horn. It was set up in the name of Suleyman the magnificent. The dome’s diameter that goes beyond thirty meters is among the very much significant examples of the degree of achievement Sinan approached in the field of architecture. He completed this when was eighty years of age. At this point, he arrived at the climax in his works that were shown at Selimiye. Sinan gave out projects that were of their own kind in other fields such as the mausoleums. The attention is gotten from the mausoleum of Sehzade and particularly the exterior decorations it has as well as its dome that is sliced. More so, another structure that is of much interest is the Rustem Pasa mausoleum. This is a very nice-looking construction in the classical style.

The mausoleum of Suleyman the magnificent has a flat dome and an octagonal body. This is among the interesting experimentations of Sinan. Another mausoleum that was set up was the Selim II mausoleum. This portrays an arrangement whose shape is a square. On the other hand, the mausoleum that belongs to Sinan himself is a very plain structure. This mausoleum is situated on the northeast side of the Suleymaniye complex.

Mimar Sinan also engaged in the construction of bridges. In these works he portrayed art and functionalism and art that were brought together most masterfully. The largest bridge he constructed is a bridge that is about 635 meters long which is called the Buyufcekmece Bridge. Among other bridges that were constructed include such bridges as the Luleburgaz Bridge that was constructed on the Luleburgaz River, Sinnli Bridge constructed on the Ergene River, and the Drina Bridge which turned out to be the title of the renowned novel of Ivo Andric who is a Yugoslav writer.

While this prominent person was ensuring sufficient maintenance and upgrading of the Istanbul water supply scheme, he has set up arched aqueducts in this city in diverse regions. Among these is the Maglova Arch which is built over the Alibey River and this one is 237 meters in length. It is 35 meters in height and makes a display of two layers of arches and this is among the samples that are great (Yolsecenhani.Biz, Para 6).

Sinan did not just set up great monumental works but he as well carried out the additions to the structures that had already been set up in the capital, most particularly in Topkapi and Haghia. Of great importance still, Mimar Sinan engaged in training a school of architects. Among these were the apprentices he had who were Mehmet Aga, Davut Aga, and Dalgic Ahmet. These apprentices had the responsibility to carry Sinan’s structural experiments in the generation that had to come in post-classical masterpieces like the Sultan Ahmet mosque, the New Mosque, and the mausoleum (Alexander, Para 7).

Conclusion

Following the discussion, it can be concluded that Mimar Sinan was a great architect who is still remembered to this day because of the works he set up. He was involved in setting up several structures which are very famous. Beginning from the late 1530s up to the time he died which was in the year 1588, Mimar Sinan carried out his work all through the Ottoman Empire, setting up more than three hundred public structures. Among these structures were the mosques and among the mosques are four great mosques that enabled Sinan to be most famous.

Other than mosques, Sinan also engaged in the construction of bridges. As seen in the bridges Mimar Sinan constructed, there is a masterful combination of functionalism and art. The largest bridge he constructed is a bridge that is about 635 meters long which is called the Buyufcekmece Bridge.

Sinan did not just set up great monumental works but he as well carried out the additions to the structures that had already been set up in the capital, most particularly in Topkapi and Haghia. Of great importance still, Mimar Sinan engaged in training a school of architects in which he trained apprentices that that had to carry on his work of architecture in the generations that would follow.

Works Cited

Alexander, Christopher. “Mimar Sinan.” Turkish Ministry of Culture. Web.

Anonymous. “Biography: Kodja Mimar Sinan.” Yourdictionary. Web.

Anonymous. “Forcibly conscripted Mundratabloidimar Sinan was the Ottoman’s chief architect and an Orthodox Christian.” Tundratabloid, 2010. Web.

Yolsecenhani.biz. “Biography of Mimar Sinan.” yolgecenhani.biz, 2009. Web.

One of the most outstanding cultural outputs of the Islamicate world is Ottoman architecture. This architecture emerged after the formation of the Ottoman Empire in 1300. The pioneer locations of this architecture were Edirne and Bursa. The Ottomans specialized in creating inner spaces under huge domes, and such a thing had not happened in the Islamicate world before. Hitherto, most buildings and especially mosques as they were important aspects at the time, entailed mainly ordinary buildings, but highly decorated.

However, with the entry of the use of domes and vaults, which were common with the Ottoman architecture, both inside and outside space, was redefined. Mosques were redesigned from the earlier dark chambers to beautifully constructed domes with well-defined light and dark areas. Across the entire Asia Minor, different forms of mosques emerged based on the Ottoman architecture.

This emerging form of architecture was well received across the region with Mimar Sinan at the helm whereby he came up with numerous ideas concerning this form of art. With such revolutionary architectural wave sweeping across Asia Minor, other regions became interested and adopted it. The classical Ottoman architecture was widely accepted in Tunisia, Hungary, Algiers, and Egypt. The west did not receive the classical version of this architecture, but with modernization, this form of art slowly penetrated the west as explored next.

With modernization and peace, the Ottoman Empire started to form bilateral associations with western countries. France was the first country to associate with the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, the Ottoman architecture started influencing its French counterpart.

However, architects from France modified the classical Ottoman architectural designs and incorporated the Rococo and Baroque trends, which were popular across Europe. The most outstanding product of the modification of the classical Ottoman architecture is the renowned Divrigi hospital. The key architect of the Baroque-Ottoman architecture in France was Mellin, and he traveled to Istanbul, where he cemented his interests in this newly found form of art.

During the Tulip period, the modernized Ottoman architecture spread widely across Europe. Even back in Turkey where it originated, different places hitherto preserved for the elites were opened for the ordinary citizens to visit. Therefore, the architecture became common across Asia Minor, where public recreational areas like Kagithane were constructed using this form of architecture.

Baroque-Ottoman architecture became popular between 1757 and 1808 during the Baroque period. During this time, the architectural designs spread to Italy and other major European countries. Ultimately, the Ottoman architecture underwent a revolution during the National Architectural Renaissance, which occurred in the latter years of the 19th century.

Modern structural techniques started taking root, and this move brought revival to the classical Ottoman architecture. Architects started using modern materials like glass and steel. However, even though the materials changed, the new designs borrowed heavily from the classical architecture of the 12th century. The reception of the new modified classical Ottoman architectural designs was good as people across Europe and Africa embraced the architecture and started incorporating it in their constructions.

In conclusion, the Ottoman architecture emerged after the birth of the Ottoman Empire in 1300. It replaced the conventional architecture, which mainly entailed ordinary buildings with intense beautification. This new form of architecture specialized in creating both inside and outside spaces. The architecture experienced good reception beyond Turkey where it emerged. France became the first country to incorporate the Ottoman architecture in its designs with modifications under the influence of the Baroque designs.

Attending a museum exhibition is always an educative experience. You can obtain new knowledge or discover new areas of interest. However, the most astounding thing about going to museums is the way you feel after the end of the excursion. You never leave the same because you start drawing lines connecting you to what you have just seen and somehow feel yourself a part of a broader culture and period in history. At least, it is what always happens to me when I go to museums.

This time, we were requested to attend the Saint Louis Art Museum and choose one piece of art to reflect on. Being a Muslim, what initially caught my attention was a prayer carpet displayed as a part of the Islamic Art exhibition portraying the traditions of Islam of different cultures and periods from Ottoman to Persian and Indian cultures. The show collected bowls, jars, daggers, dishes, bottles, doorknockers, carpets and rugs, ewers, floor spreads, helmets, door covers, mosaic panels, tiles, shields, swords, and numerous other attributes of the Islamic culture. The showpiece I have chosen was one of the prayer carpets that drew my attention because of its bright colors and intricate ornamental design.

The piece of art that caught my eye was a prayer rug (saccade) of the Ottoman period covering years 1281-1924 (Shoup 300). My item of display dated back to the early 19^th century (see picture below). It was made from wool in Mujur District, Konya Province, Central Antaolia in Turkey. Museum inherited it from the collection of oriental rugs of James F. Ballard, an American entrepreneur and a collector of oriental rugs from the Middle East and Asia (Erdmann 89). This prayer rug comes from the period when weaving prayer carpets has become commercialized in the Antaolian region. That is why it has intricate designs, which were developed specifically for people coming to the Middle East from the Western world (Bloom and Blair 371). It was made up in a manner traditional for small villages of this Turkish territory. Seccade, by the way, is the Turkish word standing for a small prayer rug.

The chosen piece of art is an example of classic weaving. It is the representation of Islamic traditions with borders designed with intricate ornaments and a single stepped arch located in the center of the carpet. The green areas above the arch point to ritual ablutions. They demonstrate the religious requirement to wash face, hands, and feet before the prayer because Muslims are obliged to clean up before each of the five daily prayers.

It is the portrayal of the connection with religion because it is an inseparable attribute of Islam. Prayer rugs were often made up of the best quality materials available and they were granted as gifts to mosques. Moreover, they were always protected under religious endowments because they were considered to be the sanctuary. Because they were expensive and often seen as pieces of luxury, in most cases, prayer rugs were believed to be the attributes of holy people dividing them from mundane issues and serving as protection and a platform for performing prayers. It was even believed that prayer rug could be used for prayers in the air or on the ocean waves thus hinting to the supernatural powers of the holy people and the intensity of faith (Jestice 410). The chosen rug is harmonious in colors. Even though there are contrasting elements of green and red, it is the peculiarity of the Turkish tradition of weaving prayer rugs (Breck and Morris xxi). There is a hint to floral design in the border that was also specific for Antaolian traditions. The green elements of the rug are the reminders of the ritual ablutions because they symbolize water and cleanness.

The reason why this prayer rug caught my attention is, first of all, because I am a Muslim. Second, I liked the colors and looking at it, I somehow felt myself in 19^th century Turkey, looking at the people dwelling in small villages and weaving them. It made me feel the traditions of both Islamic culture and local peculiarities interwoven with the desire to become closer to Western culture. It prompted me to reflect on the ways our lives changed in some two hundred years. I have never really thought that the rugs of such beauty were once considered pieces of luxury and that it cost much to have one. What today is a part of the routine and easily accessible, once was hard to possess. Moreover, I felt happiness for myself because even in modern society, there is still room for the sanctuary things, seeking connection with religion and showing respect to Islamic traditions. Of course, I might not believe that a prayer rug is an attribute of a holy person, but I still have it and do not rush to forget about my traditions but desire to preserve them.

Works Cited

Bloom, Jonathan, and Shella S. Blair. The Groove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.

Breck, Joseph, and France Morris. The James F. Ballard Collection of Oriental Rugs. New York, New York: The Metropolitan Art Museum, 1923. Print.

Erdmann, Kurt. Seven Hundred Years of Oriental Carpets. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1970. Print.

Jestice, Phyllip G. Holy people of the World: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC Clio, 2011. Print.

“Prayer Carpet (Seccade)” n.d. JPEG File. Web.

Shoup, John A. Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC Clio, 2011. Print.