The term orientalism originates from the Latin term oriens that refers to “east” and this is in contrast to the Latin occidens that refers to “west”; therefore, the term has been employed for the imitation and representation of different aspects Eastern cultures in the west by authors and artists.
It is important to note that the idea of the differences in culture between the East and the West can be traced back to the early Roman times in which there was an increasing opinion of the differences between Asia and Europe in terms of various aspects such as religious practices and artistic preferences.
Although the East and the West associated from early Roman times through trade activities, voyages, cultural and intellectual exchange, and although they had many things in common, the idea of orientalism got increased recognition during the late Middle Ages in which the East and the West increased their relations and endeavored to exploit one another’s territory through various exchange activities. Nonetheless, the field of orientalism underwent a drastic transformation in 1978 when Edward W. Said, a Palestinian-American scholar, exposed orientalism as a colonialist enterprise in his book Orientalism.
Even though Said study was centered only on the Islamic Middle East, he criticized orientalism as “a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient” (Said, 15). His investigations have resulted in an enormous impact on the field of cultural studies. More so, various researchers in the other fields of traditional orientalist studies from various parts of the world have utilized his findings in undertaking their analysis.
In the famous book, Said holds that orientalism is a collection of false assumptions lying beneath Western attitudes toward the East and he asserts that it is “subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture”(Pryce-Jones, middle section).
Thus, he used the word to refer to the ubiquitous Western tradition, both scholarly and artistic, of bigotry understandings of the East, formed through the mindset of European imperialism that was common during the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, and he was critical both of this scholarly tradition and of some modern scholars who held the traditional opinion on orientalism.
Said maintained that the long culture of deceptive and romantic impressions of Asia and the Middle East in Western culture had played a pivotal role in justifying the Europeans as well as the Americans colonial and imperial pursuits, and he sternly objected to the practice of some Arab elites who internalized the western orientalists’ views concerning the Arabic culture.
Said takes note of the stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims that exists in the western world in that, “the Moslems and the Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers of potential terrorists and this has resulted to a series of crude, essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world that has been portrayed in such as manner to make the world vulnerable to military aggression” (Said, para.1).
According to Said, the U.S. and the British investigation of Islamic civilization was rooted in political intellectualism bent on self-assertion instead of objective investigation; thus, he maintained that western ideologies on the orient, having opinions of the East provided in them, are suspect, and cannot be accepted without further scrutiny.
He views western investigation on Islamic civilization as a type of racial discrimination as well as a means of imposing imperialist domination and that the history of European colonial rule and political domination over the East disfigures even the views of the most ardent western orientalists. “The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe’s greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other” (Said, 1).
Said asserted that the U.S. and Britain had discriminated the Islamic world in both art and literature since ancient times, and that even in the modern times, their ideologies have dominated the Arabic world politically such that even the most superficially objective Western literature on the East have been pervaded with a unfairness that Western scholars cannot distinguish.
He points out that Western researchers were tasked with the responsibility of investigating and representing Asia’s past from a perspective of their own. And, in doing this, they failed to recognize that the East also had the ability to represent its languages, history, and culture in a manner that suits it best without outside interference. The Western scholars have interpreted the East’s culture in a way that makes Europe to appear as the standard, from which the ”foreign” orient moves away.
According to Pryce-Jones, Said viewed the highly eclectic western scholars as engaging in a long-drawn plot, worldwide but not visible, “to establish the supremacy of the West by depicting an East not only inferior but static and incapable of change. And, at bottom, here was the vulgar Marxist concept that knowledge serves only the interest of the ruling class” (para. 11).
Works Cited
Pryce-Jones, David. “Enough Said.” Newcriterion.com. The New Criterion, 2008. Web.
Said, Edward W. “Islam through western eyes.” The Nation, 1980. Web.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York; London: Penguin, 1995. Print.
Until his death, Edward Said was a professor of comparative literature at Columbia University. He was also a Middle East activist, a scholar, and an eminent person in postcolonial studies. Born in 1935, his mother was Lebanese and his Father Palestine.
He started his education in Egypt and later moved to the United States where his father had acquired citizenship. He gained reputation as an intellectual. As a fellow at Stanford University, he published his most acclaimed piece of writing, Orientalism, a book that has provided fodder for debate in many disciplines.
This essay will expound on Said’s Orientalism and the relation between the orient and occident.
According to Said, Orientalism is a collection of suppositions and dogmas defining Western (American and Europe) perception and attitudes towards the Middle East (117). The west has been consistent in its prejudice against the Islamic people.
The Middle East culture was glamorized in the western culture to the extent that European and American imperialists found it justifiable to pursue their colonial interests there. What makes Said angry is the realization that some Arabs elite have been brainwashed to accept this misconceptions about Arab culture (97)
Western scholars who study Asian affairs have formed a body of knowledge that is based on generalization rather than objective facts. An irrational behavior by one person in the East is used as a basis for defining the entire society.
In their hasty generalization, the scholars document these archetypes and sell them as literary texts. These texts form the foundation of historical records. The West therefore defines itself in its definition of the East. If the East is lazy and crude, then the West is hard working and civilized. It is the West’s duty to civilize the East.
The notion of “us” and “them” is entrenched and the two are viewed as being antithetical. In the contemporary world, the West views the East in terms of oil and Islam. The later is sometimes equated to terrorism.
A further illustration of how the East is defined is the coinage of the world Mohammedianism, obviously borrowed from its Christian equivalent, Christianity (Varisco, 305).
Occident refers to the countries of Europe and North America. Varisco argues that occident and orient have been constructed as opposite terms (306). While the West stands for everything good, virtues and respect, the East is the direct opposite.
Occident reporters and scholars misrepresent the East and, therefore, propagate the notion that it is the moral duty of the West to control or regulate the people of Middle East (Malcolm, 545).
Chapter 1 of Orientalism traces the development of Orientalism as dating back to the early interactions between the West and the East. The Orientalist (Western scholar) was fast to form an impression that Arabs were uncivilized.
The scholars sent by their respective countries of the West to stay with the Arabs in the Middle East generalized the cultures of the natives as inferior. They also stereotyped Arabs as lazy, crude, and incapable of governing self. The natives’ culture was viewed in terms of the western culture.
The West, therefore, took it upon them, using the tools of power at their disposal to exercise rule and power over the East. This was the onset of colonization and imperialism (“Critical Examination of Edward Said’s “Orientalism”, par. 6)
The second chapter focuses on the over romanticized literature on the East written by scholars from the West. The literature was written for European readers. Orientalist writers and poets presented a Middle East that was naively serene and hence conducive for relaxation.
Devoid of evils, the East was considered less witty and diplomatic and ready for a fatherly figure. In any case, the West had discovered the East, not the other way round. In the same chapter, Said lashes out at Ernest Renan, a 19th century Orientalist for perpetuating the prejudice against the Arab world (356).
The book delves into the Orientalist of the 20th century in the third chapter. With the end of colonialism, USA was now the new frontier in Orientalism. Modern Scholars from the West are researching on languages of the East in order to help their governments come up with better policies to rule the East.
Said observes that such scholars are staying in the East, not because they appreciate their culture, but to know them better and rule over them easily (368). In spite of globalization and increased awareness, the West bias towards the East has not ended.
Arab Muslims are considered by many people in the West as terrorists. Japan is viewed, not by its tremendous improvement in many areas such as technology, but in terms of its martial arts, karate.
Said recommends that any study on the Middle East should also encompass the Middle East natives’ perspective and not just generalizations (360).
In summary, Orientalism is in ideology that defines the people of Middle East in terms of highly subjective and generalized suppositions. Orientalists are scholars who research on Middle East culture and other aspects.
The culture and people of Middle East have been victims of the West prejudice and bias. This is not unique to Asia. Africa too has been a victim.
The Asian world has always been a mystery for the Western civilization; the former lives according its own laws which the European culture conceive completely, envisions the world, its origins and the way its elements intertwine in harmony in a slightly different way than the Western civilization does; in addition, the Oriental culture uses a range of symbolic which is completely alien to the Western world and can be hardly associated with anything, while triggering a chain of emotions within the heart of an Oriental dweller.
However, either because of its colorfulness and vividness, or because these details stir people’s imagination so easily and with such tremendous effect, the Oriental themes, especially in poetry, were extremely popular in the Era of Romanticism, making the fascination with the Eastern world one of its key features.
As Carruthers and Rawers (2003) explain, “Romantic Orientalism has historically been written and read from a European perspective” (p. 117). Because of the impact of the epoch, Ozymandias and Alastor, Percy Bische Shelly’s two most famous poems, display a considerable amount of details which can be referred to as the explicit manifestations of Orientalism.
One of the first things that fall into the eye of the reader at the very beginning of the poems is the unusual names, Ozymandias and Alastor. The former, interpreted as Ramesses’ throne name, sends the reader into the heat of the Egyptian sun and, thus, makes one plunge into the Oriental world almost instantly.
In addition, the name also immediately riggers an entire cadence of reminiscences connected with the famous emperor, thus, setting quite tragic back-story which an experienced reader can see between the lines of the poem: “In Shelley’s ‘Ozymandias of Egypt,’ is the Oriental potentate on the pedestal now a ‘’colossal wreck, boundless and bare’ because of a unique Oriental despotism?” (p. 281), Varisco (2007) asks.
As for the Alastor, although the name and, thus, the subplot for the poem originates from the Roman mythology and, thus, can be hardly referred to as the one filled with Orientalism elements, there are still recognizable traces of the above-mentioned phenomenon in the poem. In addition, the sound of the name was exotic enough for the poet too use it in the same way the Oriental elements were, i.e., to shock viewers into paying attention to the hidden innuendoes in the poem.
Among the rest of the elements which point at the obvious Orientalism of both poems, the use of settings is rather wise and efficient: In Ozymandias, the author puts a special emphasis on the fact that the events take place in the desert and sand, which is basically the place most people associate with Asian settings:
Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert. Near them on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies (Shelley, 1818)
Therefore, with the help of two words, “sand” and “desert,” Shelley managed to transfer the audience right into the heart of the Oriental world instantly. However, the chosen tactics works in the poem because it is relatively short, which is not the case for Alastor. As for the latter, Shelly refuses to use the same tactics in the poem; it must be admitted that the following scenery:
the world’s youth: through the long burning day
Gazed on those speechless shapes; nor, when the moon
Filled the mysterious halls with floating shades
Suspended he that task (para.122-126)
can actually be observed in any corner of the world. Unlike in Ozymandias, in Alastor Shelley uses rather the specific imagery than the exotic words to add Orientalism to the poem: the Arab maiden brings the food to the leading character (Shelley 1815, para.129).
The difference in the choices of the means can be explained by the fact that, unlike in Alastor, where the author had a lot of room for vast descriptions, in Ozymandias it was necessary to keep the poem short and expressive; hence, the exotic terms were used as the means to transport the audience to the Oriental settings.
Shelley obviously not only adds certain Oriental elements to the common environment, but sets his narration in a completely new environment, with its specific features. According to Uddin Khan (2008),
In Alastor, the poet-protagonist’s journey takes him back through human history (that is, Arabia, Persia, over the Hindu Kush mountains, which form the Indian Caucasus extending from Afghanistan to Kashmir in north-west India) to the thrilling secrets of the birth of time (p. 47)
Therefore, the poet obviously wants to capture the air of the Asian mysteries in a capsule and convey the specific flair of the Orient world to the readers. Reading the poem turns into walking across the uncharted universes and revealing its secrets; and with the help of specific details, Shelley restores the specific Asian atmosphere.
As Oueijan (n.d.) explains, “In “Ozymandias” (1817–1818), Shelley asserts an “antique land” in order to reveal the emptiness of pomp and power” (p. 8).
What particularly fascinated Shelley was the way in which Owenson “uses Kashmir as a paradisal image for that ideal interior landscape of the fulfilled psyche” (Hoeveler, 2006, p. 168).
However, it is worth mentioning that Shelly also avoided using the elements which he knew little about: “Shelley did not go to Egypt, and neither of his Egyptian sonnets – “To the Nile” and of course “Ozymandias” – mentions the Pyramids, which is logical enough; following the tradition of Romanticism, Shelley writes about the cultures which are quite distant from the European ones and yet does not go into details, allowing the readers to restore the atmosphere of the mysterious worlds themselves.
Speaking of the major Orientalism elements in the poems, one must mention that both poems focus on rather grandeur events in the history of the Eastern world, which can also be considered another important element making the poems Orientalist. As Thomas (2012) explains,
Two specific features of Orientalism are significant both for European Orientalist studies (of India, especially) and for subsequent Indian and Filipino political-intellectual projects: first, Orientalism’s focus on authoritative texts, and, second, its narrative on historical decline from ancient greatness. (25)
Indeed, Ozymandias tells about the rapid destruction of the great empire built by powerful pharaohs, which corresponds to the key concept of the Oriental literature. Likewise, Alastor touches upon the collapse of the world, yet in the case of the latter, it is not the empire, but the world of the narrator, the Poet, which is ruined:
Of the vast meteor sunk, the Poet’s blood,
That ever beat in mystic sympathy
With nature’s ebb and flow, grew feebler still (para.651-654)
Therefore, it is obvious that Shelley uses the typical Orientalism strategies to build a fully realistic universe. However, it would be a mistake to think that the elements of the Oriental culture which were used by Shelley in his poems were completely authentic; these were rather the common ideas of what the Oriental world must look like instead of its true portrayal and carefully verified details.
This is the type of the “middle-eastern world’s own exotic ‘Orientalism,’ for which Europe had become a late eighteenth century dependent customer” (p. 48), as Niyogi (2006) put it. Taking an exotic detail and pushing it to the stage when it became almost grotesque, Shelley crated his own Oriental universe, rather impressive, yet not necessarily true to the facts.
One of the most peculiar features of the poet’s creations, this feature on no account should be considered as a drawback which diminishes the quality of his works, but rather a feature of the epoch, with its taste for the unknown and unraveled. Offering true details would have ruined the charm of the poems.
True gems of the era of Orientalism, Ozymandias and Alastor offer a travel into the world which hardly anyone can imagine; not only is this a travel back in time, but also an excursion into the mysterious oriental universe, the place created by Romanticists and for Romanticists.
Addressing all major elements of Orientalism, the poems still make certain changes to the traditional perception of the Oriental world and create a different universe, which are completely impeccable in their weirdness. Even despite certain inaccuracies in the description of the distant world, the poems are the pearls which are worth taking a close look at.
References
Carruthers, G & Rawers, A 2003, English Romanticism and the Celtic world, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Hoeveler, D L & Cass, J D 2006, Interrogating Orientalism: contextual approaches and pedagogical practices, Ohio State University, Columbia, OH.
Niyogi, C 2006, Reorienting Orientalism, Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE.
Oueijan, N B n.d., ‘Romantic Orientalism LU lecture,’ retrieved from Lebanon Notre Dame University. Web.
Thomas, M C 2012, Orientalists, propagandists, and illustrators: Filipino scholarship at the end of Spanish Colonialism, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.
Uddin Khan, J 2008, ‘Shelley’s Orientalia: Indian elements in his poetry,’ ATLANTIS. Journal of the Spanish Association of Anglo-American Studies, vol.30 no.1, pp. 35–51.
Varisco, D M 2007, Reading Orientalism: said and the unsaid, University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.
Edward Said begins his book Orientalism by recognizing the fact that Orientalism played an enormous role in defining what the culture of Europe would become. In his own words, Edward claims that, “the Orient has helped to define Europe (or the West) as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience” (2). He further argues that when the west started colonizing the eastern countries, they found themselves mingling with people from less developed countries. In one way or the other, the Europeans found the eastern culture and civilization appealing and exotic. Eventually, they would establish a faculty of Orientalism, which focused on studying the eastern culture (Said 3).
In his arguments, Edward Said claims that the Europeans categorized the world into two divisions; the Occidents and the Orientals, in other words, they were referring to a world of the civilized and the primitive (Said 4). This however, was not a genuine division of humanity; the division was based neither on facts nor on idealism. It was simply the European asserting their authority in the world.
Everything positive was associated with the Occidents and all the negatives would therefore be for the Orientals (Malek 51). It was from this reasoning that the Europeans would later justify their reasons for colonizing the east. They claimed that it was their responsibility to bring civilization to the primitive (Macfie 106). However, a critical problem arose when the masters started generalizing the traits of the Orientals.
The colonial masters would form generalized beliefs on the character of the eastern people and would use this to depict a bad imagine of them in the wider west and the world at large. This prejudice was so widespread to a point that every report and research done on the Orientals was based on the misconceived notions. The image of the Orientals was totally distorted and as a result, they suffered hitherto from discrimination. Today, the remnants of these misconceived notions are still in existence. For example, majority of the people believe that Islam is a backward religion full of terrorists and cruel people. Similarly, the Hindus and the Arabs are still regarded as primitive (Malek 53).
The Scope of Orientalism
This chapter explains how the study of the east grew and how the occidentals began to view the Orientals as hopeless and lazy people. To the Orientals, the world was divided into two. On one hand was the refined class that the Europeans belonged to and on the other was the backward class that included those from the east. It is this division by the west that would later be used to justify the reasons for colonizing the east. Said argues:
The most important thing about the theory during the first decade of the twentieth century was that it worked, and worked staggeringly well. The argument, when reduced to its simplest form, was dear, it was precise, it was easy to grasp. There are Westerners, and there are Orientals. The former dominate; the latter must be dominated, which usually means having their land occupied, their internal affairs rigidly controlled, their blood and treasure put at the disposal of one or another Western power. (36)
In their justification, the Europeans claimed that they were mandated with a good course to civilize the east. In particular, they claimed that the Orientals could not even manage their local affairs leave alone manage international affairs. In addition, the Europeans believed they had the mandate and responsibility to represent the Orientals in the west (Macfie 117).
As a result of this false belief, the European started to orientionalize the Orientals the best way they felt good. In fact, they dispatched teams to the east to live among the Orientals and keep a record of every aspect of their lives. In so doing, the Europeans started to form opinions on the Orientals depending on the little information they got from their men on the ground. Whatever was done by a single oriental was perceived to be the way of life for the whole community regardless whether it was committed by a person of sound mind or not.
In retrospect, the only purpose that Orientalism served to the Europeans was to negatively legitimize them. Qualities such as lazy, primitive, backwards and ruthless were attributed to the Orientals making the Europeans hardworking, kind, civilized etc. It was therefore necessary for the Orientalists to depict the Orientals in bad light in order to legitimize their colonization of the East. The most critical point was the ability of the colonizers to define a culture to the owners.
For example, the Islamic religion was renamed to Mohammadism from the name Mohammed this was due to the fact that Christ was the founder of Christianity—the Europeans would therefore conclude that the religion of Islam was supposed to be called Mohammadism. It is important to note that the Europeans did not consult the Orientals in any way even when the decisions that would be made affected them directly (Said 12).
Orientalist Structures and Restructures
This chapter dwells on the change in view of the Europeans towards the Orientals. While the Orientalists through literary works and research reports continuously portrayed the Orientals as evil, the western poets were in love with the eastern lands and character. The poets depicted the eastern lands as a serene and pure work of nature. They portrayed the culture of the Orientals as uncontaminated by the evils of the world. In fact, the poets considered visiting these places to purify their souls and have time by themselves to reflect on their work.
In actual sense, it was this peaceful nature of the Orientals that made the Europeans want to rule over them. They believed that the Orientals were too naïve and too peaceful a people to rule themselves. There were those who also claimed that the Orientals were far too naïve to survive the cruel world and that Europeans were only playing a fatherly role (Malek 56).
Another false justification the colonizers gave was that they had developed faster that the Orientals and this alone made them superior human beings. The Europeans also invoked Darwin’s theories in a bid to totally absolve themselves from any reproach. They claimed that indeed they were the ones who discovered the Orientals first and according to Darwin’s theory, they had all the right to rule them (Said 21).
In this same phase, Edward Said brings the attention of renowned Orientalists who made huge contributions to this study. In particular, there are two famous Orientalists from the last century, this are; Silvestre and Renan. In his remarks, Edward Said compliments de Sacy for his huge efforts to organize the information gathered from the Orientals into a form that is usable by future generations. Secondly, Edward Said recognizes de Sacy’s nature to steer clear from prejudice as his predecessors had been. On the other hand, Renan, who clearly replicated Sacy’s works, was prejudicial as his predecessors. He was of the belief that the study of philology and Orientalism had a real correlation. Indeed, his thoughts would dominate many discussions and forums after he was long gone (Said 24).
Orientalism Now
Chapter 3 of the book by said begins by informing us how the map of the world was determined by the colonization of the world by Europeans. Anywhere the Europeans went they would demarcated their territory using modern techniques. Indeed, the great urge to know the geography of the world formed the foundation of Orientalism (Said 25).
In his successive arguments, Edward Said discusses of the dynamic nature of world politics and how Orientalism metamophosized in the 20th century. Old Orientalists were not used to interacting with the Orientals; however, this did change for the new orients to the extent of living with the Orientals. Nonetheless, it should be noted that this new Orientalists did not interact with Orientals for pleasure; their aim was to learn them so that they could be able to rule them without much trouble (Macfie 57).
Edward Said goes further to describe two of the last Orientalists namely Massignon and Gibb. On one hand, Massingnon appeared to be an advocate of the Orientals but on the other hand his works depicted a story of a man who was totally biased (Said 26).
With the advent of the first world war, Orientalism took a completely new dimension. Most Orientalists softened their stand of discrimination towards the Orientals. However, this respite was not extended to the Muslim faithful. Islam continued to be regarded as an inferior religion mixed with many confused thoughts and beliefs. In fact, one of the most renowned Islam Orientalists is Gibb (Said 30).
Immediately after the culmination of World War 2, the administrative offices for Orientalism were transferred to the United States of America. During this period, the relation of Orientalism to philology was completely done away with. From this time onwards, Orientalists identified Orientalism as a social science. They were required to continue studying the Orientals in a bid to contain them under their rule. However, after the World War 2, all the European colonies were lost.
It was highly anticipated that the biases towards the Orientals would come to a halt however; this did not see the light of the day. The West continued to discriminate the Orientals both explicitly and implicitly. Arabs to this day are still regarded as highly irritable and violent. Muslims on the other hand are labeled terrorists. In most cases, prejudice has resulted in discrimination. The Muslim world with certainty is the most affected lot with harassment and extra-judicial killings happening each day (Said 31).
In his closing remarks, Edward Said denies that his is a call unto the west to stop generalizing the Orientals but it is a call to the Orientalists to also include the view of the Orientals. They should not give a one sided account of a community without listening to its view (Said 32).
Works Cited
Macfie, Alexander L. Orientalism: A Reader, New York, NY: NYU Press, 2000. Print.
Malek, Anouar A. Orientalism in Crisis, New, York, NY: Penguin Publishers, 1963. Print.
Said, Edward. Orientalism, New York, NY: Vintage books, 1979. Print.
One of Edward Said’s core concepts in orientalism is that knowledge about the East is formed via imagined constructions rather than objective facts. Said’s definition of orientalism envisions Western superiority over Eastern cultures (Said 1981). Said observes that the global perception of the Islam community is significantly influenced by the newspapers, mainly from the United States, that have orientalist representations (Said 1981). This research paper investigates if Said’s claim that orientalism is dominating the Newspaper media is valid or not. The conclusion responds to the question; Was Said’s claim that orientalism dominates the media valid? The newspapers’ entities may be using orientalism as a product to sell to the public.
Data Selection
The ranking of the newspaper publisher on the global stage was considered when selecting the news outlets. The selection of the most relevant media publications was based on publication dates of no more than five years and the randomized keyword on the title. The select keywords include extremism, violence, irrational, islamophobia, racism, anti-Sufism, anti-Muslimism, Far-Right, radical Islam, and terrorism. The occurrence of one or more of these terminologies qualified the newspaper publication to count as an orientalist representation, with preference given to the document with the most recurrence of the keywords.
An Analysis of the Cases
Orientalists Barring Muslims from Entering the United States
Several Newspapers have referred to cases of Muslims facing discriminatory treatment fueling the debates on orientalism and confirming Said’s notion of the Media. The bias against the muslin travelers existed due to increased rhetoric on trust between the East and the West. In the United States, Newspapers have highlighted cases where the political right has generally shown greater distrust of Islam and Muslims than the political left. Such bias is discussed in Said’s interpretation of orientalism and its impact on Islam.
Orientalist Notion of Enmity
Said’s definition of orientalism also cautions that the extremist using the Media to brand Middle East Muslims as the enemy before the invasion is also valid. There is evidence of such publications that reflect on the Muslim minority as an enemy of stability in the West (Said 1981). For instance, some conservative media celebrities have displayed significant enmity against Muslims (Hawley, 2022). Other conservative intellectual and political elites have advocated for religious tolerance (Ailworth, 2021). As a result, rural voters have gotten contradictory signals from elected Republicans and conservative political commentators (Besser & Roscoe, 2021). Recently, a right-wing populist campaign that expressly called for a ban on Muslim immigration, American views toward Islam and Muslims became an extremely contentious issue (Khan et al., 2019; da Silva & Hall, 2022). Said’s notion that orientalism is dominating the Media is true.
Orientalist Warmongering
Orientalism is also evident in several Newspapers published beating the drums of war between the United States and the Muslim world in the East. Most publications acknowledge an apparent connection between the increased attention to radical Islam with the increasing debate of war between the East and the West (Said 1981). The notion of aggression toward war confirms orientalism from Said’s perspective. The prejudice is that American Muslims are incapable of patriotism since Islam sets them against the United States (Key, 2022). As a result, they must constantly demonstrate their commitment (Afzal, 2021). Also, Newspapers have published that immediately after 9/11, the default assumption was that all Muslims were evil and potential terrorists until they demonstrated their commitment to the United States and its War on Terror (Chicago Reporter, 2021; Khan et al., 2021). There is an obvious concern for international security in such a context, with the United States taking an aggressive position against the Islam community.
Orientalist Silencing the Muslim Voices
Said’s perspective on orientalism is based on the notion that the United States is secure in its power and that the Media is over-emphasizing supremacy. In most of the select Newspapers, there is concern regarding the increased extremism in the paradigm of the devout Muslim. For instance, the journalists note that Muslims were effectively eliminated in the United States from criticizing U.S. government policy (Kanji, 2022). Some patriotic Muslims established themselves as the ultimate paradigm of the devout Muslim (Allam & Nakhlawi, 2021). The debates introduce ideas of patriotic Muslims coming forward to distinguish themselves from terrorists by openly pledging allegiance to the United States and its dominating ideals (Beauchamp, 2021). These are orientalists in the United States using the media further to marginalize the Muslim minority in the United States.
Orientalists’ Increased Insecurity Concerns
Orientalists in the United States fear the increase of Muslims in the military. The Media capitalizes on the subject by introducing debates on the possibility of compromise on national security (Said 1981). Newspapers have gone to the extent of publishing debates on the calls for Muslims serving in the military to prove their allegiance and share their knowledge on Islam extremism (Bayoumi, 2021; Gunter et al., 2021). Similarly, more than a dozen white supremacist organizations that biased toward young American men and women, with a slight preference for people with Islam affiliations (Mchangama, 2022). Said’s statement on the role of the Media in increasing extremist ideas is validated.
Orientalist’s Perception of the Middle East
Orientalists also relate to the Middle East as the breeding ground for extremists. Said’s understanding of orientalism is largely accurate considering the number of Newspaper outlets that empathize with the distorted view of the people from the Middle East (Said 1981). The Newspapers insist that the Middle East is still the breeding ground for extremist agitation and violence on the far right (Mchangama, 2022; Zahra, 2019). Men with ties to one of the banned organizations were responsible for the 2010 shooting at a Perth mosque and the 2019 assassination of a German lawmaker (Walters & Chang, 2022; Levine, 2021). The U.K.’s Council co-authored the study for the radical right and Hedayah, a UAE-based research center on Islamic terrorism (Peterson, 2021). The report states that Australian chapters of more fringe neo-Nazi cells are actively participating in radical right terrorist acts and violent activities.
Evidence on Islamophobia in American Consciousness
There is also a connection with President Joe Biden’s action on former President Donald Trump’s Muslim Travel Ban shortly after his inaugural ceremony. The White House acknowledges that those activities stain our national conscience (Holt, 2021; Frum, 2022). This standpoint aligns with the tens of peaceful demonstrators who marched in the streets and airports across the home nation in January 2017, when the first Muslim Travel Ban was implemented (Cole, 2022). The extreme acts were accompanied by slogans of unity with immigrants, standing with Muslims Against Islamophobia, and stopping Islamophobia (Nguyen, 2021). It tries to exclude or deport anyone considered Muslim on the prejudiced notion that “they” are violent potential terrorist adversaries of the United States of America (Zimmerman, 2021). The ban can be defined as orientalism, the executive order that restricted entry to the United States for persons from primarily Muslim nations and several African countries.
Notion on Violent Militia Extremists Against White Supremacists
Said’s understating of orientalism includes the unnecessary blanket judgment of the Islam community. Some Media make little effort to protect innocent Muslims, failing to specify the individual interest in terror reporting (Said 1981). For instance, the highlight of the debate is that racially or ethnically motivated violent extremists pose the most significant severe dangers from a generalized perspective (Miller-Idriss, 2022).
The extremes are critical, considering those racist organizations that preach white supremacy are more likely to commit mass-casualty attacks against civilians (Fangen et al., 2022; Miller-Idriss, 2021). There is also the generalization that militia groups often target law enforcement, government officials, and installations (Benner, 2022). Other publications highlight that right-wing extremists pose the most significant danger without mentioning the specific terror units (German & Panduranga, 2022). Emphasis on the notion of the violent militia extremists scheming against white supremacists by most of the publishers justifies orientalism.
Conclusion
Said’s claim that orientalism dominates the Media is valid considering the number of reputable Newspaper publishers who have orientalist representations of the Middle East. Said is justified in cautioning that some Muslims may slowly become hesitant to portray themselves in the media, producing a lack of voices and false depictions of Islam. Such extremism is dangerous as it creates the propensity of people to keep quiet when they believe that their opinions contradict the mainstream view on an issue. Typically, people stay silent because they fear solitude when the community or public finds different perspectives. They fear reprisals, such as the loss of a job or position. There is a connection between orientalism and the perceived influence of media systems in the United States. Said’s claim that orientalism dominates the Media is evident in the select Newspapers and should inform the changes in Media content.
Fangen, Katrine, Kristin Sandvik, Anette Houge, Solveig Laugerud, Anette Houge, Marta Erdal, Mareile Kaufmann, Åshild Kolås, and Arijit Sen. 2022. “Why Did Muslims Become the New Enemy in Norway and Europe? – PRIO Blogs”. Blogs.Prio. Web.
Khan, Mohsin Hassan, Hamedi Mohd Adnan, Surinderpal Kaur, Rashid Ali Khuhro, Rohail Asghar, and Sahira Jabeen. 2019. “Muslims’ representation in Donald Trump’s anti-Muslim-Islam statement: A critical discourse analysis.” Religions 10(1): 115.
Khan, Mohsin Hassan, Farwa Qazalbash, Hamedi Mohd Adnan, Lalu Nurul Yaqin, and Rashid Ali Khuhro. 2021. “Trump and Muslims: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Islamophobic Rhetoric in Donald Trump’s Selected Tweets.” SAGE Open 11 (1): 2- 158.
Raja, Irfan, and B. Abdul. 2021. “British Muslims and the Rise of Ethnic Media in the Digital Age a Case Study of 5Pillars.” Global Media Journal 19, no. 42 (2): 1-7.
Said, Edward. 1981. “Covering Islam: How the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world.” Pantheon Books 1(1): 7-33.
Zahra, M. S. 2019. “Racism in Donald Trump’s Tweets: A Critical Discourse Analysis.” Ph.D. diss., Doctoral dissertation, University of Mostaganem, 11 (1): 3- 15.
Widely known as one of the most diverse animated movies presented by Disney, Aladdin has become a tremendously popular example of orientalism in modern culture. On the one hand, it depicts and popularizes the life of Arabs who have always faced discrimination and xenophobia throughout the world. On the other hand, the majority of critics argue that Asia and the Middle East are demonstrated as regressive, innately opaque, and bizarre cultures in this work of art. Taking into consideration that Disney movies have a considerable effect on the development of children, the wrong demonstration of minority groups can result in a potential increase in discrimination against other racial communities. Thus, Aladdin is a contemporary example of orientalism, as this movie is filled with racist and sexist tropes, which creates an improper image of Asia and the Middle East.
Specific Features of Orientalism
Nowadays, Edward Said’s Orientalism can be considered one of the first books discussing the importance of the problem of orientalism. Published in 1978, this book was initially misunderstood by other scientists and researchers, as it was the only source related to the meaning of a new term. According to Said (1978), orientalism can be defined as a prejudiced representation of the Arab-Islamic world by Western civilization in different kinds of art. The main characteristics of orientalism are a tendency towards despotism, aberrant mentality, the habit of inaccuracy, and backwardness. The author of the book highlights that the development of orientalism was not an accidental process but rather a well-planned operation aiming at enabling the political, economic, cultural, and social domination of the West. To protect the languages, lifestyles, art, cultures, and values of the representatives of Asia and the Middle East, it is essential to avoid the biased image of different population groups in literature, cinematography, and art.
The History and Significance of Aladdin
Aladdin has become one of the most tremendously popular animated movies in the entire world since 1992 when it was released by Walt Disney Pictures. Even though Aladdin is portrayed as an Arab in the movies, historians state that this character has Chinese origins. Early 19th-century versions of the story provide information that this tale was set in China (Romano, 2018). At the same time, there was no information regarding the author of this tale until the 18th-century translation of 1001 Nights. French writer Antoine Galland revealed that he had the opportunity to meet a Syrian storyteller who was the original author of this story. In turn, Ḥannā Diyāb doubts the honesty of the French writer, as Diyab was the first one to tell this story in 1709 (Romano, 2018). Accordingly, Aladdin has a long history that still should be explored. However, it is a well-known fact that an author with a European colonial view of the world contributed to the literature with the original Aladdin.
Examples of Orientalism in Aladdin
The first examples of orientalism were noticed in this animated movie in 1992 when the soundtrack was criticized for the racism against the Arab-Islamic world. Its original lyrics included the phrase “They cut off your ear if they don’t like your face” (Shaheen, 2014, p. 23). Consequently, it encouraged Jack Shaheen to open negotiations with the representatives of Disney. Even though these lyrics were removed from the final version of the soundtrack, it still had the phrase “It’s barbaric, but hey, it’s home” (Shaheen, 2014, p. 23). In turn, this song created a negative impression of the Arab-Islamic world from the first minutes of the movie.
Moreover, it is essential to pay attention to the physical appearance of the main characters of this movie. Even though Aladdin and Jasmine represent Arabs, they are depicted as whitewashed individuals with European versions of Arabic names (Alhassen, 2018). In addition, they have European facial features, although these characters are brown-skinned. When it comes to their language, the couple speaks with white American accents, whereas the antagonists of this movie speak with an Arabic accent, which makes some words confusing (Alhassen, 2018). Furthermore, antagonists are described as darker individuals with black beards. As a result, the intention of filmmakers to make Aladdin more European is a direct example of discrimination against people of other races and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, children watching this movie are most likely to associate Arab-Islamic culture with cruelty and aggression, whereas the representatives of the European world can be perceived as positive characters.
It is also important to consider how the movie transmits the role of women in Arabic society. Jasmine is the only female character in Aladdin, who is the discrimination itself. At the same time, her life is demonstrated as an addition to the life of the male character, Aladdin. The role of this woman is completely dependent on men who surround her, thereby demonstrating the inability of women to become independent individuals with the same opportunities as men possess (Alsultany, 2019). One of her main functions in the film is being a sexualized object. Therefore, this work of art demonstrates specific features of sexism towards females.
In 2019, it was decided to create a remake of the animated movie and release a new version of this tale throughout the entire world. On the one hand, the cast of this film included representatives of the Arab-Islamic world, such as an Egyptian-Canadian actor who played the main role (Romano, 2018). On the other hand, the rest of the characters are represented by Asians and African Americans. The combination of actors with different racial and ethnic backgrounds demonstrates that filmmakers consider all brown-skinned people as representatives of the same minority group. In turn, this movie is expected to create a false idea that there are two main races, while the world is populated by the representatives of 4 main races, such as white/Caucasian, Mongoloid/Asian, Negroid/Black, and Australoid.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is essential to note that animated movies have a great impact on the development of children and their perception of the world. It is the reason why filmmakers should take the responsibility for the content which they produce and release on the big screen throughout the world. Nowadays, Aladdin is frequently described as a tale that has been inspiring millions of people for several decades. In turn, the inability of this film to represent the information correctly results in numerous examples of orientalism. For instance, racist lyrics, the inaccurate physical appearance of the main characters, and the wrong representation of their language result in the development of orientalism. The failure of filmmakers to learn from the criticism makes this movie one of the major works of art associated with orientalism today.
Ethnic groups are made up of individuals who share a common heritage. Members of an ethnic group usually live around the same region, speak the same language, and share common religion and practices. Individuals who are tribal minded can be regarded as a hindrance to full integration since they remain attached to non-normative customs, adaptations, and languages. In the past, governments have viewed ethnic groups as a problem.
This is because their customs do not allow them to fit into national governments. Some have a nomadic lifestyle, meaning that they usually move from one place to another with little regard for borders. Their customs are considered as ‘not civilized’ by national governments. However, all this has changed as ethnic groups have become a tourist attraction. Governments are now encouraging the preservation of ethnic cultural traditions. This is going to be very helpful to these groups.
Even though tourists bring change and sometimes, result in harmful effects on ethnic culture, their benefits outweigh their disadvantages. With increase in tourism, ethnic groups do not have to migrate in search for work. They can sell their cultural goods right in their home areas. They can also earn a living from their cultural traditions like dancing and singing. Their earnings help them to incorporate a different kind of education into their cultural learning.
Long-term effects of tourism usually result in integration of the tourists’ into the local communities. This could be of benefit to the local culture, although there are also a number of disadvantages associated with such integration. In addition, integration may result in dilution of the language, a change in customs, or a lack of practice altogether as ethnic groups are too busy taking care of tourists. This is helpful because in the long run, change is always good.
Orientalism is a term used in reference to a style of thought based on a distinction between the orient and the west. Orientalism is usually depicted by artists, written about by novelists and poets and discussed by philosophers and theorists. Orientalism is believed by some to be a stereotypical imitation of the eastern culture.
Orientalism is a big factor in our society. The orient is seen as the centre of languages and civilization in Europe. Its study borrows from the past, and integrates the present and the future. To some scholars, such areas of study areas as anthropology appears highlight how the orient differs from the west.
Orientalism is a factor in the political and economic development of the west. The study and understanding of the orient is firmly rooted in the western doctrine and as such, it grants the west control of the resources in the east. Orientalism is also a factor worth of consideration when it comes to religious prejudice. In this context, orientation endeavours to depict Islam in a negative and stereotypical way.
Orientalism affects our travel fantasies and attraction to ethnic tourism. The depiction of orientalism is usually exotic, alive, romantic, and sensual. Even though this may not be accurate representation of the orient, nonetheless, it draws many to travel to the east. In the recent past, however, the emergence security concerns on the east may be a hindrance to travel in those regions.
To push orientalism into a more positive study, we need to involve more scholars from the west in this debate. This would ensure that information is accurate and lacking in prejudice.
“Geisha” is a Japanese word that means an artist. Geisha refers to an artistic executor or an entertainer. A geisha performs various forms of art such as singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, serving food and drinks. women start their geisha training at a standard age of three years and three days, when they become apprentices, referred to as ‘maiko,’ to a retired geisha who teaches the young girls the art and the way of a geisha (Encyclopedia Britannica online 2010).
While on the other hand, “Orientalism” refers to the orient or east which is in disparity to the occident or west. On other words, orientalism brings into play the impression or representation of certain areas of the Eastern Cultures in the west.
Orientalism occurs when one comes across a particular culture or way of life in a foreign country and it interests the person so much that when he goes back to his country he replicates it using the foreign country as a reference point (Fujimoto 1917). In this particular case, we will explore the depiction of geisha girls who originated from Japan in the West.
History, Origins and Rise of Geisha
According to Gallaher (2003) and Rowley (2005), girls whose families were relocated after the struggles in the late 600’s became ‘saburuko,’ which stands for serving girls. These girls sold sexual services while those with a higher education entertained high-class societal meetings for a fee.
After the moving of the imperial court to Kyoto, Japanese Geisha took root as the court became home to the elite selected few who sort after pleasure leading to the thriving of female entertainers. The fact that men were not bound to be faithful to their wives or held responsible for their extra marital affairs made this business thrive as they went out to seek these women for pleasure in the specified ‘pleasure quarters’ while their wives were only home managers.
Lesley (2006) states that these ‘pleasure quarters’ build in the 16th century made prostitution lawful as long as the act itself was carried out in the ‘pleasure quarters,’ where women would be categorized and accredited. Surprisingly, the first geisha were men who entertained clients who were waiting to view the main popular and talented courtesans, termed as ‘oiran’.
De Mente (1966) states that the predecessors of the female geisha were teenage girls, named ‘odoriko,’ were dancing girls trained as dancers for hire. In 1678, well known entertainers were paid after performing their acts in the homes of upper-class samurai, though majority of them had already incorporated prostitution in their work. Older women took up the name geisha after the men as they were not teenagers anymore.
Some of them only worked as entertainers as compared to prostitution and worked in the same establishments as the men. According to Dalby (1998), World War II brought a significant deterioration to the geisha industry, the geisha women had to sort for other means of earning their daily bread like going to work in factories. “After this the geisha name lost its once prestigious meaning and prostitutes began referring to themselves as ‘geisha girls’ to American military men” Dalby 1998).
After the war the geisha industry boomed once again, though only very few women went back to the lifestyle as majority rejected the western influence and choose to stick to the tradition ways of the geisha. Thus it was the responsibility of these few women to enforce the traditional standards in the profession and also increase the rights of the geisha.
Misapprehension of geisha
Ever since, the entertainment industry in Japan had been vibrant and it is from this where the geisha come in as their name suggests, “to entertain”. This has however been misunderstood the world over as the term geisha is used to refer to many different things and aspects. In some western countries, geishas are thought of as high-class prostitutes or escorts who trade sexual favors for money.
However, in some Japanese cities the lower class geisha do in fact trade sexual favors and activities for money. The biggest fallacy however in this industry is that geisha have sex with their customers, but the truth of the matter is that the present day geisha keep their specialist jobs away from their private lives. According to Mineko & Rande 2003, geisha are not passive and acquiescent; they are some of the most financially and emotionally stable women in Japan as they have been since time in memorial.
This is to say that geishas use their art forms, music, dance and conversation to enchant their clients and they do not resort to sexual activities. “Geisha tend to be single women with lovers and boyfriends whom they personally pick, who support them financially” (De Mente 1966).
Another misconception about Geisha is that they are sold into this lifestyle. This is a myth, however actually poor families sold their daughters into prostitution; the fact is that poor families preferred the life of a geisha for their daughters as opposed to prostitution. They offered services such as cooking and cleaning at the same time while training to become geisha in the future.
This geisha life was highly preferred as it was seen as prestigious and elegant, though this misconception painted the geisha as being a victim of society while it was a choice. Modern geisha are required to have finished school, have written consent from their care providers and have fascination in art before commencing training. Another misconception is that the life of a geisha is easy.
This is wrong considering the rigorous training undertaken by these women that is difficult and it needs a person with a strong personality and strong willed. Apart from the training, these women have to attend various classes as well perform the chores assigned to them in exchange for bedding, tuition and food (Hanlon 2010).
“Geisha are not liberated females” this conception is wrong. According to Wieder (2002), the geisha organization was established to encourage the autonomy and economic personal satisfaction of women. This was the main agenda and it was achieved well in Japan where there were few ways for women to achieve such kind of liberalization.
Dalby (1998) notes that women manage everything when it comes to the geisha society; these women are some of the most lucrative businesswomen in Japan. If the women skills in this business were abolished then the whole industry would collapse. This clearly shows that women who go into the geisha business are iterated or are seeking to liberate themselves.
The misapprehension that geisha are found everywhere in Japan is wrong. Geisha are not found everywhere in Japan they are found in some cities while they are not in other cities. They are not common in all areas of Japan as they are somewhat a secret society and in order to locate one, a person must use contacts.
It is not easy to locate geisha in Japan as you have to approach someone who will make the connection between the client and the geisha, this shows us that the geisha are found in specific areas and they are contacted by specific people who link then to their clients. There are restaurants in Japan that offer this service but one must part with a huge amount of money to access them. Geishas are very secretive and they keep their secretive nature even when attending to clients as the discussions they hold are confidential.
Finally, there is this misapprehension that geisha are all the same. Arguably, this is not true even though the geisha have been trained to act the same with their clients. Makeup is the most common thing they all have in general but then the age, ranks and experience can be observed in the differences in their makeup, makeup is used to differentiate the geisha. The colors of the ‘kimonos’ can also be used to differentiate the age; young geishas have colorful ‘kimonos’ while the older ones have solid color on their ‘kimono’ (Hanlon 2010).
Conclusion
Geisha have been around since the 1600 and the fact that entertainment is a booming business in Japan, they are highly favored to continue their secretive society of high social status women who make a living by using arts and conversation to enchant their clients. It is a profession just like any other and it aims to liberalize women intellectually, physically, emotionally and financially.
The geisha way of life even though not so popular presently, it has remained intact and still follows the traditional rules. The western culture has been influenced by this traditionalist way of life such that some of their clothes and makeup have been influenced by the geisha women. Most of the western cultures refer and equate geisha to prostitutes while in essence they are not. Despite the western influence, geisha have been able to stick around and keep their traditions alive.
References
Dalby, L. (1998). Geisha. Berkeley: University of California.
De Mente, B. (1966). Some Prefer Geisha. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Company.
Fujimoto, T. (1917). The Story of the Geisha Girl. London: T. Werner Laure Ltd.
Gallagher, J. (2003). Geisha: A Unique World of Tradition, Elegance, and Art. London: PRC.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2010). Geisha. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Web.
Hanlon, R. L. (2010). Misconceptions about Japan’s Geisha women. Helium. Web.
Lesley, D. (2006). The City Geisha and Their Role in Modern Japan: Anomaly or artistes”, in Martha Feldman and Bonnie Gordon, eds, The Courtesan’s Arts: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mineko, I. & Rande B. (2003). Geisha, A Life. New York: Washington Square.
Rowley, G. G. (2005). Autobiography of a Geisha. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Wieder, T. (2002). Remaking a memoir. Boston Phoenix. Web.
The principles of democracy and equality have been established in the world only recently, in the 20th century. It is important to say that before that period, terror and barbarism were governing the world; however, such issues as slavery and colonialism used to be the reality of developed countries in spite of the unnatural essence thereof.
The 19th and 20th centuries, though demarcating the beginning of a modern, civilized era (especially in the advanced and developed Western Europe), still manifested the largest-scale expansionist endeavors of the West towards the Middle East and North Africa. France and the British Empire were distinguished colonizers at that time, and the relationships of these countries with their colonies were specifically distinct from international relations existing in the rest of the world.
The power of colonizers was so strong that the Western countries, by means of exploring, researching, and documenting their findings about the East, have managed to create an artificial, stereotyped system of concepts regarding the East – Orientalism. It appeared in the 19th century as a separate scholarly study dedicated to Orient; scholars researched people living there, their traditions and customs, their dressing, their language, personal and family relationships, etc.
As a result, Orientalism grew to represent the Orient as seen by Westerners; nevertheless, it did not render the Eastern reality, since it did not correspond to the realistic Eastern context, and manifested only the prism of Western perception.
As a result of these processes, an assumption about the tendency of Western artists to create political propaganda supporting violent occupation and subjugation of inferior cultures by the West appeared.
There is a common opinion that the majority of Orientalist works in the 19th and 20th century were initially made with the intent to promote colonialism and superiority of Westerners over Easterners. Since there is a conflicting body of knowledge and evidence on this point, the issue needs further analysis in support for it, or in opposition to it.
The starting point in the analysis of Orientalism has traditionally been the reference to the work of Edward Said, Orientalism. This book has become a turning point in the assessment of Orientalism, since before this publication it had been considered a positive phenomenon in the history of East-West relationships.
It was Said (1978) who revealed the true nature of Orientalism as an invented, made-up term, system of concepts, scheme of dominance, that allowed Westerners to explore the East without even being there. As the author noted at the beginning of his book, Orient is not analogous to the East, as Orient is a purely Western invention symbolizing romance, exotic beings and dressing, memorable and original experiences, etc. (Said 1978, p. 1).
Indeed, Orientalism has been created to become the Western style of dominating, remaking, and exercising authority over the Orient by Western colonizers (Said 1978, p. 3).
Attention towards Orientalism has renewed nowadays, since there is much Orientalist propaganda and reinforcement of old stereotypes visible in the new media.
Modern films and TV shows, magazines and travel guides try to romanticize the East again, misleading the Westerners and precluding them from an objective assessment of the Eastern reality, especially taking into account the fact that some colonies still exist. Therefore, one has to understand the nature of the impact that the notion of Orientalism brings to people concerned with it.
It is easier to explore the impact of Orientalism on human perception of the East through the works of art produced in the 19th and 20th centuries, since they reflect the vision that critical thinkers and creative personalities (the forefront of the human thought) had about the East through the prism of Orientalism.
It is quite possible to assess the propaganda essence of Orientalism in literary works, but the purpose of this paper is to focus on the works of art reflecting the main points of this trend. As Nochlin (1989) noted, the flourishing Orientalist painting was closely associated with the successful Western expansion to the East at the verge of the 18th and 19th centuries (p. 33).
However, the main goal of Orientalism in painting is regarded to be the documentary realism, i.e., the urge of artists to document the unseen, unusual, and exotic they came across in the East, and to show these unusual images to the rest of the European world (Nochlin 1989, p. 33).
Accessing the issue from a purely artistic viewpoint, one can state that there is no place for propaganda in art; however, the opposite has been proven by many centuries of human experience. Notwithstanding the active role of art in assistance for the ruling regime, there is still a common argument about the distance that art keeps from politics.
As MacKenzie (1995) noted in his analysis of Said’s work, genuine arts and political ideologies have always tended to operate in counterpart, and not in alignment (p. 14). Therefore, one can assume that true artworks reflected human feelings and impressions about Orient, and not the programmed, propaganda messages for the Western world.
Obviously, there was a certain place for propaganda in the Orientalist art, though the portion of propaganda in visual arts was incomparably lower than that in literary works. As Meagher (2004) noted in her analysis of the 19th-century Orientalist art, some strong propaganda features in art may be tracked in the works of Antoine-Jean Gros (1771-1835) and Jacques-Louis David (1748 – 1825).
These artists made a great effort in proliferating Napoleonian imperialism, and painted several artworks presenting Napoleon Bonaparte as a healing power, a godlike personality for the world of chaos, barbarism, and lawlessness of the East (Meagher 2004, para. 2).
Some of the propagandist works of these authors are Napoleon in the Plague House at Jaffa (1804, Louvre) and The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame (1806). These painters obviously had their personal benefits from the propagandist activities, since they were close to the Emperor Napoleon in France.
Another format of propaganda produced in Orientalist art is in the depiction of Oriental people as uneducated, wild, and fierce. These themes dominated in the paintings of Eugene Delacroix (1798 – 1835) who also represented a propagator of colonialism and never revealed the true nature of the East, but not Orient, though he has been fascinated by Oriental themes during his whole life (Meagher 2004; para. 2; Bernard 1971, p. 123).
The focus on Oriental cruelty and violence was partly presupposed by Delacroix’s interest in the Greek-Turkish war unleashed right at the beginning of the 19th century. However, there were images he created that deeply impressed the public in the civilized West in a negative way, for example, Massacre at Chios (1824) and Death of Sardanapalus (1827-28)
Massacre at Chios (Eugene Delacroix, 1824, Musee du Louvre, Paris).
In his painting Massacre at Chios, Delacroix represented an awful, dramatic image of the Chios massacre only according to his own perception, without seeing Oriental people at all.
The painting was accomplished only due to the help of Delacroix’s friend, Monsieur Auguste, who was a fascinated Orientalist in Paris, and who granted clothes and objects to paint (Thornton 2009, p. 67). It appears hence quite illogical to suppose that Delacroix had the least adequate idea of the Oriental world he depicted, and his portrayal can hardly be called realistic or neutral in terms of propaganda.
Death of Sardanapalus (1827-28, Eugene Delacroix, Musee du Louvre, Paris).
The second violent painting for which the propagandist spirit of Delacroix’s paintings is recognized is the Death of Sardanapalus – it was not recognized by the civilized Western society for the cruelty and violence exceeding all limits in the depicted scene. Delacroix obviously perceived Oriental people as cruel barbarians living according to the principles of force and intimidation.
He was able to go on a short trip to Morocco and Algiers in 1884 (Orientalist Art of the Nineteenth Century, n.d., p. 1). Though Delacroix managed to make many sketches during that trip, and his impressions about the Eastern world were reaffirmed, Delacroix’s paintings, especially the later ones, were far from the Oriental reality (Thornton 2009, p. 69). Thus, there is no surprise in the focus on the healing power of Westerners saving the Orient from its own self-destructiveness evident in the works of many painters of that time.
Notwithstanding the fact that Orientalism is a propagated and stereotyped concept in itself, and it was artificially created for the enhancement of dominance of westerners over the colonized East (MacKenzie 1995, p. 4), there were still genuine fans of Orientalism with sincere urge to understand Eastern people and to become closer to them. One of such lifelong fans of Orient was Etienne Dinet (1861-1929).
This French painter dedicated nearly 50 years of his life to the travels between France and Algeria after only one trip there. Dinet depicted Eastern people as beautiful, cheerful personalities possessing their individual wishes, urges, dreams, and opinions. The most famous works of Dinet are Abd el Gheram and Nour el Ain, Slave of Love and Light of my Eyes (1904) and Girls dancing and singing (1902).
The painting Slave of Love and Light of my Eyes (1904) shows the couple in love; the lovers have to conceal their feelings and can meet only at night to enjoy their love and to say a few tender words to each other. The painting is so lively and positive that one can hardly see any stereotyping or propaganda in it; it is full of love, life, and ability to be happy. Therefore, the present picture is a memorable example of pure Orientalism without any political messages or intents.
Abd el Gheram and Nour el Ain, Slave of Love and Light of my Eyes (Etienne Dinet, 1904, Musee du Louvre, Paris).
Another painting of Dinet appreciated by the majority of art experts and nonprofessional fans is the depiction of two girls from the Ouled Nail tribe. Dinet dedicated many years of his life to approach the people of the tribe closer, and to acquire the ability to depict them with respect and understanding (Orientalist Art of the Nineteenth Century n.d., p. 1).
Comparing the experience of Delacroix to visit a Moroccan harem (Neret 2000, p. 54) with the lifelong effort of Dinet to get closer to the understanding of Easterners, one can assume that the realistic rendition of the genuine Orient was possible only in Dinet’s works.
Dinet had a mediator between him as a Westerner, and the Eastern world in the face of his lifelong friend Sliman ben Ibrahim (Thornton 2009, p. 77). They realistic perception of the East by Dinet is also felt in his disappointed remarks about Egyptian context, in contrast to the majority of Orientalists who took their inspiration and themes from Egyptian images (Thornton 2009, p. 77).
Girls dancing and singing (Etienne Dinet, 1902, Musee du Louvre, Paris).
Concluding the present analysis of propaganda in the Orientalist art, one has to infer that visual art as such did not reflect the propagandist urges. Obviously, there were many inconsistencies in the artwork and reality of Eastern life and culture, mainly due to ungrounded information and lack of hands-on experience.
The majority of Oriental paintings revealed the Western fascination with the exotic and the unknown; Westerners were attracted by the vivid colors of clothes and surroundings, the unusual design of dressing, furniture, and houses.
The lifestyle and national character of Oriental people also produced much interest; harems, aggressiveness and violence in war conflicts, etc., could be left out by the civilized Western world. Surely, the Orient was perceived as a subordinate territory, and people felt its established inferiority, but this awareness seems to have been created by a much larger discourse than Orientalism art.
References
Bernard, C 1971, ‘Some Aspects of Delacroix’s Orientalism’, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 123-127.
MacKenzie, JM 1995, Orientalism: history, theory, and the arts. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
Meagher, J 2004, “Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.
Neret, G 2000, Eugene Delacroix, 1798-1863: the prince of romanticism. Koln, Germany: Taschen.
Nochlin, L 1989, “The Imaginary Orient” in The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society, New York, NY: Harper and Row, pp. 33 – 57.
Orientalist Art of the Nineteenth Century: European Painters in the Middle East n.d. Web.
Said, E 1978, “Introduction” in Orientalism, New York, NY: Vintage Books, pp. 1 – 28.
Thornton, L 2009, The Orientalists: Painter-Travelers. Paris, France: ACR PocheCouleur.