Organizational behavior is a broad and interdisciplinary area in management, which relies on the research and ideas of many other disciplines which explain human interaction and behavior.
Such disciplines include psychology, sociology, industrial psychology, social psychology, anthropology and communication (MacGinins, n.d). The focus of organizational behavior is the study of organizational; design, management and effectiveness (Martin, 2005).
Organizational behavior therefore involves the interdependences and interrelationships of various topics like motivation, emotions, change process, culture, power and control, ethics, management and leadership, job design and technology, organizational structure, conflict and politics, stress in groups and individuals, learning, and communication which involves decision making and negotiations.
Managers must therefore understand the relationships between all these topics, and see how they can strike a balance, to ensure that there is a conducive environment for the progress and survival of the organization (Martin, 2005).
In this assignment, I will explore organizational behavior by the use of the case study of RR Feeds, Inc., which is a large feed processing plant located in North Dakota. I will identify the challenges, conduct an in depth analysis and provide recommendations to the Management team.
Discussion
Challenges facing RR Feeds, Inc
One challenge facing the organization is that of economic down turn, which brings in the problems of financial instability for the company because it makes less profit as the expenses remain constant. This made the organization lay off some of the employees and cut spending, so as to survive.
The other challenge is that of change of employees’ attitude towards the organization. The employees no longer feel obliged to commit themselves to the organization, and that is why they are ready to do as little as they can for the organization.
The employees’ morale in working is greatly reduced due to lack of or poor motivation for them to dedicate their efforts to the organization. The management is faced with the challenge of enabling the organization to survive under the economic down turn, as they safeguard the welfare of the employees. This is a challenge of change management.
In depth analysis
The problems facing the organization can be attributed to change management. The organization has had a good history in its relationships with the employees and it’s clients for a long time. It usually gave bonuses to employees, and committed a lot of resources in various activities of the organization.
The employees were very satisfied and they had a very positive attitude towards the organization. The levels of the employee commitment, motivation and morale were high before the economic down turn.
With the onset of the economic down turn, which is a universal economic catastrophe, the organization was faced with the challenge of maintaining the status quo, in terms of giving bonuses to employees, and spending in organization activities. This made the employees change their attitudes and perceptions towards the management of the organization.
The fact that some employees were laid off did not go down well with some employees, who sensed something fishy in the management of the organization. Their perception was that the laying off of some of them was aimed at victimizing them for their reduced morale in their work at the company.
The key problem for the organization is how to effect and manage change within the organization, which is necessary for its survival. When change happens within an organization, each individual reacts differently whereby some embrace the change while others do not. … However, the organization must survive despite the challenges.
When the management started laying off some employees, cutting on spending and bonuses, it did so as a reaction to the external forces to the organization. The employees on the other side reacted to the change by reducing their commitment to the organization due to lowered motivation.
Recommendations to the Management
Organizational change is always a challenge to many managers because they are faced with the challenge of maintaining the status quo for the organization in terms of employee satisfaction on one hand and retaining the organizational performance and output on the other.
Mr. Nates idea of redesigning the jobs for the employees is one way of initiating the desired change to deal with the prevailing situation. This is because the jobs would be redesigned to enable one employee handle various tasks which were being handled by the laid off staff. However, the management will need to train the remaining staff on the extra fields or dockets, so that they may be able to discharge the duties effectively.
The idea of reexamining the performance evaluation program and aligning it to the current organizational situation is aimed at bringing some changes in the manner in which employees are compensated for their labor. Chances are that the manager may come up with a contract performance system of working, in which employees are given some targets to meet, then get paid depending on how they meet those targets…..
This is different from the normal payment in which employees are paid after the end of each month without any targets set for them. The idea is good because it would ensure that the company divides its workload to the number of employees and attach some time frames under which those targets must be met, and then pay the employees depending on how they meet the targets.
This can increase productivity and flexibility in the organization, because each employee will work hard to see that he or she meets the targets, so as to receive the payment. It would increase flexibility because each employee would set his or her own work plan, and develop a time table to accomplish the tasks.
The employees may work hard to meet the set targets within a short time, so as to spare some time to engage in other income generating activities so as to supplement what they earn at the company (Martin, & Fellenz, 2010).
Regarding the stress levels and new employee behavior of low commitment to the company, the management should use Lewin’s three phases of change management namely unfreezing, transition and refreezing of behavior.
During the unfreezing stage, the management should prepare the employees for the change through talking to them about the prevailing economic situations and how it is affecting the company, and therefore the need for the company to adapt and align itself to the prevailing economic situation in order for it to survive and remain in business.
The management should then use push and pull strategies to prepare the employees for the change, which is implemented during the transition phase. At the refreezing phase, the management should refreeze the newly acquired behavior in line with the new work environment. This would make the employees satisfied and restore their confidence, loyalty and commitment to the organization (Lewin, 2011).
Conclusion
Organizational behavior is a very crucial field in management which is very broad in nature. Managers need to understand organizational behavior in order for them to be able to be able to deal with the dynamic nature of organizational environment, which keeps at changing. Organizational behavior entails interaction between the organization and the employees.
One major challenge for organizations is how to deal with change, like the one which faced RR Feeds, Inc due to the economic down turn. In such cases, managers should borrow Lewin’s three phase strategy of dealing with change namely unfreezing, transition and refreezing of behavior, so as to align the employees’ behavior with the prevailing organizational environment (Lewin, 2011).
Self-determination theory focuses on inspiration and personality. It also focuses on individuals’ inherent growth tendencies, emotional needs and addresses the motivation behind the decisions that individuals make without external interference (Gagne& Deci 2005). It is necessary to analyze the correlation between self-determination theory, self-motivation and determination (Gagne& Deci 2005).
Gagne& Deci (2005) indicate that intrinsic motivation led to the emergence of this theory. Consequently, this paper demystifies the attitude of subordinates towards their supervisors. Madeline, who is a ward supervisor, encounters difficulties with nurses especially Margaret and Molly.
Margaret believes that she does not need supervision based on her proficiency. She goes ahead to criticize Madeline’s management style and suggests modes of improving the operations of the ward. Molly, the second nurse, is uncertain with the new methods used by the nurses. Furthermore, she is inattentive when handling patients.
Elements of self-determination theory
According to Gagne& Deci (2005), this theory is based on the assumptions concerning human nature and motivation. He further states that the motivation and the need of individuals to grow and succeed are inherent. This means that they are likely to commit and engage in unexciting roles when they comprehend their worth.
Some workers appear less motivated due to present work conditions affecting their inherent motivation (Gagne& Deci 2005). This theory also focuses on the intrinsic significance of the work. Consequently, humans exhibit three critical psychological needs namely “competence, relatedness, and autonomy” (Gagne & Deci 2005 p. 339).
Gagne & Deci (2005) indicate that competence refers to the belief that an individual can influence crucial outcomes. Concurrently, relatedness refers to the experience of attaining fulfilling and supportive relations. Gagne & Deci (2005) further state that autonomy focuses on the experience of performing roles with self-determination and choice (Gagne & Deci 2005).
Autonomy fails to incorporate independence since individuals may be reliant on others though they may act alone. The experience of individuals is based on choice. Furthermore, endorsing their work is pegged on intrinsic motivation. The individuals do not feel regulated by external forces and demanding internal forces.
Ryan & Deci (2000 p. 68) indicate “competence, autonomy, and relatedness” enhance sustainable motivation during the provision of human needs (Gagne & Deci 2005 p. 339). According to this theory, sustainable motivation is autonomous due to the feelings of enthusiasm and engagement.
Research shows that autonomous employees are satisfied; furthermore, they perform at an optimal level, experience minimal levels of anxiety and depression (Guay, Ratelle & Senecal et al 2006). Employees whose work environment supports the critical psychological needs are proactive at work regardless of the organization’s size.
Ryan & Deci (2000) indicate that extrinsic rewards are responsible for inducing controlled motivation. This theory depicts that both controlled and autonomous motivation differ due to the regulatory forces and the experiences accompanying them (Ryan & Deci 2000).
These categories of motivation are intentional and differ from inspiration processes that lack both intention and motivation. The activities that are not satisfactory require intrinsic motivation.
Motivation leads to external control of the behavior meaning that the maintenance of behavior is based on contingency processes. External regulation prompts persons to operate with the purpose of acquiring a preferred outcome or avoiding undesired result (Ryan & Deci 2000).
Therefore, individuals work when an action proves to be instrumental and when supervisors are watching (Ryan & Deci 2000). An unacceptable regulation tends to provide the basis for introjected regulation. This directive controls persons by addressing concerns pertaining to self-esteem.
It allows one to behave appropriately to feel worthy (Ryan & Deci 2000). Autonomous motivation requires that individuals identify the worth of behavior for the purpose of their personal selected goals (Ryan & Deci 2000). The identified directive allows persons to address their preferences and liberty because their deeds match their targets.
The nurses would feel self-directed when performing roles if they appreciated the console, wellbeing of their patients and comprehended the implication of repulsive tasks that improve the health of patients. Molly fails to exhibit this behavior since she is inattentive while handling patients (Lynch, Plant & Ryan 2005).
Nurses would identify the significance of the activities that maintain the health and comfort of patients when they embrace integrated regulation (Stone, Deci & Ryan 2009). This would be fundamental to the identities of nurses since they would work constantly and realize the need of embracing uninteresting activities.
Self-determination theory depicts that intrinsic motivation comprises interesting and satisfying activities (Stone, Deci & Ryan 2009). Concurrently, extrinsic motivation comprises of activities that are not interesting but are important to the personal goals and purpose of an individual.
Diagnosing the motivational problems
Madeline’s frustration as she supervises the workers epitomizes the motivational problems in the ward. It is clear that she fails to take criticism positively especially when Margaret highlights the changes that would improve operations within the ward.
Additionally, Margaret’s failure to accept supervision highlights the need for the management to explain the inevitability of changes. Concurrently, Molly seems unenthusiastic because she accepts the present conditions and fails to embrace new ideas.
Improving the work climate to support autonomy, competence and relations at the ward allow employees to internalize the rules at the work place and work proactively and creatively (Lynch, Plant & Ryan 2005). This is because the employees value their work and focus less on the management functions.
This will help solve Molly’s problem of being inattentive to patients. However, controlling work environments will minimize the “competence, relatedness and autonomy” among employees (Gagne & Deci 2005 p. 339). External regulation of employees will prompt the nurses to obtain rewards not related to the work itself.
This prompts Margaret to offer a suggestion to Madeline on the strategies that will improve the operations of the ward. Minimal external regulation will allow Margaret to execute her duties with ease because she would be motivated. In addition, it will allow her to embrace supervision during job.
The feelings of “competence, autonomy, and relatedness” will enhance motivation because the nurses will endorse the work rules and procedures (Gagne & Deci 2005 p. 340). Furthermore, they would value the significance of their work though they may not find it interesting.
This will be beneficial because it eliminates criticism towards Madeline’s management style. Moreover, it will reduce unnecessary talks among the nurses because they would be devoted to their work. This is likely to allow them to acknowledge the comfort, wellbeing of their patients and appreciate the implication of doing repulsive tasks.
Steps in the self-determination theory
Madeline can implement the three principles of the self-determination to enhance motivation among the nurses. This process involves supportive dialogue that involves asking open questions to solve the problems within the organization. This will allow Madeline to address the problems pertaining to employee supervision with Margaret (Gagne & Deci 2005).
This will also allow her to seek the best alternatives to eliminate this issue. Moreover, she can pay attention and recognize the viewpoint of the nurses. This theory depicts that active listening is an integral aspect of intervention because it encourages initiative amongst subordinates.
After the intervention, the nurses will feel autonomous consequently improving their work. Moreover, Madeline can offer support to the nurses for them to trust the organization more.
Clarification of responsibilities and contributions are vital aspects of self-determination theory. Madeline should embrace these factors to attain success. Madeline should provide a sensible rationale for a task that is uninteresting and acknowledge the nurses’ feelings of dislike.
This will increase the motivational level of the nurses. In addition, Madeline can also provide genuine and positive feedback concerning the problems within the organization (Gagne & Deci 2005). Effective praise acknowledges the contribution of nurses and supports their competence and autonomy.
This allows nurses to exhibit high levels of motivation while performing their tasks. Madeline should emphasize financial rewards among the nurses because it will enhance the importance of external rewards.
Meager benefits tend to obstruct the capacity of personnel to attain autonomy, proficiency and appropriate relations. Madeline can communicate with the organization concerning salary; thus, motivating nurses.
Moreover, Madeline can share knowledge to enhance expertise and autonomy (Gagne & Deci 2005). Provision of educational opportunities creates positive motivational effects because they will help the nurses meet the key psychological needs (Gagne & Deci 2005).
Critical assessment
Autonomous motivation maximizes optimal performance, trust and satisfaction among nurses. This means that the relationship between Madeline and Margaret will improve since the supervisor will appreciate the ideas indicating that new software would improve operations. The jobs, which workers find appealing and challenging enhance motivation.
There is little that supervisors can do to address personal differences; therefore, they need to change the environment to promote autonomous motivation (Gagné, Chemolli, Forest & Koestner 2008). Horizontal enlargement is crucial because it focuses on expanding jobs. This means that Molly would learn new techniques to improve operations (Kuvaas 2009).
This is with the intention of incorporating activities and tasks that nurses can welcome (Kuvaas 2009). Vertical enlargement is significant because it involves expansion of jobs with the aim of including decision-making and problem solving (Kuvaas 2009). This aspect is important because it allows the nurses to be autonomous; thus, improving Margaret’s role since she indicates that her work suffers intruded.
Horizontal enlargement enhances the nursing role by encouraging nurses to appreciate how varied parts of their roles fit into a rational unit (Ferris, Brown & Lian 2009). This will authorize the nurses to communicate pertinent concerns especially on supplies to Madeline as stated in the case.
An environment that supports autonomy as apparent when Madeline addresses the perspectives of employees provides several options to pursue. This environment enhances the level of dedication among nurses. Additionally, the yearning for relatedness performs a decisive function in internalizing values and regulations (Ferris, Brown & Lian 2009).
Autonomous motivation is significant to nurses because it would make Margaret and Molly competent and self-determined at the work place (Baard, Deci & Ryan 2004). However, the most outstanding weakness apparent in this theory is the need for in-depth training among supervisors for them to incorporate it within organizations (Baard, Deci & Ryan 2004).
Consequently, she wants to pursue relevant studies at University of Sydney for her to understand how performance influences organizational processes. Furthermore, the confines of the theory are based on its association with human principles and beliefs making it complex.
Conclusion
The self-determination theory outlines principles that are imperative in developing long-term motivation within an organization. Application of these principles among the work force builds long-term value for the organization. In addition, it helps the nurses in achieving the core psychological needs and improves the productivity of the organization.
Reference List
Baard, P, Deci, E & Ryan, R. 2004. ‘Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol 34 no.3.pp. 2045-2068.
Ferris, L, Brown, J & Lian, H. 2009, ‘When does self-esteem relate to deviant behavior: The role of contingencies of self-worth’, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol 94 no. 5.pp. 1345-1353.
Gagne, M & Deci, E. 2005, ‘Self Determination Theory and work motivation’, Journal of organizational Behavior’, vol 26 no.4. pp. 331-362.
Gagné, M, Chemolli, E, Forest, J &Koestner, R. 2008,’A temporal analysis of the relation between organisational commitment and work motivation’, Psychologica Belgica, vol 48 no.3, pp. 219-241.
Guay, F, Ratelle, F & Senecal, C et al. 2006, ‘Distinguishing developmental from chronic career indecision: Self-efficacy, autonomy, and social support’. Journal of Career Assessment, vol 14 no. 1, pp. 235-255.
Kuvaas, B 2009, ‘A test of hypotheses derived from self-determination theory among public sector employees’, Employee Relations, vol 31 no. 2, pp. 39-56.
Lynch, M, Plant, R & Ryan, R. M. 2005, ‘Psychological needs and threat to safety: Implications for staff and patients in a psychiatric hospital for youth’. Professional Psychology, vol 36 no. 2, pp. 415-425.
Ryan, R & Deci, E. 2000, ‘Self-Determination Theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well being’, American psychologist, vol 55 no.1, pp. 68-78.
Stone, D, Deci, E & Ryan, R. 2009, ‘Beyond talk: creating autonomous motivation through self determination theory’, Journal of General Management, vol 34 no.3, pp. 75-91.
Organizational behavior has routinely been studied since its discovery in the hawthorn study. Research indicates an inextricable relationship between organizational behavior and a firm’s performance. Understanding organizational behavior enables managers to discover synergies for employee performance.
Therefore, the study of organizational development has led to the creation of positive organizational behavior as advanced by positivist psychologists1. Organizational learning process is critical to organizations because it helps management teams and low-end employees to adapt to the workplace environment, and to grow their competitive advantage2.
The process of learning behavior at the workplace, such as seeking new information, apportioning time to improve workflow procedures, and testing the validity of work assumptions offers employees to reflect on their actions. This allows them to acquire knowledge and helps in sharing information3.
The extent to which members of an organization interact to understand individual characteristics helps employees to develop a common base for a mutual collaboration. Studies have indicated that mutual coexistence among employees and their immediate seniors enhances knowledge and information sharing, which promotes and concretizes their ability to understand and execute their respective duties.
The nature of relationships illustrates that while people may have different personal dispositions and different personal attributes, learning and interaction can generate greater mutuality4. Therefore, if organizations fail to implement facilitate employee learning programs, they run a risk of impeding successful behavior learning, which may hamper improved performance.
A review of the literature indicates that people naturally know little about their fellows, and they would need reinforcement to develop learning competencies. Though many researchers have devoted a lot of their time in investigating the significance of behavior learning at work environment, most researchers have confined their studies on notions of negative behavior5.
The role of positive behavior in building positive interpersonal relationships helps organizational members to share their variable information, which remain essential to creating new approaches to completing work processes.
The extent and the quality of learning behavior of individuals and groups in an organization makes people feel highly appreciated and valued and helps to neutralize the uncertainties and tensions. Capacity and objective and subjective experiences of employees with their colleagues and supervisors contribute to better subordinate-superior relationships.
Researchers argue that while negative organizational behavior may have a devastating impact on an organization’s capacity to progress, understanding variations in behavior can be used to nurture mutually coordinated relationships. This is because the process of learning organizational behavior facilitates connectivity of relationships, and captures openness to differences. This scenario helps members to free themselves and clear doubts and negative perceptions about their counterparts.
Studies indicate that connectivity among employees through behavior learning enhances the development of non-defensive reactions, and facilitates sharing of knowledge about new challenges6. Therefore, using organizational behavior, organizations are able to generate impetus for future successes.
References
Carmeli, A., D.Brueller, & J. E. Dutton, ‘Learning Behaviors in the Workplace: The Role of High-quality Interpersonal Relationships and Psychological Safety’, Systems Research and Behavioral Science, vol. 26, 2009. 81-98.
Luthans, F., & A. H. Church, ‘Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths.’ Academy of Management Executive, vol. 16, no. 1, 2002.
Footnotes
1 A. Carmeli, Brueller, D. & J. E. Dutton, ‘Learning Behaviors in the Workplace: The Role of High-quality Interpersonal Relationships and Psychological Safety’, Systems Research and Behavioral Science, vol. 26, 2009. 81-98.
2 F. Luthans & A. H. Church, ‘Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths.’ Academy of Management Executive, vol. 16, no. 1, 2002.
3 F. Luthans & A. H. Church, ‘Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths.’ Academy of Management Executive, vol. 16, no. 1, 2002.
4 A. Carmeli, Brueller, D. & J. E. Dutton, p. 81-98.
5 F. Luthans & A. H. Church, ‘Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths.’ Academy of Management Executive, vol. 16, no. 1, 2002.
6 A. Carmeli, Brueller, D. & J. E. Dutton, p. 81-98.
The article review presents a summary ad critical review of the article Perceived Organizational Support: Reducing the Negative Influence of Coworker Withdrawal Behavior by Paul Eder and Robert Eisenberger published in the Journal of Management in 2008. The article discusses the withdrawal from work behavior of employees at the workplace.
This behavior is costly to the organizations that look for ways and means to reduce such behaviors. The symptoms of such behavior evident in workplaces are absenteeism, taking long breaks, coming to work late, etc.
The article by Eder and Eisenberger conducts two studies to understand the relationship between a high degree of perceived organization support (POS) by the employees to workgroup relation and individual tardiness, and effect of POS in reducing the relation between working teams and withdrawal behavior of an individual employee.
The introduction of the article discusses and develops the argument for POS of employees and its positive effect on employee behavior. The researchers’ points out that employee usually has a general belief regarding the value that the organizations give them for their work and contribution.
They, with reference to previous research, indicate that employees with a high level of POS have a more favorable outlook towards their job and are more dedicated to work. They use the support of the organizational support theory that posits that the employees develop POS to meet their socioemotional needs. According to this theory, there is a positive relation between employees’ organizational outcomes.
Therefore, when POS is high employees are believed to increase attendance of employees, punctuality, and positive output. The introduction also discussed previous works on negative relationship between POS and withdrawal behavior. Given this background of the POS and its positive relation with employment outcome and negative impact on employee withdrawal behavior, the researchers stated the purpose of the paper.
The aim of the paper is clearly stated to “investigate the possibility that POS may have an especially strong influence when employees are members of workgroups that engage in high levels of withdrawal behavior, allowing the individual employee’s own high level of withdrawal behavior to go unnoticed”.
The main reason for such withdrawal behavior is thought to be social loafing. In other words, they argue that whatever the reason for withdrawal, employees engaged in a group tends to withdraw from work when they observe other group members withdrawing from work.
Then the research article subdivides into two subcategories – effect of working groups on individual employee withdrawal behavior and the effect of POS on withdrawal behavior of employees. These two sections provide the literature review related to the respective subjects and posits the hypothesis for the study.
The first section of the literature review presented previous researches dealing with the effect of workgroups on employees’ withdrawal behavior. The review of the literature presented reports of earlier researches and the conclusions that had been drawn from them. The researcher uses 10 to 12 scholarly researches on working behavior withdrawal studies in employees from a period from 1950 to 2004.
Most of the literature reviewed belonged to the 1990s and 2000s. The articles review presents the methodology and aim of the previous researches and their outcomes.
The review of the literature shows that previous literature does point out at the strong influence of workgroup on individual employee behavior and her withdrawal behavior. However, previous research also shows that even due to prevalent influence of the workgroup on employee behavior, some employees resist the temptation of withdrawal behavior and work loafing.
Given the literature review, the researchers suggest, “resistance may be due in part to employees’ reciprocal exchange relationships with their organization” . In other words, individuals will consider their relation and rewards gained from the organization in deciding upon their work withdrawal behavior when in a workgroup.
The next section of the literature review is based on POS and workgroup influence. The researchers believe that even for employees with high POS may show negative behavior when in presence of a workgroup. POS indicates the positive impact of the organization’s behavior towards its employees. This is considered to be a “valued resource” as it affects the employees’ perception of her work, work environment, and organization.
Therefore, the authors utilize the “reciprocity norm” that makes the employees return the same kind of behavior towards the organization, which is done using 4 references ranging from 1982 to 2001.
From a previous, study of Eisenberg et al. (2001, cited in Eder and Eisenberger 57) the researchers point out the following: “meeting the obligations to one’s organization incurred by the norm of reciprocity serves three functions: (a) one maintains positive self-image, (b) one avoids violating the reciprocity norm, and (c) one continues to benefit from favorable organizational treatment.” (57)
This indicates that when the organization shows a positive response towards the employees for their work, the employees in return should reciprocate with a positive response. From this arguemnt the researchers drew the hypothesis of their study. They drew threee hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: The withdrawal behavior of other members of employees’ workgroups will be positively related to employees’ own levels of withdrawal behavior.
Hypothesis 2: POS will be negatively related to employee withdrawal behavior.
Hypothesis 3: The positive relation between the withdrawal behavior of other workgroup members and employees’ own withdrawal behavior will be lessened by perceived organizational support.
The first hypothesis is drawn from the work group’s influence on individual employees’ withdrawal behavior, which is assumed to have a positive influence on the latter. The second hypothesis is drawn from the POS literature that hypothesizes that POS will have a negative relation with withdrawal behavior. In other words, higher POS will have a low withdrawal behavior and vice versa. The third hypothesis is that the withdrawal behavior shown by the employees due to the withdrawal behavior of the employees dampens or reduces due to POS.
Once this hypothesis is taken, the researchers move on to describe the methodology they adopted to conduct the research. They present a brief description of the research design in the next paragraph. They conduct two studies – one in a manufacturing company and the other in a retail chain for electronic appliances stores.
The study 1 is designed to examine “the influence of POS on the relation between workgroup tardiness and individual employees’ tardiness”. Therefore, the first study aimed at understanding the effect POS had on the tardiness of a working group and that of the individual employees.
The second study aimed at understanding “the influence of POS on the association of several workgroup withdrawal behaviors (taking undeserved work breaks, spending time in idle conversation, and neglecting one’s job—rated by the supervisor) with individuals’ withdrawal behaviors.”
In the second study, the researchers wanted to understand the effect POS has on the withdrawal of workgroups and consequently on that of the individual’s withdrawal behavior. The methodology also described the way the calculation for the two studies has been done.
In this regard, they calculated the withdrawal behavior of the workgroup by taking the aggregate of the each employee’s withdrawal behavior within the workgroup following a previous study that had used this method. The researchers have cited the previous research on employee withdrawal behavior in the paper.
The study 1 is then described in detail in the article. They conducted a survey on 219 employees of a manufacturing plant in the US. They received 85 percent completed response to the survey sent across to the employees. These employees voluntarily undertook the survey after issuance of confidentiality letter to them by the researchers.
From these 187 employees who sent completed surveys, 25 were omitted as information regarding one or more employees in their workgroup was unavailable. The final sample for study 1 done by the researchers was “162 employees, 67% were machine operators, 17% were warehouse employees, 11% were office staff, and 6% were maintenance/quality assurance workers”.
These employees worked in the organizations for an average period of 8.5 years and of them 60 percent were men. The sample had 23 workgroups with average number of 7 employees in each group with least being 3 and maximum being 18.
After this, the researchers described the different variables used for the study and how they were measured. POS was studied using the Survey of Perceived Organizational Support tool used in previous researches. They used six items from SPOS for the study. The responses were taken in 7-point Likert scale.
The paper provided a sample of the question that had been used to exemplify the nature and tone of the questions used in the survey. The scale used was tested for reliability. Tardiness was calculated from the company records on the employees where the measure set by the company for tardiness was used.
The research justified its use of company records for employee attendance due to the finding of previous meta-analysis that employees with lower tenure tend to come to office late. The employees for the research were located in two different plants. The researchers provided details of the working system of the plants giving details regarding their employee rotation system and schedules.
The next section of the paper discussed the results of the study. In order to assess the workgroup tardiness’ effect on individual’s tardiness, the researchers calculated the average of each member of the workgroups’ tardiness over the period, not including the tardiness of the employee.
They then used regression to see the effect of work group’s tardiness on individual tardiness, POS, and interaction between the first two. The analysis takes the assumption that there is difference of tardiness on group level. Therefore, they run the test for analysis of variance (ANOVA) in order to understand the difference in the tardiness of the different work groups.
ANOVA is used to understand the difference in group-level behavior. For this, the researchers cited two previous researches one from 1998 and the other from 2004. The researchers also calculated intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) in order to understand the “proportion of variation accounted for by workgroup” . The researchers next presented the results of the ANOVA:
The results of the ANOVA indicated that there were significant between-group differences for tardiness, F(22, 139) = 2.39, p <.01, suggesting systematic differences in work group tardiness. In addition, ICC(1) =.06, suggesting that 6% of the variance in tardiness occurs between workgroups.
The researchers used hierarchical regression analysis to understand the effect of POS on individual tardiness and workgroup tardiness. The results of the analysis demonstrated in a table.
The explanation of the analysis was presented in the article that demonstrated the procedure through which the analysis was done as well as the results achieved. In order to reduce collinearity effect in the results, all the component variables were converted to Z-scores. They presented a detailed description of the steps taken before the analysis:
Employees’ tenure with the organization, plant location, average workgroup tardiness, and POS were entered in the first step of the analysis. Consistent with Hypothesis 1 and previous findings… there was a positive relationship between group and individual tardiness. (59)
Then they went on to explain the results of the research. The research findings showed that there was a negative relation between POS and tardiness, however, the relation was not found to be significant. In step 2 of the analysis the researchers “added the multiplicative composite of POS and average workgroup tardiness” (59) to understand the correlation between the two variables.
There was a significant effect that POS had on tardiness that supported hypothesis 2. However, this significant effect of POS on tardiness was contingent to a significant correlation between POS and workgroup tardiness. Therefore, this analysis provided support to hypothesis 3, “this interaction suggests that the positive relationship between group and individual tardiness was reduced with high POS.” (59)
In order to understand this relation better, the researchers plotted regression lines connoting average group tardiness and individual tardiness with low and high levels of POS. the understanding through the regression graph analysis ahs been presented as follows:
Simple slope analyses showed that, as predicted, for employees with low POS, there was a significant positive relationship between group tardiness and individual tardiness, β =.40, t(156) = 4.16, p <.05. In contrast, among employees with high POS, there was a non-significant relationship between group tardiness and individual tardiness, β =.04, t(156) = 0.35, p = ns.
Therefore, the pattern of the results demonstrated that hypothesis 3 taken by the researchers i.e. the influence of the workgroup tardiness on individual tardiness reduces as the employees demonstrates higher degree of POS. Their analysis showed that there was a strong effect of POS on the interaction between work group tardiness and individual tardiness.
In employees with low level of POS, there was a greater increase in individual tardiness with higher group tardiness. On the other hand, individual employees with a high level of POS showed lower increase in tardiness with a high level of group tardiness. Therefore, study 1 concluded that high POS had a dampening effect on the individual tardiness even when group tardiness was high.
The second study was conducted in a retail setting that aimed at understanding if the findings of study 1 could be generalized as the researchers believed “A replication of the results of Study 1 in a different work environment with a different means of assessing withdrawal would provide additional support for our hypotheses” .
First, the researchers presented the research design for study 2, which essentially was a replication of study 1 in terms of procedure and process, with just an alteration in the organizational setting. Study 2, therefore, was designed to “examine the effects of workgroup withdrawal behavior on individual withdrawal behavior in a very different work environment (a retail organization) using a measure of an array of withdrawal behaviors” (60).
In this study, instead of company records for individual tardiness, supervisory evaluation of taking breaks as measures of tardiness was used. The measures included “undeserved work breaks, spending time in idle conversation, and neglecting one’s job” (60).
Then the researchers demonstrated the sample taken for the study and the measures taken. The study 2 was sent to 714 employees who voluntarily completed the survey during regular scheduled work hours.
Then the researchers obtained the name of direct supervisor of the employee from company records and the supervisors’ rating for each employee in terms of withdrawal. 94 supervisors provided the ratings. The final sample for the research showed the following:
45% were hourly salespeople, 34% were hourly paid sales support employees (e.g., cashiers, stockers), 15% were salaried support employees, and 6% were salaried salespeople. The mean tenure of these employees was 3.9 years (SD = 4.0), and 73% were men.
Then the researchers described the measures for the study that were taken in form of POS, tardiness, and withdrawal behavior. They used 10 items for POS evaluation in the second study.
They derived reliability of the scale from previous studies. Withdrawal behavior was measured using 3 items based on intra and extra-role performance – “taking undeserved work breaks, spending time in idle conversation, and neglecting aspects of the job one is obligated to perform”.
The supervisors rated the employees individually based on a 5-point Likert scale. The researchers mentions that the reliability of the scale was not high, but it was taken as the scale for the study due to its “objective nature and conceptual importance” (62). The covariate i.e., organizational tenure of the employees was derived from company records.
Then the researchers went on to describe the findings or results of the study. The researchers first described the process of analysis of the second study. The researchers used supervisor rated scale to derive the measure of average workgroup withdrawal.
In order to do so, the researchers a “value was assigned to each employee that reflected an average of the withdrawal levels reported by the supervisor for all employees in his or her workgroup, excluding the employee’s own level of withdrawal”.
They followed a same process as followed in study 1 of doing an ANOVA analysis on the data. They also calculated the intra-class correlation coefficient in order to understand the proportion of the variation between the workgroups. Then they presented the results of the ANOVA:
The results of the ANOVA indicated that there were significant between-group differences for withdrawal, F(93, 545) = 4.90, p <.001, justifying its aggregation in the current study. In addition, ICC(1) =.04, indicating that 4% of the variance in withdrawal existed between groups. (63)
They conducted a hierarchical regression analysis following the procedure in study 1 in order to understand if POS dampened the effect of workgroup withdrawal on individual withdrawal. The results of this analysis are as follows:
To reduce potential collinearity between the interaction terms and their component variables, all component scales were converted to Z-scores prior to the calculation of the interaction term. Tenure with the organization, average group withdrawal, and POS were entered in the first step of the hierarchical regression analysis. Consistent with past research and Hypotheses 1 and 2, both average group withdrawal and POS showed significant relationships with individual withdrawal in the predicted directions.
The second step of the research was to add the multiplicative composite of POS and the average of workgroup withdrawal. Their study found an interactive effect of the two on individual withdrawal.
The relationship established between the interaction of the two was found to be positive: “The interaction suggested that the positive relationship between workgroup withdrawal and individual withdrawal was reduced among individuals with high POS.” (63) in order to examine the relation to a greater degree the researchers plotted the regression lines between average group of withdrawal with individual withdrawal with high and low levels of POS. the results thus shown was:
Simple slope analyses showed that for employees with low POS, there was a significant positive relationship between group withdrawal and individual withdrawal, β =.58, t(634) = 16.61, p <.001. Among individuals with high POS, there was still a significant relationship between group withdrawal and individual withdrawal, β =.43, t(634) = 12.40, p <.001. However, the relationship was significantly weaker among individuals with high POS than those with low POS, t(634) = –2.38, p <.05.
The study then presented a general discussion of the patterns of the results, which was found to be consistent with the third hypothesis taken. The comparison between the two was identified to be the result of the research.
The results showed that there was a definitively strong effect of POS on individual withdrawal and that group withdrawal had effect on individual withdrawal, but the degree of the effected on high or low level; of POS, wherein, a high level indicated lower tendency to withdrawal and vice versa.
Therefore, a combination of the findings of studies 1 and 2 indicated that “employees are less likely to withdraw from work activities in the presence of coworkers who withdraw if such behavior violates their positive exchange relationship with their organization”.
A general discussion of the findings done by the researchers demonstrated the relation and significance of their findings through the two studies. They mention in this discussion that in both the studies POS dampened the relationship between workgroup and individual withdrawal behavior. The discussion exemplified this finding:
When POS was low, the work group’s tardiness was strongly associated with the individual employee’s tardiness (Study 1); the work group’s combination of undeserved work breaks, spending time in idle conversation, and neglecting standard job responsibilities was strongly associated with similar neglect by the individual employee (Study 2).
In the first study, with high POS, the positive association between group tardiness and individual tardiness was eliminated. In the second study, weaker but nonetheless reliable effects were obtained.
The general discussion actually presented the relevance of the study towards organizational behavior literature. The consistency of the study’s findings with that of previous researches in the area confirms that the reciprocity theory also holds true, as “POS would lead employees to feel an obligation to repay favorable treatment” (64).
The result was consistent with the previous organizational theory that POS acts as a deterrent to the individual withdrawal behavior even during the presence of significant influence of group withdrawal behavior. Therefore with high POS, the research suggests, that withdrawal will decline and so would detection of it, which would consequently decrease punishment due to tardiness.
POS is the factor that increases a sense of responsibility among individual employees that makes them aware of the responsibilities they have towards the organization and they stop taking advantage of situations. A previous study has been cited that demonstrated the effect of the POS on employee absenteeism that was found to be strongest when employees believed in a reciprocal relation with their organization.
The research findings of both the studies supported previous findings; however, the pattern suggested through the graphical analysis is different. While studying tardiness, POS was found to dampen the relation between individual and group tardiness, but it did not reduce the strong relation between the group and individual behavior:
However, in Study 2, the relation between group and individual withdrawal was only reduced. This difference could be due to a number of factors. The kinds of employment (manufacturing vs. retail) differed, as did the measure of withdrawal behavior.
Finally, tardiness was assessed objectively in the first study, whereas supervisors rated withdrawal behavior in the second study. Although the locus of the difference is unclear, the effect’s occurrence with different employees and different measures of withdrawal behavior suggest the generality of the findings.
The article then discussed the limitations of the research conducted by Eder and Eisenberger. The data being cross-section provided a generalized understanding of the POS and its effect on individual withdrawal, by extending the reciprocity theory, however, not being able to to provide any casualty of results.
The study, therefore, extends more in understanding that the “individual employee withdrawal might lead to the individual’s workgroup members withdrawing more frequently” (66) that would be based on the degree of social influence of the individual on the group. Further the results found in the study confirm to the longitudinal studies conducted previous, however, the researchers agree that the “longitudinal research, specifically invoking POS, would provide stronger evidence of the effects demonstrated in the current studies” (66).
The present study presented little variation in the outcome. The value of R2 is found to be very small. This is a limitation of the study, which the researches defended as being common in organizational behavior studies and also state that a small value of R2 does not indicate the findings are “unimportant”.
The researchers also present venues for further research on POS and withdrawal behavior of the employees – “In addition to tardiness, wasting time, and neglecting job responsibilities, the influence of POS on increasing resistance to other withdrawal behaviors might be examined.” (66)
Further they also state that POS may also help in reducing “the relationship between group and individual performance of active counterproductive behaviors that harm the organization, such as employee theft of organization property” (66). The discussion further provides support or the findings in previous research findings.
The researchers now go on to state that “POS is one of a number of psychological factors that might influence the relationship between workgroup and individual withdrawal behavior.” (66)
Using previous studies that have established a relation between workgroup and individual antisocial behavior and workgroup influence on self-reported absence, demonstrates that “positive attitudes toward the organization (e.g., POS, satisfaction) actually may inhibit the development of withdrawal norms in cohesive groups.” (66) the researcher goes on to state the present research supports the previous researches’ assertion that “antisocial groups encourage antisocial individual behavior” (66).
Further the article also provides ways how POS can be increased in organizations citing previous research: “Prior research suggests that POS is enhanced by fair treatment, supervisor support, and favorable rewards and job conditions” (66).
The research concludes with the note the an overall positive relationship between individual employees and organizations and through means of “favorable exchange” between employees and employer can decrease the negative influence of workgroups. Therefore, the study suggests that when employees feel that are well treated by the organization, their withdrawal behaviors are less affected by workgroup withdrawal, and vice versa.
The article is written in scholarly style with proper description being given of the previous literature reviewed, methodology, research design, and finings. The study presented the findings with great detail, with step by step explanation of the procedure followed for the analysis of the data collected through the survey. The article clearly explained the variables and the measures taken for measurement of the variables.
The limitation and areas of further research are also discussed in the final section of the paper. After the results of the two studies are presented, the study provides explanation and analysis of the results intuitively, through the section with the subheading general analysis.
The findings are discussed in relation with previous research and the similarity and dissimilarity with previous research on POS are also discussed. Then the article presented means of extending the result to understand other issues related to employee negative behavior and how it can be countered using POS.
The findings of the research are very important for organizations based in the UAE and in general for organizational behavior. Employee withdrawal is a huge problem for organizations today, costing a lot of money due to this. Companies try hard to keep their employees happy.
However, when organizations feel that they are not really valued by the organization for what they are doing, they become unhappy and tend to be more influenced by the negative behavior of the workgroups. This research presents understanding as to why employees withdraw from work, even when working in workgroups, and others may not.
Thus, the way to prevent withdrawal among employees is to increase POS. organization in context of UAE, as employee absenteeism is a recurring problem, and work loafing costing UAE companies a lot of money, it is important to understand that companies must try and increase POS of employees, that can prevent the negative effect of workgroups in committing negative behavior at workplace.
The article is moderately easy to understand, and is explained in such a manner that the research procedure is made very simple. The article is of importance to scholars as there are certain limitations to the study and certain areas untouched, which can be dealt with for further research. Further, for the practitioners, the article is a storehouse to manage employee behavior in organizations through increasing POS.
Works Cited
Eder, Paul and Robert Eisenberger. “Perceived Organizational Support: Reducing the Negative Influence of Coworker Withdrawal Behavior.” Journal of Management, 34(1) (2008): 55-68. Print.
I once was previledged to work with Gimco manufacturing Company. Gimco is a middle-sized family enterprise that was established by Mr. Smith and is jointly run by the family. I worked in the marketing department, which was headed by Brian, who is Mr. Smiths’s youngest son. The department was made up of six employees who had different ages.
The elderly employees provided professionalism and competency while the young injected enthusiasm, passion and energy into the organization. A month later, after I had started working with the organization, new members of staff were employed. The need for new members of staff stemmed from the expansion experienced in the firm. The organization employed two employees in our department.
The new staffs were employed after convincing Mr.Smith, a renowned engineer by profession that they had the potential to do extensive marketing work. The two employees’ stirred discord in the organization as they reported to work late and they could also mix their products with those assigned to the other employees. This habit caused alarm in the organization.
Since the organization lacked strong bottom-up conflict resolution mechanisms, all conflicts were referred to the manager. In lieu of what was happening, the manager opted to address the entire department; stressing what was expected of each employee. Before addressing the whole department, the manager had tried using stern warnings followed by some wage deduction to cover the loss sustained by the organization.
The two employees were not punished for their wrongs and the rest of the team was angered by the decision. As it was expected, the trend did not change. The two continued to report late and to misrepresent their sales sheets to reflect a higher sale volume with the aim of attracting a higher commission.
When Mr. Brian was notified of this, he promised to conduct an inquiry into the matter and take stringent measures.
After another month, Mr. Smith decided to affect departmental reshuffles; he appointed one of the two employees to head the department as Mr. Brian was transferred to head the finance department. His decision was based on the completed worksheet returned by sales personnel.
The errant promotion did hurt the organization’s morale; all employees in the department complained and confronted the manager. To our surprise, our complaints were given a deaf ear as the autocratic manager imposed his command. Largely, the management made all decisions and employees were not consulted at any instance.
The morale of the employees’ continued to decrease as well as the trustworthiness. The other reason that instigated this was the unfulfilled promise to increase employee’s salary biannually. The management remained obdurate and our complaints attracted sucking for the orchestrators. The move not only, violated our rights of holding demonstration but also shuttered all the belief we had in the management.
Further, the organization lacked a strategic plan and working culture to govern the operations. Subsequently, the entire organization started experiencing an increased employee turnover that caused unstable production and paralyzed any progress that was made.
Employee marginalization and prevalence of dictatorial leadership system is to blame for the poor organization morale and poor interpersonal relationship in the organization. If this company was to endure, flourish, and maintain strong market share then strategies for improvement concerning the ‘big picture’ had to be implemented as a matter of necessity.
Impact of Events on Attitudes and Perceptions
The actions and perception of the employees in the organization have been affected by multi-dimensional issues such as faulty organizational structure that has inhibited delegation of duties, lack organization culture and lack of motivational stimuli. Another thing that has negatively affected the perception is lack of employees’ voice and involvement in the overall running of the organization.
The definition of “perception” and “attitude” has attracted divergent opinions from different scholars and marketers. In their opinion Woods et al (2006, p. 55) assert that altitude is the reaction triggered by individual depending on the surroundings they are in, while perception is the process through which individuals receive, synthesize and construe information (Woods et al, 2006, p. 62).
On the same note, Miner (2007, p.12) connects the two by arguing that employees perception depends on their attitudes. The relationship that exists between makes employee increasingly sensitive to fine details that happens at the place of work.
At Gimco, employees felt underestimated, less appreciated and overall lack of motivation. The exclusion of employees in important factors that pertained to the running of the organization resulted to widening of the gap between the management and employees. The employees felt less useful in the organization as their efforts and contributions were not esteemed.
In addition, the inability to promote workers on merited ground such seniority of service or hard work has been a cause of sustained misunderstanding and chaos. Once the employees are mistreated or their rights are infringed, they become less productive and bad blood develops against the management.
Gimco as an organization lacked internal motivation due to the incommensurate remuneration. O’Donnell (2005, p.249) reveals that employee morale is directly dependent on healthy promotion programs and remuneration increases.
The long serving and faithful employees felt an injustice had been done when promotion was given to the unscrupulous new employee. After eroding the meager faith that endured in their mind, the decision rekindled anger, contempt and disbelief. Their faithful service and determination to improve the welfare of the organization had gone unnoticed and unrewarded.
In fact, hefty pay was awarded to the uncharismatic employee who used dubious means to augment their commissions. The situation was even aggravated when employees’ complaints were dubbed unfounded heresies by the management and instead of an immediate action taken against the ravenous employees; a general sermon to the entire department worsened the situation.
In the organization, employees lack a working job description and organizations goals and objective. The uncontrolled nature of employee activity made it easier for employees to extend their mandate. Instead of supervisor marketing the work sheets, the employee did it to meet their greedy incentives.
From a wider approach job satisfaction was non-existent, Griffeth et al (2004, p. 233) highlight that employees cohesion and better remuneration increases employees satisfaction. In addition, lack of these incentives stimulates employee turnover or instigates thoughts of seeking better pastures elsewhere (Griffeth et al, 2004, p. 232).
With clearly stated goals and objectives, the entire management strives to meet them while each employee also has his or her goals to meet. However, lack of such goals reduces employees output and desire to meet the stipulated mileage.
The organization lacks joint understanding as each individual does his chores without bothering what his colleagues are doing. Since the employees were not involved in-group activities, the interpersonal skills development was inhibited by the dominance of the individualist approach assumed by the organization. This approach denied the employee to freely gather and air their voice in a more unified and harmonious manner.
Simply because the manager disregarded the participation of group performance, the organization found it difficult to adopt new skills and information. Normally, unless employees are allowed to openly express their thoughts, the inherent creativity will not be utilized.
Similarly, individual employees prefer confiding their internal thoughts to their colleagues before they do so to their supervisors and other managers; consequently, lack good interpersonal relationship depresses such.
Although the organization assumes a hierarchical management structure, the structure is non-operational, as the Mr. Smith seems to manipulate the entire organization. In other words, there is no delegation of duties within the organization and the departmental heads assumes ceremonial roles.
During the recruitment of the new staff, instead of Mr. Smith delegating the duty to the human resources manager he single handedly interrogated the interviewee and eventually employs them. Despite his lack of human resource knowledge he blindly hire people with little marketing skill yet very dishonest. Similarly, the manager takes it upon himself to appraise employee and reward them without involving departmental head.
His imposing nature not only embarrassed the employees but it also affected the line managers whose works were reduced to formal portfolio. A dysfunctional structure like Gimco’s needs drastic surgery to help reverse the situation and facilitate the flow of information.
Development of a functional structure that allows delegation of duties and free communication amongst employees and the management and eventually to the CEO and vice versa will form a vital role in reinstating the organization to normalcy.
Relevant Motivational Theories and impact of events in scenario upon the motivation of staff
The analysis of the organization will borrow from two theories that are more relevant to the situation at Gimco i.e. Hertzberg’s theory and the Expectancy theory.
Hertzberg’s Motivation-hygiene theory
In the quest to deal with the problem of unmotivated employees, Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene Theory presents substantial measure to enhance employees’ morale (Fiore, 2004, p. 68). He argued that motivational factors increase employees’ output while hygiene factors increase employee satisfaction.
In fact these two factors are seriously missed at Gimco where employees lack motivational incentives and have to deal with work dissatisfaction (Hygiene). These factors have been explained in depth as follows.
Achievement
All employees would like to accomplish certain goals that emanate from the hard work and efforts that they reflect at the work place. Since each employee has a goal that he or she has set, the output generated is usually congruent with the goal. Success in meeting the predetermined goals motivates employees to up their production as well as ensuring that they remain true to their goals.
At Gimco employee achievement can be measure in terms of units sold by each employ which attracts a particular amount of money in terms of commissions. In addition, employee achievement can also be measure by successful penetration of a new market niche that was initially unknown.
Miner (2007, p. 47) echoes that employees who finish their duties in time should be allowed to utilize the remaining time as they wish. Once an employ achieves such milestone he attains internal satisfaction and he or she becomes proud of his or her efforts.
Nevertheless, Gimco’s employees are rarely appreciated, as the trustworthy employee remained undetected while the cunning ones benefits from the ignorance of the manager.
Recognition
All human beings like acknowledgment for any exemplary job done. Unfortunately, this was not the case at Gimco given the employees’ efforts were neither recognized nor appreciated. Lack of appreciation-discouraged employees from working to their very best since their superfluous efforts went undetected. Poor supervision prevented recognition and subsequent reward of the deserving employees.
The organization requires having proper employee appraisal mechanism to be able to recognize the hardworking and determined employee. Otherwise, failure to recognize people with extraordinary skills and work rates reduces the morale and the desire to work to their very best (Fiore, 2004, p. 69).
Possibility of growth
Many organizations prefer to undertake internal development promotion rather soliciting employees from external sources. The employees at Gimco are denied this possibility as the management was entirely dominated by Smith’s family hence little room of career development exists. The senior employees were dissatisfied by the management decision to replace, Brian with the new and dishonest employ.
The move attracted increased criticism and discourage senior and honest employee who merited the promotion. Due to the current situation, Gimco has a problem of retaining employees for a long time since; employ lack benefits for serving for a long time.
Responsibility
All human beings are motivated by the increase in fulfilling responsibilities and duties assigned to them. As the mandate of each individual increases, he or she becomes more alert and sensitive to details. Increase in responsibility can be achieved through increasing the activities in employee’s job description or increase accountability.
For instance, employees at Gimco sales department can also be allowed to develop their strategic plan, organize their sub-budget as well as participate in decision-making process. Such increased responsibility will also enhance their accountability and feel appreciated by the organization.
The supervisor duties can also extend to compiling the monthly work list for each employee as well as working in collaboration with the finance department in preparation of the employees’ salary. Apart from enhancing accountability, increasing responsibility also enhances delegation of duties.
Pay Increment
All employees work to receive financial appreciation for the efforts that they provide the organization. However, each employee expects his or her salary to increase as a times passes by, failure to honor such promises demoralize employees. An increase in salary serves the purpose of improving the welfare of the employees as well as enhancing their morale thus increasing workers satisfaction.
At Gimco the management failed to honor their pledge to increase employ salary according to the prior promise of biannual salary increment. Miner (2007, p. 48) asserts that salary increment promotes self-actualization and personal growth.
Job security
Another factor with analogous effects to that of payment is the aspect of job security. Nearly all organization strives to retain their vital production assets by offering new contracts or even employing employee on permanent basis. Large number scholars argue that many employees prefer working for a small amount of money rather than working for higher pay for a limited period.
Job security (a hygiene factors) eliminates dissatisfaction and prevents workers turnover (Hersey et al, 2000, p. 367). The fact that Gimco is experience high employee turnover prompts organization management to contain this massive exodus by effecting better pay for their employees. This can be done by offering additional monetary incentives such as better health cover, overtime allowance and pension to the employees.
Work Conditions
Although most management fail to see the benefits provided by better environmental facilities, amicable environment enhance worker’s output. The working environment can be improved by installation of additional amenities such as canteen, fitting first aid kits and generally making the environment safe.
Besides, the organization can also improve the environment by reducing noise, ventilating offices to avoid excess heating and fitting better lighting systems. Better working environment has been identified as one of the most influential aspects that enhance employee performances (Fiore, 2004, p. 68).
Communication
Availability of effective communication in an organization has also been identified as an essential component in a vibrant firm. Miner (2007, p. 49) records that reliable communication enhances better interpersonal relations. Since information can flow freely from the top most to the bottom the organization management is able convey direction and instructions effectively.
For any communication to be effective, good feedback mechanisms, need to be put in place to improve the quality of communication. Apart from aiding in solving conflicts communication form the heart of organization, for instance a good relationship is enhanced between the management and employee and organization with its external factors such as the suppliers and customers.
Good communication is a feature that had dominantly missed in Gimco where autocratic leadership has overshadowed the opinion of employee. Likewise, there is no feedback mechanism in the organization as employee grievances go unattended.
Satisfaction of the motivators and averting problems with hygiene factors help the organization and the management to both enrich jobs and empower staffs, enhancing performance and greater job satisfaction. Similarly, the organization uses this theory to develop employees’ skills and dexterousness.
When all these hygiene and motivations are blended with an effective communication mechanism, the organization sporadically registers improved performances that attract better profits.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Employees at Gimco were unenthusiastic due to the lack of reliable assessment criteria for awarding hardworking employees. Hence, hardworking employees were never rewarded and this made them to reduce their efforts. According to Vroom’s expectancy theory, employee reward is equated to the efforts reflected in production activities.
This theory purports that motivation (M), expectancy (E) instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related according the equation: M = E X I X V. Since all these factors are related, a change in factor will affect the outcome of the satisfaction that is generated. If the expected reward on extra output is low, the motivation appeal generated will be equally low.
On the other hand, an increase in expectations will galvanize the motivation generated. In the above an increase in the any of the variables in the right hand side of the equation leads to the increase in the level of motivation that is generated and vice versa (Borkowski, 2010, p. 129).
According to Vroom’s theory, employees are determined to do particular activities to attain fastidious goals in their lives, lack of such provision amounts to increased de-motivation.
The inferences reveal that individuals place specific goals to achieve in the future and they make it responsibility to do everything that would help them to achieve such. The three variables; E, V and I make the motivation equation. These factors are given an exhaustive analysis as follows.
Valence
Valence is the projected satisfaction that is received from a particular outcome. When an employee realizes that he or she can received increased benefits from carrying a particular activity he or she will be determined to carry out the activity rather than forego it. However, if the expected outcome of doing a particular activity is negative the person will opt to forego it in order to retain the current position.
Sometimes individuals prefer to remain indifferent incase an extra participation does not attract any increased incentive; such a scenario is called zero valence. At Gimco, employees were at zero valences since their added efforts did not attract any increase pay.
Since extra output attracted negligible reward in cash and none in terms of promotions, workers remained unmotivated to avoid future disappointments. The promotion that was effected by the organization rewarded the unfaithful employees who did not deserve. Such unmerited promotion blotted the work ethics in the organization and foster diversification of more fraudulent activities.
Instrumentality
This criterion identifies outcomes as first level or second level according to the valence level that is achieved. Commonly, first level outcomes are often influenced by performance while the second level outcomes are influenced by the need. The theory applies that the incentive to acquire a particular thing is seen as the route of achieving a particular outcomes.
If the valence level is highly desired the employee will diligent work out to achieve no matter the hindrances that he or she has to overcome. On the other hand, if the level of valence is low the employee may opt to forego the laborious exercise at all. For second level variances, employees are driven by need to carry out a particular activity or route.
Since needs fall under the category of things that human beings cannot stay without, most often many individuals are compelled by the second level valences to perform a certain activity. However, regardless of the stimulant that stirs employee performances the instrumentality is one of the most cultivating and rejuvenating aspect that promotes the productivity at individual level.
If employee at Gimco are driven by first level valence, their performance would boosted by an intrinsic enthusiasm that propels them to achieve their dreams. The need to achieve a particular thing is not limited to personal gain but it may also include transforming the organization to achieve particular status such become more competitive or even narrow the gap existing between itself and the market leader.
Such aspirations only happen when the employees internalize the organization’s strategic plan and the objectives. When the strategic plan is in borne, each employee takes upon himself or herself to improve the current situation to better the welfare of the organization. If Gimco is to experience any of this, the management should learn to appreciate employees’ contribution to promote their love for their organization.
Similarly, if the need to achieve a particular outcome is propelled by a particular need. Employees become obligated to act as means to meet the requirement of life, for instance if an employee has big family, he will strive to increase sales in order to attract more commission to cater for welfare of the family.
Despite the fact that he or she may not be enjoying a good relationship with company the duty to provide for the family bestowed upon him acts as a stimuli for the argument performance. Therefore, both level one and level two valence works for the better of the organization.
Expectancy
The aspect identifies the choice between alternatives in a scenario characterized by alternative behaviors that have uncertain outcomes. If the alternative selected is highly probable the employee will strive to improve the welfare by injecting extra efforts or even working for extra hours.
The main challenge that is always faced by employee is the determination of the probability accorded to each alternative. If each alternative is known with a particular level of certainty employee would have the easiest of tasks to improve their welfare without much ado. If employees at Gimco have an increasing expectance, the entire output will be improved.
Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Model
Both Porter and Lawler expounded on Vroom’s theory further. Their approach is anchored on performance as whole. they argued that the efforts that are generated do not lead directly to the performances but they are determined by employee’s ability and perception.
The intertwined nature between perception and ability to facility performance become an interested area of study to elucidate the underlying relationship between the variables. Porter and Lawler contend that motivation, performance and satisfaction as individual and separate variables, their analysis reveals the following.
The value of a reward is equivalent to Vroom’s valence although it is dependent on the magnitude of the desire. On the same note, the perceived effort-reward is analogous to expectancy as identified by the Vroom. In this argument effort is the intensity of input that is applied by the employee to achieve certain goals.
Meanwhile, individual’s abilities and traits are also useful in determination of the outcome received; however, these two are related such issues such as skills and intrinsic intelligence. Thus each individual performance is not just influenced by goals but it is highly dependent on other factors that are mutual included to facilitate an environment that allow better and easier achievement of the goals that are set.
Porter and Lawler commented that the expected outcome is dependent on both intrinsic (coming from the individual) and extrinsic (generated from the working environment). Therefore, to enhance a well-blended performance the organization needs to facilitate a better environment that enhances individual regeneration and amicable working environment.
Group Dynamics and Teamwork
Employees at Gimco work independently and there is no interpersonal competition that exist between them. Jon Katzenbach and Douglas Smith in Goesecke and McNeil (2010, p. 48) define team as small number employees who possess complementary skills who join hands to pursue a common intention.
Goesecke and McNeil (2010, p. 47) assert that managers have a duty to harmonies the conflicting priorities of both the line managers and those of employees to bring enhance attainment of collective goals.
Davis and Davis (1998, p. 279) highlight that for any teamwork to abide, the collective goal should surpass the individuals objectives.
They further argued that managers have the responsibility of identifying the kind of group that they are dealing with as well as understanding the nature of environment that the organization operates in. In order to facilitate group work each organization need to ensure that each department is operation and it has specific goals (Goesecke and McNeil, 2010, p. 48).
Development a group dynamic require a tireless endeavor to accomplish the unified approach that present the personal objectives at the forefront of the strategy. Davis and Davis (1998, p. 280) reveal that this can be done through group interaction or unified team activities.
Further, they proposed that an organization can develop group dynamic by enhancing group opinions, attitudes and fostering group belief. Once the organization collects the opinions and perceptions of members it becomes easier to forge an organization culture that is blended on mutual understanding with the aim of achieving organization goals.
On his side Packer (2008, p.14) perceives a group mentality a social system comprising of various progression and vectors that applied from opposing sides. When the two opposing forces are applied the organization maintains a state of equilibrium
Packer (2008, p. 20) asserts that the requisite of any group dynamic is founded on firm basis such as organization goals, mission, and objectives. The most crucial thing is for the team to understand why it is existent and the purpose for which it was formed.
Once this effected Davis and Davis (1998, p. 281) contends that organization staffs require “orienteering” to enhance effective bonding and developing mutual understanding. In addition, effective orienteering provides a platform to enhance personal belonging and self-appreciations.
However, Goesecke and McNeil (2010, p. 48) argues that for a team to be effective the organization need organize small groups to enhance contestant interaction and invoke collective participation for members of the group.
Since Gimco is a small organization, each department can be reorganized into a group to enhance effective communication and thorough bonding. However, this can only be done by ensuring that the organization has been restructured to provide a platform to bonding and effecting orienteering.
Essentials of an effective group work
Many organizations fail to develop an effective group dynamic due to lack to relevant group management skills or due to lack of the right person. Several managers argue that an effective group should have complementary skill but not identical skills (Goesecke & McNeil 2010, p. 48).
Complementary skills provide a wide pool of knowledge and understanding, furthermore these group supplies variety of proficiencies that cuts across the entire organization. Since each employee brings unique skills, the organization is entitle with an all round approach.
A team that contains similar skills lacks the depth of dealing with the organization conflicting priorities and other multifaceted phenomenon. Goesecke & McNeil (2010, p. 48) define a group possessing similar skills as a working unit instead of a team.
The second important aspect of a team is prevalence of effective communication. Davis and Davis (1990, p. 290) depicted that when people are put in a group they will automatically talk, however, the question remains who is talking and what are they talking about.
Without structured guidance about the task that is being deliberated by the team, it becomes increasingly difficult for group to achieve any objective. Packer (2008, p. 20) adds that the group should have clear sense of purpose in order to harmonize effective communication within the group.
He further asserted that anxiety and other barriers of communication should be alleviated to foster free communication coupled with lofty degree of trust.
Group cohesion is also another vital aspect that allows different peoples with variant personalities to get along (Davis & Davis, 1998, p. 290). For people to work together as a unit there is need for them to lower their pride, and get committed to the group. Parker (2008, p. 20) suggests that group cohesion can be established by ensuring that the organization assumes shared leadership principle.
Although leadership methods shift from time to time, the organization should be dynamic to ensure that all members in the organization are involved in the running of the organization. On its part, Gimco has a rigid leadership structure that is solely dependent on the CEO who maneuvers all operations. A change to involve other employee would ensure better working environment as well motivating workers.
Lack of adequate conflict management mechanisms has inhibited the development of stable group work. At Gimco no single conflict was given the right resolution, instead the manager imposed his decision leaving employees disgruntled.
Without proper conflict resolution mechanism, any overture to form formidable group mentality will prove futile. It is important to understand that conflicts and misunderstandings are bound to exist in any organization and therefore the management should always be prepared to handle immediately they arise.
Recommendations
From the discussion above the following recommendations are offered in an attempt to improve that management of employees’ (1) attitudes and perceptions, (2) staff motivation, and (3) Group dynamics. Proper implementation of the recommendations will undoubtedly give Gimco a new lease of life due to a resurgence of staff morale that will result.
Managing Attitudes and perception
Rationale
Attitude formation
The organization need to develop an attitude that will allow organization to change the current mental mindset to enhance embracing changes in the organization. As the organization starts embracing changes, the employees are also required to positively take it and enhance mutual development.
Peer Assistance Network (PAN)
Gimco requires an electronic system for the organization integrate mutual understanding and effective interpersonal relationships. Since Gimco is dominated by the CEO, a system to guide departmental heads remain a priority for the organization direction. PAN helps employees to develop their interpersonal skills as well improving conflict resolution strategies (Santrock and Halone, 2008, p. 305). In addition, the system provides the management with measure to enhance interaction and mutual understanding.
Intrinsic Motivation
Gimco employees are less motivated and as a result, they lack personal drive to achieve their personal goals. The lack of the enthusiasm is caused by psychological discouragement caused by low self-esteem. Providing intrinsic motivation helps employ to feel interested by the reward they obtain from working. This intrinsic motivation is supplied by incentives as economic rewards, such salary increase, benefits and allowance. Secondly, employ require intrinsic satisfaction that results from nature of job and personal development. Thirdly, the incentive helps to enhance social relationships and the sense of belonging in an organization (Fiore, 2004, p. 68).
Rewards programs
The management need to always on the welfare of the organization by making sure the employees are motivated and been given reward for their hard work and for their exemplary performances. These rewards may be given to the entire department or to individuals who have been innovative or creative. This stirs interdepartmental and interpersonal competitions who effects are reflected on improvement of the organizational welfare
Organization transformation
Gimco needs an overhaul of the organization structure restructuring in order to allow duties redefinition as task specification. Effective implementation of this will enhance development of feedback mechanism as well as reliable communication between the management and the employees and hence better conflict solving machinery.
Action to Improve motivation
Rationale
Development of organization’s strategic plan
Lack of an operational structure inhibits organization performance since employ and manager lack goals to achieve. Gimco employees cannot be creative if they lack shared mission, purpose and sense of belonging. Thus, the organization needs a linked organization culture to enhance employee commitments rededication to their purpose of existing. The organization strategy should be based on SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time bound) goals (Parker 2008, p. 22).
Implementation of motivational theories
Due to the low level of motivation that exists, the organization needs to borrow from the Vroom’s expectancy theory that strives to enhance performance as means of attaining certain goals. In addition, Hertzberg’s Motivation-hygiene theory highlights the hygiene and motivation factors that should be implemented to enhance organization wellbeing. The hygiene factors enhances a viable working environment while motivational factors promotes economic and social wellbeing of the employee thus boosting employee satisfaction
Enhance job security
The organization is facing chronic employee turnover that has cost the organization variable resources and untold treasures. By facilitating job security these vital resources are retain while employees enjoy job satisfaction that comes with a promise of continued income. Similarly, the organization can use long service reward for the aged.
Actions to improve Group and Team Dynamics
Rationale
Enhancing Informal Climate
Generally, employees expose their true nature in unstructured and informal environment. Once subject to a free atmosphere employee feel at liberty to air their opinions, give suggestions and contribute to the welfare of the organization. In case the organization implements this, the organization will have an opportunity develop good interpersonal skill as well as enhancing group think mentality.
Collective Intelligence approach
Problems have become more rampant, complex and wide spread, thus the organization needs to enhance a complex measure to solve the problem in a timely and more successful manner. Collective intelligence allows aggregation of knowledge to streamline productivity as well enhancing discipline (Bastiaens, 2010, p. 36). This measure will enhance open innovation, where organization uses a new operation paradigm (Bastiaens, 2010, p. 39)
Reflection in relation to conclusions drawn from the scenario
Transforming the organization behavior is a difficult mission, due to the inherent motivational and attitudinal developed by the organization. Since human behaviors are inborn, transforming the way people conduct themselves becomes one of the most gruesome activity. In an organization such as Gimco, the management has tough battle to win in order to get back the organization to the required state.
However, no matter how hard the challenge might be, positive outcome is still achievable through deployment of appropriate mechanism and management theories.
Low morale at the work place has been attributed to poor management structure that has facilitated encroachment of defective organization culture coupled with dishonest and greed. Under such environment, the organization has seen it difficult for the management to cope with the high level of demoralization.
Thus, the management structure needs to undergo radical management surgery before dealing employee morale. Similarly, the organization needs to replace the autocratic leadership with participative leadership. In participative leadership, managers are actively involved in production activities and they therefore influence the subordinates in the course of operations.
Their participation enhances mutual understanding with the employees; in addition, barriers between the management and staff are also reduced. Once the gap is narrowed, the management is able enhance an effective communication within the organization.
Conclusion
The above discussion has vividly highlighted the significance of ensuring vibrant employee morale and right perception prevails in any organization. Owing to low morale and few motivation incentives available at Gimco, the organization’s performance has been decreasing. Moreover, the de-motivating conditions have generally led to high employee turnover becoming the norm in the organization.
The situation is worsened by the fact that the organization lacks clearly spelt out goals and strategic objectives. Consequently, lack of clear strategic objectives translates into lack of a binding or a collective goal that employees in the organization can identify with.
Despite the state of affairs, everything can be corrected easily if the top management chose to make a mends. Such amends would consist in identifying ways of motivating the employees. One such avenue consists in applying Herzberg theory or expectancy theory to design a motivational framework that uplifts employee morale.
References
Bastiaens, T 2010, On Collective Intelligence, Springer, Berling
Borkowski, N 2010, Organizational Behavior in Healthcar, Jones and Barlett Publishers, Sudbury
Davis, JR & Davis, AB 1998, Effective Training Strategies: a Comprehensive Guide to Maximizing, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc, San Francisco
Fiore, DJ 2004, Introduction to Education Administration: Standards, Theories and Practice, Eye on Education, Inc, Larchmont
Goesecke, J & McNeil, B 2010, Fundamentals of Library Supervision, ALA, Lincoln
Griffeth, R, Griffeth, RW, & Hom, PW 2004, Innovative Theory and Empirical Research on Employee Turnover, IAP Publishers, New Jersey
Hersey, P, Blanchard, KH, & Johnson, DE 2000, Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources, Prentice Hall, New Jersey
Miner, JB 2007, Organization Behavior; from Theory to Practice, M.E Sharpe, New York
O’Donnell, MP 2005, Health Promotion in Workplace, Cengage Publisher, New York
Packer, GM 2008, Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Teams, John Wiley and Sons, San Francisco
Santrock, JW, & Halonen, JS 2008, Your Guide to College Success: Strategies for Achieving your Goals, Cengage Learning, Boston
Wood, J, Zeffane, R, Fromholtz, M, & Fitzgerald, J 2006, Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts and Applications, 1st edn, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, Queensland
Venus Inc. is a company located in the United States that deals with medical supplies. Having operated in the United States for 12 years, it hopes to expand its operations across the world. The company has four major departments including sales, marketing, supplying and manufacturing all of which work together to enhance the performance of the organization.
The managing director, Kimberly Johnson, has been the manager of the company for the last seven years and has seen diminished growth of the company in terms of productivity and performance. Indeed, the company has recorded losses for the last three years. This has raised concerns for the stakeholders and Kimberly seeks to reverse the trend by enhancing a positive organizational behavior. Particularly, she has explored various reasons that could have led to the downtrend that the company experiences.
At the outset, she notes that the organization has four incoherent departments. The sales department head, Ryan Kiste has steered his department to growth notwithstanding the poor performance exhibited by other departments. Nonetheless, he has always been at loggerheads with other departmental heads owing to his ability to inspire performance within his department.
During management meeting with Kimberly, the differences among the managers remained apparent, as they have already created divisions among the employees. Kimberly realized that the problem is deep rooted in the organizational behavior of the company. She therefore seeks to see the solutions that the managers would present to respond to the diminishing performance.
It also comes to light that the employees’ motivation has decreased and Ryan pinpoints that lack of a remuneration strategy could have been the major cause of divisions among both employees and managers.
Organizational Level Analysis of Venus Inc
Organization Culture
Organizational culture of an organization refers to the prevalent practices are common within departments of a company (McKenna 2000, p. 56). It distinguishes the organization from other organizations and makes it unique. Normally, organizations use their culture as a competitive edge over their rivals. It fosters common beliefs and practices within an organization and cultivates a sense of the belongingness among the employees.
According to McKenna (2000, p. 58), organizational culture is instrumental in ensuring that the practices and beliefs of people remain in line with the organization’s needs and ensures that a company is able to achieve its goals of maximizing on profits and revenues. To that end, all organizational practices and beliefs are synchronized in such a way that they reflect the organizations core values and vision (Black 2003, p. 71).
For Venus Inc., the organizational culture seems to be a major problem. Every department seems to have differentiated practices that have led to a fragmented organization. The beliefs possessed by employees working in Ryan’s department seem to be different from those of other departments.
Therefore, Venus Inc. faces challenges in coming with a uniform organizational culture that guides the employees and ensures that the identity of the organization is upheld. Further, the employees seem to be following the respective departments’ practices and have no shared beliefs, norms and practices that guide their code of conduct. Indeed, it is reasonably hard for Ryan to influence and motivate employees belonging to other departments to achieve their goals.
Hofstede organizational culture demands that all organization’s employees have a shared mentality and assumptions to guide the identity of the organization. This culture entails the ability of the managers to have a mind changing training in which all members get to understand the importance of the organizational culture as a source of belongingness and shared values and beliefs.
It is also noteworthy that informal sub cultures have emerged within the organization. McKenna (2000, p. 83) points out that the managers ought to be wary that subcultures that groups form may be detrimental if they deviate from the goals of the organization.
Organizational structure
Jex & Britt (2008, p. 82) articulate that organization structure refers to the job and work design in which all members of the staff have clearly defined roles. Apparently, Venus Inc. follows bureaucratic structures typical of downwards communication since the designation of roles assumes a hierarchical structure.
Kimberly is answerable to the board of directors while the departmental heads reports to the managing director. Subsequently, the departmental heads ensure that the employees in their respective departments are effective and work in line with the envisaged objectives of increased productivity.
Not only should the departments work together to enhance the performance of the organization, they should also strive towards establishing common beliefs and attitudes through effective inter departmental communication and sharing (Jex & Britt, 2008, p. 91).
It is imperative to note that Venus Inc. has had structural problems that have challenged the ability of the managing director to point out potential areas that could be detrimental to the performance of an organization.
Apparently, Kimberly realizes a little too late that the ineffectiveness within the organization stems from lack of an organizational structure. Communication seems to be ineffective while the employees seem to have decreased motivation.
According to Handy (1993, p.12), an organizational structure should enhance the efficiency of all aspects of the organization including communication and performance. Venus Inc. lacks strategy that would see a regulative superior structure where all departments are able to highlight areas that they feel are not effective as expected and envisaged in the organizational culture.
Buchanan & Huczynski (2010, p. 45) highlight that horizontal differentiation seems to be the major cause of ineffectiveness within the company since every department performs different roles. Besides, the bureaucratic structure has led to diminished returns since some departments have not performed uniformly with the rest.
The conflict arising among the departmental heads are caused by lack of communication and shared vision on how some roles should be divided (Jex & Britt, 2008, p. 91). This has resulted to poor identification of problems leading to demoralized employees and divisions within the organization.
Group Level Analysis Of organization Behavior
In the context of Venus Inc, the there are numerous group dynamics that an individual can pin point being the challenge. At the outset, it is critical to analyze the work groups primarily composed by the employees as a major source of divisions in the company. Group level analysis in organization behavior dwells on the conflicts, satisfaction and motivation of the groups (Handy 1993, p.19).
All organizations have groups that allow them to achieve their goals and as such, group dynamics are present. The implication of inability to resolve group tensions and hostilities in Venus Inc seems to the major cause of the perceived divisions among employees.
As Ryan pointed out, the divisions within the company results from the reluctance of the managers to resolve issues surrounding the motivation and heightened by the constant disagreements by the organization’s departmental heads. Besides, lack of a clear strategy to remunerate the employees has resulted to innumerable challenges where employees fulfill their roles without enthusiasm.
Group dynamics require the comprehension of the fact that different members of the work groups belong to different stages of maturity. In Venus Inc, only the sales department workers seem to have achieved the maturity phase. Maturity phase demands that a group should be in a position to execute and perform their duties professionally without allowing emotions to dictate their course of action.
This is apparent in the company since the workers have been able to perform notwithstanding the reluctance shown by other work groups. Ryan’s department has been the major department that has not recorded decreased performance and as such, it has played a significant role of propelling the performance of the organization.
The rest of the groups seem to suffer from individualism and allow their feelings to overlook the importance of working together in the organization to achieve the goals of the organization (Handy 1993, p.20). To that end, the groups are yet to get to the maturity phase and development strategies should focus on the ability of the organization to have the maturity of the groups.
At this level of group analysis in organizational behavior, there should be clear-cut roles for every group to enhance the required cohesiveness within the organization. Teamwork and collectiveness should inspire the work groups of the organization with the aim inspiring improved performance.
Individual Level Analysis of the organization
Apparently, individual analysis of an organization refers to various aspects of an organization that are central to specific individual (Black 2003, p. 71) Such aspects as motivation, task performance, perception, ethical standpoints, learning as well as satisfaction are just a few aspects of individual level analysis of organization behavior. In this case, leadership style that an organization assumes is important and allows the employees to become motivated in their duties.
Venus Inc has an authoritative style of leadership that has severed the ability of the employees to learn during their task performance. In fact, authoritative leadership has diminished impacts in boosting the performance of any organization as the employees begin to feel alienated. Tooksoon & Mudor (2011, p. 47) say that authoritative leadership rarely takes into consideration that employees needs support as they fulfill their duties which leads to improved performance and ultimately, to increased customer and job satisfaction.
It is important for the managers to understand that authoritarian management style demoralizes the employees and has been a cause for decreased job productivity and performance. Ryan and Kimberly have proved to be authoritarian managers who expect performance due to their assertiveness and decisiveness. This has consequently resulted to poor performance due to decreased participation by employees in making important decisions regarding Venus Inc.
Further, it is critical to note that majority of the employees receive motivation from the leadership style as well as remuneration and appreciation of their performance (Tooksoon & Mudor 2011, p. 47).
To that end, Venus Inc has failed to come up with a strategy to remunerate their employees leading to decreased performance of the organization as their motivation has lowered substantially. This implies that an organization should be able to appreciate positive performance and show recognition of individuals with outstanding performance.
Recommendations
Upon the analysis of the organization behavior in Venus Inc, it is important for the management of the company to device and design a strategy that will lead to improved performance and enriched organization behavior. The strategy ought to guide the human interactions within the organizations and improve the organization’s tendency of decreased performance.
At the outset, the organization should be in a position to form a coherent organizational culture in which all employees will have shared values and beliefs. This will lead to a unique identity of the organization, which in turn will give the organization a competitive edge over its rivals (Buchanan & Huczynski 2010, p. 67). Besides, Venus Inc should enhance the cohesiveness of the organization by dealing with sub cultures that are apparent within the organization.
Second, it is important for Venus Inc. to change its organization structure to enhance superior performance of the company since it is clear that the current bureaucratic structure has led to top down communication, which makes employees to feel alienated.
To that end, the management team should assume a contingency or an instructional model that seem responsive to the participative needs of the employees. In fact, contingency approach to organizational structure requires that the management to resolve issues as they emerge rather than anticipating issues.
Further, the organization should be able to comprehend the group dynamics that are typical of conflicts and divisions among the work groups. Venus Inc should enhance its ability to address the sources of conflicts within the groups by changing their mentality to coincide with organizations needs and encouraging members to work in teams. This will remove the individualism witnessed in the organization.
It is also important to adopt appropriate leadership style in the organization to avoid the risk of demoralizing the employees, which in turn may lead to lowered enthusiasm and ultimately, the performance of the organization.
Transformational and supportive leadership styles assist employees to learn and are typical of support and encouragement (Black 2003, p. 91). Finally, Venus Inc ought to devise a strategy of remuneration of employees to avert the risk of dissatisfaction and decreased motivation. It should introduce bonuses for superior performance and appreciate individuals who post exceptional performance.
References
Black, R 2003, Organizational Culture: Creating the Influence Needed for Strategic Success, Oxford University Press, London UK.
Buchanan, D & Huczynski, A 2010, Organizational Behaviour, Prentice Hall, London.
Handy, C 1993, Understanding Organizations, Oxford University Press, London.
Jex, S & Britt, T 2008, Organizational Psychology, A Scientist-Practitioner Approach, John Wiley & Sons, Boston, Massachusetts.
McKenna, F 2000, Business Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Psychology Press, New York.
Tooksoon, P & Mudor, H 2011, “Conceptual Framework on the Relationship between Human Resource Management Practices, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover,” Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, vol. 2 no. 2, pp. 41-49.
Directorial behaviour is the study that investigates the blow on persons and groups behaviour in companies undergoing change. This is very important because the resulting knowledge is used to improve the effectiveness of an organization during change (Martin, 2010). Organizational change on the other hand, is the modification in the ranks in an organization.
Change is inevitable since organizations operate on open systems which interacting with the dynamic external environment. In the following paragraphs, the themes and statements in the “Eight Stages” in Kotter’s book “Leading Change” will be compared and contrasted with specific concepts discussed in the Ivancevich textbook.
Stage 1: Establishing a Sense of Urgency
Kotter speculates that for change to occur, 76% of a company’s population needs to embrace change for it to happen. If the whole company is convinced about the need for change, the easier it will be to implement it (Kotter, 1996).
One way of creating a sense of agency, is having an honest and convincing dialogues; especially on the market trends and competition activities. The big idea here is that if many employees are involved in the change, the urgency to implement will be fuelled by the employees themselves.
Likewise, Ivancevich points out that motivating the employees is important to initiate change. This is because if some employees are motivated, they are bound to motivate their mates (Ivancevich, 2010). When employees talk about the impending change, they will be actually be promoting it.
A proper channel should be chosen for communicating matters related to the impending change. This will make sure that all aspects of the change are understood and avoid the spread of wrong information in form of rumours. Wrong information has the potential of creating unrest and this should be avoided.
Step Two: Unite a Powerful alliance
In order to convince employees that change is crucial, a strong leadership and visible support from the directors should be established. A coalition of professionals from different disciplines should lead the change. Some of these leaders would be needed for their expertise, status and political influence (Kotter, 1996).
Once the leaders in the organization have been identified, they should be urged to be fully committed up to the emotional level. The coalition formed should then work as a team so as to balance out their weaknesses. This is very important since individuals from different disciplines are bound to disagree and have shortcomings.
However, Ivancevich points out the need of recognizing the impact of an informal organization in implementing change. There is need to use informal leaders to help initiate change, since formal organizations are usually resistant to change.
Communication is much widespread and free in an informal setting than in a formal one. This means that people will be aware of the change in a more casual way and easily adapt to it. Also, communication channels in a formal setting are slower and usually appear dictatorial. On the other hand, an informal way is more welcomed.
Step Three: Create a Vision for Change
The third step in effecting change, involves setting of a clear vision which can help everyone in the organization understand why and how the change is needed and implemented. The management must ensure that everybody in the organization understands everything regarding the impending change. People tend to accept directives as long as they understand them; therefore proper vision statement is vital for change (Kotter, 1996).
In this step, the values that are vital to the change are determined and a short summary that sets out the future of the organization is developed. Also, everyone in the organization should understand the methods needed to execute the vision created.
Ivancevich supports this stage since he emphasizes on the need to have a clearly set vision, mission and plan for change to be successful. This is important as people work best when they know what is expected of them.
Step Four: Converse the idea
After the mission has been set, it needs to be spread in a very influential way. Since there are usually many messages communicated daily in an organization, the vision of the change has to be communicated in a way that is bound to leave an impact. Therefore, the change vision should be stated powerfully and frequently.
It should also be embedded somewhere everybody in the corporation has a high chance of reading it (Kotter, 1996). During meetings, the change leaders should mention the vision or at any other suitable time. Additionally, the vision should be the basis of making the current decisions and solving the present problems.
By keeping the vision fresh on everyone’s minds; it will be a reminder of how to proceed with the current duties. Most importantly, the leaders should be the role model when it comes to adopting change. Ivancevich addresses this issue on his theme of communication.
Step Five: Removal of Resistance
Kotter’s fifth step in organizational change, points out to the need to remove opposition to transformation. If most of the employees have already embraced change, the few resisting should be eliminated for change to proceed smoothly.
It is important for the leaders to identify individuals who are embracing change and those who are not. Once they are identified, the leaders should do their best to convince them on the importance of change. If they are still resistance, they should be let go. Rewarding individuals embracing change can be used to encourage the resistant to follow suite.
Ivancevich outlines reasons of resisting change: certain employees usually see a change as a form of the bosses to benefit themselves. Others resist simply because there are uncertainties surrounding the whole issue of change. Therefore, due to fear and selfishness, they oppose change. Ivancevich also recommends that the individuals resisting change to be enlightened on the benefits of the change.
One of the differences between Ivancevich and Kotter is that Ivancevich recommends the use of force to ensure that change is implemented. Ivancevich therefore, partially supports this stage. However, both of them agree that resistance should be uprooted.
Step Six: Create Short-term Wins
Success is the best motivator, and therefore employees should be given a chance to celebrate every success in implementing change. Short-term goals in the change process should be set with the aim of achieving the greater change (Kotter, 1996). The goals that are reasonably achievable should be evaluated to see if everything is going according to the plan (Pitts, 2006).
For example, by observing sure-fire projects that will not receive any strong critics or expensive, leaders will be able to asses the success rate of the change. Also, they will be able to predict the speed of implementing rate and its efficiency in operation (Kotter, 1996). Finally they will be able to analyze the potential pros and cons of the intended change. If the early targets do not succeed, the entire change process can easily be shattered.
In comparison, Ivancevich states that employees like being rewarded for work well done. This is achieved if targets are well set and rewards, either in verbal form or promotions, are given to those contributing to change (Martin, 2010).
Step Seven: Capitalizing on the Change
Kotter reasons that a lot of change programmes are unsuccessful because triumph is announced prematurely. Quick wins are only the beginning of what needs to be done, consequently, after every win, it is wise to analyze what went right and what can be worked on as far as the next set targets are concerned.
To continue building on the momentum already achieved and to keep ideas fresh, new change agents and leaders in change coalition will be needed (Kotter, 1996). In support of this step, Ivancevich points to individuals who act as catalysts and assume the responsibility of managing change activities; they can be managers or employees.
Step Eight: Attaching the Changes in the Company’s Traditions
At last, to make any change solid, it should be a part of the company’s main business. Because company culture often dictates its activities, the values behind the change vision must be noticeable in the daily work. As a result, efforts to guarantee that the change is experienced in each and every aspect of the organization should be made.
This is bound to bring about change in the company’s culture (Kotter, 1996). Ivancevich describes culture as the manner things are done around a certain society. Therefore if change is incorporated in the company culture, it is likely to stick and be accepted as a norm.
References
Ivancevich, K. (2010). Organizational Behaviour and Management. Boston: Harvard.
Kotter, A. (1996). Leading Change. New York: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Martin, J. (2010). Business and Economics. New York: Macmillan.
Pitts, J. (2006). The Effects Of Managerial Communication and Justice Perceptions. Seattle: Yellowstone.
The issue of organizational behavior has been abundantly discussed in recent days. Following the rise of globalization and liberalization of markets, there has been wide spread of information across all corners of the globe. The forces of globalization have led to revolution in the nature and manner of managing private and government organizations.
However, undue pressure and competition has been mounted on the organizations to ensure quality and admirable image. Following the increase in competition in the corporate world, business organizations are bound to maintain high quality standards in their operations, services, and products (Miner 47). In regards to this scenario, the need to adopt Total Quality Management (TQM) has been raised.
Through the adoption of TQM, business organizations are able to attain higher levels of efficiency and productivity. Many researchers and scholars have indulged into the topic on organizational management and precisely on the issue of TQM. It has however been evident that there has been a high gap in knowledge in the field thus calling for further research.
The need to mobilize adequate information on the issues of organizational behavior and TQM has been inevitable (Ross and Perry 135). This research proposal will seek to mobilize adequate information on the issue of Total Quality Management as a key pillar in the running of business organizations.
Methods
With reference to the significance of the study, the methodology will be offered a high sense of attention. The study methodology will ensure adoption of effective and efficient research approaches as well as data collection.
By adopting efficient research approaches, effectiveness and authenticity of the research results will be attained. In relation to the descriptive nature of the topic, a qualitative research design would be the most suitable. This will comprise an intensive data or information search that will see the mobilization of sufficient inferences for addressing the research topic.
The study will entail the integration of responses from various participants as well as review of literature review. Qualitative research design will ensure that all aspects of the topic are adequately addressed.
A positivist philosophical position would be maintained across the study, whereby the ideas of previous scholars in the topic will be adopted. This would help in enhancing the credibility and acceptability of the research results (Kumar 121).
Following the availability of numerous scholarly materials on the topic, the study will primarily comprise of secondary data. This will entail and intensive literature review of books and journals on the topic of organizational behavior and more precisely on TQM. In order to ensure relevance of the collected information, the researcher will be focused on materials concerning TQM.
The various aspects of TQM will be reviewed. Regarding the materials to be adopted for the literature review, only resources ranging from 10 years to 1 year will be adopted. This will enhance the relevance of the materials in addressing modern issues in private organizations (Kumar 121).
Outcomes
A study by Samuel (76) indicated that organizational behavior is a vital element in the running of business organizations. In relation to the high competition faced by business organizations in recent days, there is every need to embrace admirable organizational behavior.
Kanji (103) indicated that each organization is bound to ensure that all practices and relations within and out of the organization are admirable to its members and the outside world. With this in mind, the issue of Total Quality Management comes into use. This entails the maintenance of high quality standards of all services, processes and products of the organization.
In order to excel in the currently competitive business world, Total Quality Management can not be exempted from organizational management. In order to adequately execute Total Quality Management, the management should be conscious of all aspects entailing goals, vision, values and philosophy (Samuel 76). These are special aspects of organizational behavior which carry high weight in the execution of Total Quality Management.
The concept of Total Quality Management has also been noted to have great correlation with organizational culture. As observed by Ross and Perry (135), Total Quality Management determines the nature of group dynamics, communication and leadership to be adopted. In order to arrive at a very competitive organization, the issues of TQM and culture should be considered.
Hakes (82) depicted that successful organizations have a high regard on TQM and organizational culture. This can however not be attained without embracing admirable organizational behavior, visions, goals, communication and leaderships.
The creation and management of business organizations has been identified to depend adequately on the pillars of organizational behavior and more precisely TQM. As observed by Harris and Hartman (165), successful organizations ensure acceptable organizational behaviors through maintenance of TQM. Through execution of TQM, the working environment as well as the efficiency of the organization is boosted.
From another perspective, business organizations should integrate TQM into human resources policies to ensure that employees are fully motivated (Miner 47). This will in turn guarantee high quality, efficiency and productivity of the organization.
Works Cited
Hakes, Chris. Total Quality Management: The Key to Business Improvement: A Pera International Executive Briefing. London: Prentice Hall, 2004. Print.
Harris, Jeff and Hartman, Sandra. Organizational Behavior. New York: Prentice Hall, 2001. Print.
Kanji, Gopal. Total Quality Management: Proceedings of the First World Congress. New York: Routldge, 2005. Print.
Kumar, Ranjit. Research Methodology: A Step-By-Step Guide for Beginners. London: Prentice Hall, 2001. Print.
Miner, John. Organizational Behavior: From Theory to Practice. New Jersey: McGraw Hill Press, 2007. Print.
Ross, Joel and Perry, Susan. Total Quality Management: Text, Cases, and Readings. New Jersey: McGraw Hill Press, 2009. Print.
Samuel, Anand. Total Quality Management. New York: Wiley & Sons Press, 2004. Print.
Competition in the service industry led to the development of the call centre strategy to promote sales for companies. Product companies also assumed the use of call centres as a tool to market their products and keep close contact with potential customers. The results of this strategy include the development of refined call centre staff members and an increase in the competitiveness of the companies that have call centres.
It follows that management functions inside these companies assume resource management practices that are not only oppressive to the workers, but also quite ineffective in motivating the employees. Management functions use electronic surveillance as a motivational tool to compel workers to increase their performance.
While the idea behind electronic surveillance is plausible, the psychological effects that follow this method of employee monitoring are adverse. Electronic surveillance causes the development of emotional labour in employees. The emotional labour attached to working in the call centres should be considered by management functions in the concerned companies.
Useful quotes
Taylor and Bain say that “…electronic surveillance has rendered workers powerless” (Taylor & Bain, 1999, p. 102). This quote echoes the sentiments of many workers in call centres, who undergo high pressure from the electronic devices monitoring their daily performance.
The awareness that the management is constantly listening and watching over the employees makes it difficult for the employees to express themselves and it erodes of the development inter-employee relationships.
Researchers have refrained from investigating the effects of electronic surveillance in the past, but the study in question has revealed that employees in call centres require less intrusive surveillance tools to maintain their motivation to achieve their highest competence levels. “…electronic surveillance creates total managerial control” (Taylor & Bain, 1999, p. 102).
Managers in different companies use customer satisfaction as a tool to measure the performance of employees in call centres. This kind of pressure leads to the development of emotional labour for the employees, and it may have negative effects to their performance. In some cases, the pressure may lead to resistance from the employees (Taylor & Bain, 1999, p. 111).
Characteristics of Taylorist system of organization
Taylorism is a management system that allows companies to maximise profits through ultimate exploitation of resources. The system looks into ensuring that employees handle specific tasks in the workflow; thus, limiting the need for training and development to acquire new skills.
The taylorist system is characterised by stagnation among employees in one working area because the management seldom allows employees to change their working stations. In most cases, the employer designs the workplace strategically to ensure employees have limited need to move around as they work. As revealed in the case study in question, the call centres are good examples of the taylorist system in practice.
The management functions in the call centres develop working areas where employees are isolated from each other to reduce time wastage through inter-employee communication during working hours. The taylorist system breaks down tasks into the simplest form to ensure that employees handle simple tasks (Babbit 2013).
For instance, the telephone operators in call centres have specific tasks, which include receiving and making calls, and retrieving information from computers. Other employees are delegated with the task of recording and organising customer information. Simplicity in the workflow is a defining characteristic of the taylorist system. The system is also characterised by strict monitoring of employees and other resources in companies.
The management employs strict surveillance tools like CCTVs and microphones to monitor the behaviour of the human assets. The main aim of the strict rules is to ensure the human resources always offer their highest competence levels. The taylorist system focuses on increasing the outputs from business processes with minimal consideration of employee satisfaction at work.
Strengths of the system
The taylorist system results to higher outputs for a company. The essence of doing business is to increase profits; hence, the system is one of the most viable management models. It influences the effective management of both the material and human resources in a company.
The system also eliminates the need for human resource management functions to develop training and development programs for employees because their tasks are clearly communicated and quite simply defined. Promotion opportunities are limited in the system; hence, most employees attain high levels of skills in handling their tasks (Scientific Management 2014).
The system gives the management the power to control employees, although it may lead to high rates of turnover among the human resources.
The system also simplifies work, meaning that in case an employee quits his job it would be easy to replace him or her with a new employee because they only need training in specific areas. The system develops a competent workforce with high levels of performance because they are forced to portray their best skills.
Consequences of the system for workers
The taylorist system leads to the development of pressure on the employees. The Taylorist system uses the concept of worker soldiering, which involves monitoring employees’ time and performance. This method of surveillance exerts psychological pressure on human assets (Backer 1998). The employees are forced to deliver higher outputs, and the strict surveillance methods used may lead to emotional labour.
For instance, in the call centres, electronic surveillance causes emotional labour for the employees because not only do they have to hide their feelings from the customers on the telephone, but they also have to hide their feelings from the employers (Taylor & Bain, 1999, p. 107). The management demands that they should always be busy on the phone; hence, they have no time to engage in any social activities or rest while at work.
The isolation designs in the system also lead to the development of task forces with limited interpersonal relationships. This lack of inter-employee relationships could lead to low cohesion between the employees when handling projects in teams. The taylorist system looks to motivate employees to work hard in their stations, but it may result to the erosion of motivation among the employees.
When the management function becomes too harsh in handling the employees, they may resist the rules individually or in groups. The system also leads to many divisions of work to increase effectiveness in managing different tasks. Employees may get frustrated with the system because it does not open opportunities for promotions and personal career development.
The management treats the employees as machines rather than human assets; thus, it may lead to high turnover rates. The taylorist system should be applied with caution in companies because it can lead to the opposite of its expected results. Employee motivation and monitoring should be integrated carefully for the realization of positive effects in their performance.
Taylor, P. & Bain, P. 1999, ‘‘An assembly line in the head’: work and employee relations in the call centre’, Industrial Relations Journal, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 101-117.
Paul Levy describes the team of Nut Island sewage treatment plant as that of “every manager’s dream” created through proper recruitment practices (51). The author defines the Nut Island Effect as a “destructive organizational dynamic” of a “vicious spiral” defined by mutual misunderstandings between the team and the managerial staff (Levy 52). The team’s efficiency and self-management have caused their senior managers to take these for granted.
As a result, the managers began to ignore the team’s suggestions, warnings, and troubles. Consequently, the team grew more consolidated, but at the same time more distant from the managerial staff as the misunderstandings progressed.
The team believed that the managers are unable to assist or advise them while the managers thought that the lack of complaints mean that no intervention is needed. Levy points out that the complications connected to this kind of mismanagement are not necessarily immediately apparent; yet, they are inescapable (52).
Naturally, both parties would be held responsible for the problem. The following implications of the problem could be taken into account nowadays. Self-management in teams has proved to increase the team and, eventually, the organization’s productivity (Millikin, Hom and Manz 697).
Therefore, the core problem within the Nut Island effect (the isolation of the team) needs to be avoided without suppressing the team’s initiative. Communication between the managers and the employees needs to be created (Riggio and Reichard 178). Levy suggests his strategy of achieving this effect that includes several stages of mutual integration of the managerial staff, team, and other organizational bodies.
The Alpha Chip Success
The success of ALPHA Chip appears to be the result of the ALPHA team’s work and team management. As Katz points out, the astonishing results the team has achieved are the consequences of numerous factors, but the characteristics of the team have been most important.
Those included the motivation of the groups that had “lost”, the qualities of the members (goal-oriented, reflection-oriented, hard-working, talented), and the unity and integrity of the team that was not a “collection of team-playing individuals – they were a collection of talented individual contributors willing to play together as a team” (Katz 145).
In fact, the behavior of this team reminds one of Raelin’s concept of leaderful practice when leadership is distributed across the team, and every of them is capable of participating in the management process (195-199).
Dobberpuhl’s method of “selling” the innovation seems to have developed as he realized that the sponsors wanted to see actual results and, most importantly, to be impressed. While clout does appear to be important in most aspects of business, the innovation stage seems to have particularly significant chances of overcoming this obstacle.
“Managing” Teams
The two presented stories show the examples of successful and unsuccessful team management. Apart from that, the examples are very different in nature. It is well-known that self-management is especially important for innovation and creativity workers similar to those in the second story (Mládková 179).
But is the same true for other kinds of workers? As Katz points out, it is characteristic of the situations similar to the ALPHA case to be originating from the team’s suggestions (147). In other cases, such a model can be unsuccessful. Therefore, the management of teams, especially when renegade activities are concerned, requires careful consideration of the risks and benefits. The problem depends on particular circumstances.
The Prism Chip Secret
It can be suggested that secretly keeping working on a project after it is canceled is extremely risky. Indeed, neither success nor the appreciation of the company’s management is guaranteed. It appears logical that such a decision also requires careful consideration of risks and potential advantages. I believe that honesty is the best strategy for team-managers relationships in most cases.
Works Cited
Katz, Ralph. “How a team at Digital Equipment designed the ‘Alpha’ chip.” The Human Side of Managing Technological Innovation. Ed. Ralph Katz. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. 137-148. Print.
Levy, Paul. “The Nut Island Effect: When Good Teams Go Wrong”. Harvard Business Review at Large (March 2001): 51-59. Print.
Millikin, John, Peter Hom, and Charles Manz. “Self-Management Competencies In Self-Managing Teams: Their Impact On Multi-Team System Productivity.” The Leadership Quarterly 21.5 (2010): 687-702. Elsevier BV. Web.
Mládková, Ludmila. “Knowledge Workers And The Principle Of 3S (Self-Management, Self-Organization, Self-Control)”. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 181 (2015): 178-184. Elsevier BV. Web.
Raelin, J. “From Leadership-As-Practice To Leaderful Practice”. Leadership 7.2 (2011): 195-211. SAGE Publications. Web.
Riggio, Ronald E., and Rebecca J. Reichard. “The Emotional And Social Intelligences Of Effective Leadership.” Journal of Managerial Psychology 23.2 (2008): 169-185. Emerald. Web.