Category: Old Testament

Introduction

A comparative study of the ancient Near Eastern cultures reveals that most of the traditions that the Israelites adhered to were similar to those of their neighbors. John Waltons book is dedicated to an in-depth analysis of some of the important traditions, rituals, and beliefs that were held by these communities. In the end, it shows that an investigation of the cultures that surrounded the Israelite community can enable one to understand the Bible better.

Chapter one: History and Methods

Walton begins by looking at how the study of Assyrian culture impacted the understanding of the Old Testament. He examines the assertions of the scholars of the time, whose opinions were divergent regarding whether or not the Old Testament has its roots in a pagan culture. He gives the claim of Delitzsch as an example. He made the suggestion that the literature contained in the Bible was dependent on and resembled that which belonged to the pagan cultures. This assertion was met with a lot of opposition from the Assyriologists who were mostly Christians at the time. Later, however, these scientists embraced the secular stance of critical scholarship, and Delitzsch, once criticized for his thoughts, was now considered a trailblazer in comparative studies.

This, in turn, led to the division of scholars between the confessional Apologetics who used Assyriology to validate biblical assertions and the critics who thought that the Bible was only a mirror of what was presented in surrounding pagan literature and could not, therefore, be taken as an acceptable theological reference. In fact, Delitzschs teachings led to an ideology known as Pan-Babylonianism, which taught that all myths and biblical scriptures were merely versions of Babylonian mythology.

The negative consequence of this divide was that it distracted these scholars from the benefits of a comparative study which is the branch of cultural study that allows the researcher to explore the broader culture at the varied places or time so that he/she can learn facts from one to use in the understanding of another. This is important because all language is inextricably linked to the culture in which it is written, and to understand the Bible entirely, then a scholar needs to understand the culture of the time in which it has its roots. A comparative study is also useful in other spheres of theological studies, e.g. it allows students of the Bible to go beyond the mere contrast of the biblical religion with other faiths to the functional level of those differences and similarities.

Chapter Two: Comparative studies, scholarship, and theology

This chapter looks at how comparative studies revolutionized and challenged different scholarship camps. For the critical scholars, it contested the concept of evolution in literature which provided that older forms of literature evolved from primitive forms to become more sophisticated with time. This theory was challenged when a comparative study revealed the presence of sophisticated literature at earlier times. It is a comparative study that also overturned the critical assertion that older civilizations were not sophisticated for example, regarding literacy.

There is still resistance among critical circles on various bases. Among them are those who believe that the Bible is a single interpretative unit which does not require the intrusion of other studies to understand, another asserts that culture is singular and unique and is by its very nature incomparable while yet another is adamant that there are no actual events behind the Bible to reconstruct.

To the confessional scholars, a comparative study has also proved to be a bitter pill to swallow because it attempts to explain the biblical text which most of them hold sacred and unimpeachable. It revealed countless other literature written at the same time as the Old Testament and in some cases covering the same events, which detracted from the claims that the biblical narrative had been inspired.

Worse still, some literature by the other ancient near eastern writers predated that of the Bible. Confessional scholars are, therefore, also reticent in embracing comparative studies because the similarities that it reveals between the Bible and other literature threatens its credibility and also, some of them believe that the biblical text alone is all that is needed for interpretation. Be that as it may, comparative studies of ancient near eastern culture are considered very useful in proving some biblical information.

Chapter Three: Literature of the Ancient Near East

Walton provides an extensive summary of some of the ancient near eastern literature from various cultures. He begins with an analysis of their myths and he notes that the reality or not of a myth is not necessary; rather, the insight that it provides into the worldview of the people who consider it to be true or false. Walton further looks at the stories presented in different texts written by various ancient cultures. He looks at epics, letters, hymns, ritual texts, royal inscriptions, etc. He lists fifteen genres of ancient near eastern literature and gives examples from different cultures.

From the examples, it is evident that some of the genres that are listed e.g. hymns, songs, epics, ritual texts, are also present in the Old Testament scriptures. Furthermore, the accounts presented in these texts, though numerous and varied, contain certain similarities. For example, in the Gilgamesh account, after the death of the protagonists friend, Gilgamesh goes out in search of immortality and comes into contact with a survivor of the great flood which closely resembles the biblical account of the vast flood in Noahs time. Another example is the birth legend of Sargon, which greatly resembles the biblical account of how Moses was placed in a basket and floated down a river to save his life. These accounts, therefore, reveal the importance of comparative study and how the understanding of the literature of one culture can be useful to the understanding of others produced at the same time.

Chapter Four: The Gods

In this chapter, Walton considers the gods of the ancient near eastern cultures and compares the understanding of their existence to that of Yahweh. He begins by asserting that these ancient cultures did not have a distinction between the natural and the spiritual as both these realms existed in parallel. This was the reason why they did not also have the concept of religion.

They considered the existence of a God to depend on his naming and function. Walton compares this practice with the biblical account of Moses and the burning bush where he asks Yahweh, what name should be used to refer to Him. This inquiry is explained by the tendency to use names and functions to conceptualize the existence of gods.

He also considered the presence of the gods within the cosmos. The Egyptian gods, for example, controlled some aspects of the cosmos even though they didnt create them. Yahweh, on the other hand, is considered to have created everything within the natural realm. In addition to this, he also occupies the place of ultimate power over these creations. Finally, he contrasts the polytheism that was evident in other cultures to the monotheism that was required of the Israelites. The other cultures did not have any conception of false religions and false gods, and this is why they could not consider the worship of other gods as being wrong. This is, however, contrasted to the Israelite religion which instructed that only Yahweh should be worshiped and that the worship of other gods was tantamount to idolatry.

Chapter Five: Temples and Rituals

The author considers the importance of temples within the ancient near eastern cultures. The use of the temple as the residence of the deity cuts across all cultures, and it is also exemplified in the biblical narratives of God dwelling among his people through his residence in the temple. In other cultures, the idol was considered to symbolize the presence of a god.

The construction of the idol and the ritual that surrounded this construction were all relevant in ensuring that God would descend from the heavenly to the natural realms. These processes are also evidenced in the Bible in the description of the prophets who were criticizing their neighbors culture of idol making. Among the temple-like structures that Walton discusses is the ziggurat which was a tall building that was constructed for the purpose of aiding the gods descent to the earth. Walton suggests that this is the building that is described in the biblical account of the Tower of Babel.

Further, the temple is a microcosm of the entire cosmos, and it contains various representations of the elements of the cosmos. The biblical Garden of Eden, i.e. the garden of God, is considered to be one such microcosm. Furthermore, the temple was also deemed to be the center from which the gods exercised their control, power, and order.

These benefits are echoed in the Bible by King Solomon when he was constructing the temple of God. About rituals, the other ancient cultures viewed them as an opportunity for humans to participate in maintaining order in the cosmos by providing sustenance for the God. Although these rituals were also present in the Israelite culture, the purpose of sacrifices was not to provide food but rather to give thanks.

Chapter Six: State and family religion

In all near eastern cultures, religion was not a personal endeavor but rather; it was a state or a family affair. Furthermore, the kings and priests played special roles in the worship of the deity. This is also reflected in the Israelite practice of worship. A distinction is, however, drawn in how the specific elements of worship were carried out. In the surrounding religions, worship was through caring for the needs of the idols, e.g. washing, clothing, and feeding them.

This is not the kind of care that was exhibited in Yahwism. Another contrast is also drawn where the worship of the idols was characterized by a lot of uncertainty because no one could claim to know what exactly their needs were. This uncertainty is not present in Israelite religion as their God was not as whimsical as those of their neighbors.

As a family endeavor, religion was mainly passed down through the ancestors. In Mesopotamia for example, religion was considered to be some sort of ancestral cult so that reference was also made to the gods of the forefathers. Parallels are drawn from the encounter that Abraham had with God and how he personalized his relationship with God and transmitted it to his descendants. As a state affair, the religion also demanded that the state officials participate actively in ensuring that the destinies of the gods are fulfilled.

Chapter Seven: Cosmic Geography

This chapter is mainly concerned with how the ancient cultures conceived the structure of the world around them. It is evident from the study that the worldview of the ancient cultures was greatly influenced by their ideology of linking existence with function. Mostly, a thing does not exist simply because it occupies space within the cosmos but it exists only if it has a function.

For example, they believed that the skies existed because they performed the function of holding up the waters above the earth. Ideally, the cosmos helped the gods to perform their duties. For instance, some cultures believed that the mountains were used to hold up the sky. Likewise, the sun was not just considered to disappear in the evenings but rather, it journeyed to the netherworlds where it would stay until it rose again the next day.

There are also similarities between these conceptions of the cosmos and the information that is presented in the Bible. For example, the people in Mesopotamia believed that the stars were engraved on the undersurface of the sky. This idea is also present in the book of Job where the stars are described as having been sealed or engraved. Also, their conceptions of the netherworld are similar in that most of them consider it to take the structure of a city. For example, in Mesopotamia, it is said to be a city with a sociopolitical structure like any other.

Chapter Eight: Cosmology and Cosmogony

In this chapter, the author still pursues the function-oriented conception of existence. He opines that this is the only way that one can understand the creation of stories. This theme is identified within the creation story in the bible. Moreover, there is no narrative of any of the ancient cultures which provide for things. The context in all the narratives alludes to a functional orientation of creation. Walton also looks at the precosmic condition in the narratives of the near eastern cultures which reveal that the opposite of the cosmos is chaos.

This is considered to be the state that the earth was in before its constituent elements were formed. The precosmic situation in these cultures is therefore not a place of abstraction. A keen interpretation of the Bible also supports this idea. The earth is described as being formless and empty at the time of creation. Using the knowledge of the Near Eastern cultures, this statement should be taken to mean that the earth was devoid of function and purpose.

Separation and naming are also considered to be important sub-processes of the overall process of coming into existence. In the Bible, disengagement and naming are, likewise, central to the way in which God created the earth and the things in it. The author revisits the significance of the temple to the cosmos. The belief of the temple being a microcosm of the ordered cosmos is important because it is the place of rest of the deity from where He exercises control and power over the cosmos.

Chapter Nine: Understanding the past

Human Origins and Role

In the comparison of other cultures with that of the Israelite community, the study of their human origins stories reveals that it is only the biblical account that provides for progenitors of the human race. All the other cultures viewed the creation of humankind as a collective process. These stories also differ in what they consider is the ingredients that make up the human being. In some, the man was made from the parts of an enemy deity, i.e. his flesh and blood while in others, he is molded from clay. The Egyptian and Israelite accounts provide that he has the breath of the deity. The biblical account is, however, unique in that man is connected to the deity through the role that he is given.

In addition to this, the ancient cultures also acknowledged the division of the human being into various parts although there is not much congruence in the numbers or forms of these parts. Even theologians are not decided on whether the human being is divided into the body, soul, and spirit or the body/soul and spirit. In Mesopotamia, the human being was divided into the human ghost, which came from the flesh of the deity that created him and the intellect, which came from the deitys blood. Despite these differences, all the cultures agree on the idea that man is formed in the image of God and is placed on the earth to carry out specific roles. These roles are what bind the human race together in service to the gods.

Chapter Ten: Understanding the past

Historiography

This is a study of the way that the ancient cultures recorded the history of their people. Walton asserts that to understand the history of these cultures, it is important to identify their worldview because this impacts heavily on the way that a historian records events. The ancient cultures gave preeminence to the role of the deity in daily occurrences. Their records of historical events were, therefore, replete with transcendental elements. After the enlightenment period, however, this system of recording history was rejected, and the only account that was considered acceptable was that which would be proved by empirical evidence.

The significance also informed the ancient view of history that they attached to it and the way that they viewed time. For example, whereas the modern conception of time is linear, theirs was filled with themes of recurrence and endurance. Also, they viewed the knowledge of history as an opportunity to get social coherence. Their interest, therefore, was not in its accuracy but rather, what they could gather and learn from it. In this way, they made allowance for human error. Furthermore, their focus was on the outcomes or goals that the historical narratives were aimed at and not the event themselves. Therefore, their narratives have a teleological agenda which is the result of the divine purpose that is embedded in a particular account.

Chapter Eleven: Encountering the Present

Guidance for life  Divinations and omens

There was no distinguishing between the spiritual and natural realm in ancient near eastern cultures. Their daily activities were naturally infused with activities from the heavenly realms. Among these spiritual influences were prophecies, which could either be inspired or deductive. Many inspired prophesies came in the form of dreams, and this is also seen in numerous accounts of the Bible where God used the medium of dreams to communicate with people like Joseph and Jacob. In Israel however, the validity of the interpretation of a dream was only considered to be valid if God was involved in it. In this regard, the stories of Joseph and Daniel are instructive. The other surrounding cultures, however, had recorded systems of how specific dreams were to be interpreted.

Although the Israelite culture allowed for inspired divination, deductive divination was forbidden. Deductive divination was also considered to derive from the divine, but it would be presented on things that could be seen e.g. on the entrails of a dead animal. Most of the other communities in the ancient near eastern region practiced this kind of divination. The distinction between divination and omens was that divination was meant to provide wisdom while omens contained power and in most cases, the thread that connected an individual to the portended evil of an omen had to be cut for this power to be released. On most occasions, they took the form of warnings issued by gods thus making them more harmful. Just like prophecies, they could also be organized and recorded for future use.

Chapter Twelve: Encountering the present

Context of life- Cities and Kingship

In this chapter, the author looks at how the ancient cultures viewed the cities- the symbols of urbanization. In Mesopotamia and Egypt for example, the cities were considered as having been created for and belonging to the gods. Furthermore, the government and all political power were exercised through the city-state. In fact, when power descended from the gods, it was first received in the city. National states were considered to be an extension of the cities. Most importantly, cities had a close relationship with the temples and the gods.

The patron deity of a city was believed to have been the one that constructed the city. More specifically, in some cultures, temples would only be located within a city. When contrasted with Israel, this idea is not wholly developed because they only had one temple but it is significant that the only temple that they had was found within the city of Jerusalem.

Walton also considers the significance of Kingship in these cultures. Although the king was considered to rule through divine sponsorship, it is only the biblical narrative that contains an agreement/covenant establishing the kings rule. Be that as it may, all the cultures agreed that the role of the king was to carry out the will of the deity and to exercise authority over his domain.

However, in the other surrounding cultures, the king was almost always considered to belong to the spiritual realm whereas, in the Israelite conception, he was firmly placed in the natural realm and was entirely human. Also, in the other cultures there were Kings over some of the gods while in Israel, there was no room for such an idea as Yahweh was considered to be the only God.

Chapter Thirteen: Encountering the present

Guidelines for life  Law and Wisdom

This chapter looks at the laws and codes that ordered the way of life of the people in the ancient world. A study of the available literature reveals that some of these cultures did not have the law as it is understood in the modern society i.e. written regulations that guided ones behavior. Instead, they were supposed to conform to previous decisions that had been made in the administration of justice and which were considered to be just. Instead of the modern conception of justice as that which adheres to the law, they considered as just that which adhered to tradition.

Comparing this with the Pentateuch, it is evident that the structure that the biblical laws take is widely divergent from that which is presented in the treatises of the ancient cultures of that time. Only a few of its records can be characterized as the wise verdicts which formed a bulk of the legal literature in the other cultures. In Israel, the law mostly consisted of stipulations that were derived from the covenant with God whereas, in the neighboring cultures, these treatises were based on jurisprudence.

In these cultures, therefore, the king was not a law-giver but rather, he was expounding his judicial wisdom by the decisions that he made. Examinations of the documents that contain the words of wisdom also show that the common theme of divine retribution was present in all the cultures. The difference, however, is that in the Israelite community, wisdom was considered to derive from God.

Chapter Fourteen: Pondering the future on Earth and after Death

On an individual level, the hope for the future was usually represented by making conquests on the earth or siring the next generation so that ones lineage would not die out. On a national level, very few cultures believed in a better life after the present in the sense of a utopian dream. Most of them merely believed in perseverance until a difficult situation was over.

Israel on the other hand, constantly lived with the hope of a new world under the promised Messiah. In their conception of the afterlife, Egyptians believed that death was a threat to the unity of the body which could be surmounted by the means of certain rituals. The mummification process was, therefore, designed to achieve this reintegration of the interior community. In Mesopotamia, there was a community of the dead where the ghost traveled to but if the body was not buried, then the ghost would not find this community and would be restless forever.

In the ancient cultures, the living maintained contact with the dead through taking care of them e.g. by pouring libations. Other forms of contact were also sought after through necromancers when the life needed information about the future. In the Bible, such contact is cast in a negative light and is discouraged. However, several texts indicate that even the Israelites acknowledged the potency of such activities and occasionally engaged in them. Finally, with regards to punishment for acts committed in this life, the ancient cultures did not believe that the netherworld was a place of punishment but rather, a place of communion with their ancestors. In contrast, the Israelites linked ones felicity in the afterlife to their adherence with the covenant.

Postscript

In the last chapter, Walton defends his decision to look into the ancient near eastern cultures by alluding to the insights that have been gleaned from the study. Of importance are the similarities that have been discovered between the culture of the ancient eastern communities and the Israelite community. Where there has been a divergence in practices and beliefs, he has attributed this to the difference in the environment.

He also states that his intention was not to enable the reader to enter the mind of a person that existed in the ancient near eastern region, but rather, to avail them with the numerous insights that are opened by understanding the cognitive environment of the people that one is studying. A cognitive environment cannot be borrowed or mimicked, but rather it is shaped by a particular culture by forces that are carried from one generation to the next.

It is this factor that brings about the differences in Israels narratives and those of its neighbors. For example, its epistemology is shaped by the belief that God had spoken to them. With regards to anthropology, they believed that their human dignity was derived from the relationship that they had with God by having been created in his image. Their historiography was centered on the faithfulness of God. On the whole, therefore, the intrusion of God into their cognitive environment is what brings out the salient differences between their narratives and those of other ancient near eastern cultures.

Introduction

The expansion of our knowledge of the culture of the Ancient Near East, which became possible as a result of archaeological discoveries, has opened up new perspectives for the study of the Old Testament. In these discoveries, humanity was able to touch the already lost literary heritage of the great civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Siro-Palestine, Anatolia.

Nothing is surprising because the ancient Jewish writers of the Bible could be familiar with the literature of the peoples around them. The Scripture itself testifies to constant living contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamia, and the influence of the traditions of the peoples of Canaan is determined by linguistic proximity. The similarity of several biblical texts with literary monuments of the Middle East raises the question of understanding the inspiration of the Bible. However, a comparative analysis of texts that are close to each other can help identify those deep meanings of the biblical text that allow us to talk about it as a divinely inspired Scripture.

The similarity itself begins from the very first biblical lines. According to the Book of Genesis, the initial history of the world and humanity immediately refers us to ancient Near Eastern myths and legends. An old reader or listener of biblical texts could not but know and compare the stories of Genesis with the ancient legends about the creation of the world and man in the Babylonian poem Enuma Elish. About the flood  in the Sumerian mythology and the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh.

The Creation of the World in the Book of Genesis and the Story of Enuma Elish

Enuma Elish is imbued with deep philosophy and allows you to see through the prism of time the perception of the inhabitants of Babylonia and the neighboring kingdom of Assyria. This work served as a source for Jewish authors who wrote the Old Testament Book of Genesis. The worlds creation in both the Bible and the Enuma Elish are very similar: the book of Genesis describes the design of the Jewish people by God; the Enuma Elish talks about the origin of people and the foundation of Babylon under the leadership of Marduk. In each text, there is a story about how the cosmos and man were created (David, 2020). Each story begins with a disordered abyss, describing the water chaos and primordial darkness that once filled the universe. Then light separates from twilight (the day from night), then the creation of celestial bodies takes place, and then a person appears.

The Flood in Genesis and in The Epic of Gilgamesh

The epic of Gilgamesh is indeed similar to the Biblical plot, but there are exceptions. For example, the Book of Genesis says that the journey on the Ark lasted about one year. The Sumerian epic says that the trip lasted only six days. However, if we consider that God plunged the passengers of the Ark into a deep sleep, they will only remember the time when they were awake (Gerda, 2020). The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Bible are so close about the great flood, lies in the fact that there was a flood. It is narrated not only in the Epic of Gilgamesh but also in many other works. The difference is that the Epic was transmitted orally from the survivors of the Ark. This retelling of the legend is subject to the accuracy of memorization and interpretation. The Bible was written by people in agreement with God, directly the Creator of the Flood.

Babylon in the Book of Genesis and the Confusion of Languages.

The story of Babylon and the Confusion of Languages is a parable filled with symbolism: a departure from God (from the East), an attempt to build a civilization without God, and as a result  the separation of peoples (Jonathan, 2017). Humanity, united by a single language, risked dying at the very dawn of its history. Perhaps God, who knows both the past and the future, saw that if the city is built, then human civilization will perish. The mixing of languages was an act of salvation of humanity, according to God.

Moses and Sargon the Great

There is an opinion that the image of Moses became a modified version of Sargon of Akkad. The biblical figure of Moses and the figure of Sargon the Great have suspiciously similar origin stories about how their mothers sent their sons in a reed basket to swim on the river as children. It seems more logical that took the level of Sargon from Jewish history than vice versa. This fact comes from some evidence that the Old Testament existed long before the Assyrian text from which took the story of Sargon was taken. Scientists do not have enough facts, but this theory sometimes pops up in the scientific space.

Conclusion

For the biblical authors, Yahweh is the god of the union since he allied with the patriarchs, the sons of Israel, King David, and the Jewish monarchy. According to tradition, Yahweh first establishes his alliance with the patriarchs, making him the god of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Among the polytheistic cultural background, Yahweh is the god protecting the Israelites, the tribal protector. In turn, they recognize his authority and acknowledge his sovereignty. It is essential to understand the Old Testament because it contains many moral values and the history of the Jewish people in addition to the Holy Scriptures.

References

David, L. (2020). Creation Stories of the Ancient Near East. Bible and Spade, 5(1), 77-89.

Gerda, D.V. (2020). Suffering in the Epic of Gilgamesh Epic. Old Testament Essays, 33(3), 609-705.

Jonathan, G. (2017). The Double Etymology of Babel in Genesis 11. Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 129(3), 362-375.

Abstract

The purpose of the paper is to offer a set of applicable recommendations regarding the National Security Council (NSC) membership and operations based on the examination of the Old Testament kings advisors. The Scripture offers a number of invaluable lessons related to political leadership and a rulers need for council, in particular. The Bible supports the idea of a limited government, justifying it by point at God as the ultimate authority, which is why the advice from others can often be discredited. Any leader, Christian or not, can learn a lot from the Bible about serving the people and not abusing the power endowed upon them.

Introduction

Ever since Jesus Christ sacrificed himself to pay the ultimate price for the entirety of humanitys sins, Christians have wrestled with the notions surrounding the connection between Christian faith and statecraft. Even more complex is the linkage of the Scripture to Americas national security policy, which is why it is crucial for political scholars and theologists to examine the integration of a religious worldview into modern government structures. The Bible features a number of examples illustrating the impact advisors of the king can have, both positive and negative. Although the needs of a modern political environment differ greatly from those described in the Old Testament, 21st century policy advisors and leaders can discover a lot of insightful lessons in the Bible.

Advisors to the Old Testament Kings

From a modern standpoint, it seems self-explanatory that an effective and successful leader has to surround themselves with people, who are able to assist and direct them (Kvanvig, 2017). The Bible is filled with numerous examples of the sheer power advisors to kings possessed as a result of their coordinated efforts to influence the actions of rulers (for better or worse). According to Helge S. Kvanvig (2017), the Scripture features a number of such advisors responsible for administering different sectors of the society and being the consultants of the king in cases where the king was in need of special counsel (p. 688).

The Old Testament demonstrates the intricacy of the civil and political systems established in the kingdoms, which implied the creation of institutions fueled by bureaucracy. Although the number of high officials assisting King David was relatively low, the list of advisors in the kingdom of Solomon was not as sparse. Due to the expansion and growing prosperity of the kingdom, Solomons need for consultants increased significantly.

Another great point Kvanvig (2017) makes is that the Bible reveals that the rulers need for guidance and additional assistance did little to diminish his imminence. In fact, kings remained the only humans deemed worthy enough to communicate with the divine, thus securing their status as special kinds of individuals. Kvanvig (2017) notes that the text Creation of Humankind and the King best illustrates that rulers were created separately from ordinary people, which gave the kings access to God. Thus, the modern notion that everybody is created equal is challenged by the Scripture in terms of the set of exceptional abilities rulers are endowed with.

The Bible is filled with a variety of examples demonstrating that a unique position a ruler holds requires the consultancy and assistance of trusted advisors. Such aides and confidants contribute to the stability of a kings rule even though their influence may be destructive (just as the lack of it).

The Scripture emphasizes the flaws of kings such as David and Solomon, rulers powerful and influential enough to appear as God (Rawat, 2018). However, despite their special status in the eyes of the Lord, Solomon and David were just human beings, who had imperfections (Rawat, 2018). Thus, they could not rule alone and required the assistance of councilors or mentors. The great empire King Solomon managed to establish could not prosper and grow without the council the King often received, including the advice of Zabud, Ahishar, Adoniram, and many others (Friedman & Friedman, 2019). Despite numerous mistakes during the rule of King Solomon, Scripture illustrates that the King could always rely on his advisors (Friedman & Friedman, 2019).

On the other hand, advisors may serve as a force of destruction and manipulation, which is why it is crucial for every ruler to choose their aides carefully (Knoppers, 1990). The Bible is full of examples demonstrating the importance of the king making the final decision, sometimes in opposition to the advice of the councilors. For instance, King Rehoboam asked for help from elders (or veterans), who were the beneficiaries of his fathers policies (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003). The elders told him to be a servant to the people, which might have appeared as an advice of righteousness at first, but was ultimately an attempt at manipulation (Knoppers, 1990).

Due to the competing interests at the time, wealthy landowners and farmers, who constituted the council of Solomon (King Rehoboams father), wanted to mold the new King to their own liking by advising him to feign service to the people in hopes of controlling them (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003). As a servant, King Rehoboam would most likely gain the respect of the people, which the elders could use to exploit them just as they had done under the previous administration. Had Rehoboam followed this advice, he would contribute to the growth of an existing system of abuse and manipulation (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003).

King Rehoboams story should teach Christians that choosing advisors is not a matter of two options: either one or the other. After listening to the elders, Rehoboam sought the council of the young men, who he grew up with (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003). Thus, these newcomers entered the Israeli political arena in the hopes of grabbing any chance of seizing power they could get their hands at (Knoppers, 1990). Unlike the majority of the elders, they had never known real hardship. As a result, they offered the King advice, which reflected their own privilege (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003). Newcomers thought they were entitled to certain rights due to their closeness with the King. Rehoboam spent his childhood and adolescence with these people, which is why they were successful in influencing him (Knoppers, 1990).

The King took the advice of his friends and spoke to the people harshly threatening to discipline them with scorpions (Baptist Center for Ethics, 2003). Therefore, the Israeli tribes rejected Rehoboam and accepted Jeroboam as their leader. The actions and decisions of King Rehoboam exemplify the threat of taking advice based on personal sympathies, and not rational thought or the guidance of the Lord. The ultimate lesson is that a wise Christian leader should never stray away from the pursuit of Gods will and always remain impartial when it comes to his or her advisors.

The Distinction between Old Testament Advisors and NSC Council

In order to gain an in-depth understanding of the ways a Christian worldview can be integrated into modern policy, it is crucial to contrast the advisors from the Scripture to modern national security counselors. Firstly, it is evident that the option to ask for advice from trusted officials remains open for politicians nowadays just as it was centuries ago. However, the 21^st century arena of domestic politics in the United States is much more bureaucratic, which means that the leader of the nation must ask for assistance from experts since the executive branchs power is limited (Lucius, 2013).

Solomon and David were authoritarian rulers, who did not worry much about the power being stripped away from them by other branches or their subjects themselves (Abramson, 2014). Secondly, the number of advisors has grown tremendously over the centuries separating the fall of King Solomons empire and the 2016 presidential election. The development of democracy as well as the rise of the United States as a global power led to the substantial growth of the council surrounding the leader. Modern political realities require domestic institutions to employ numerous experts, who provide advice to the President in a variety of fields (Bobroske, 2016). Another crucial distinction worth noting is that Old Testament advisors did not face the same challenges modern NSC members have to deal with, which is why it is important to acknowledge that the needs of a modern empire such as the U.S. are very different.

Advocating Change

Based on the analysis of the advisory bodies during the time of Old Testament kings rule, it is apparent that the U.S. national security policy can be benefitted greatly as a result of deliberate change. Although it is important to recognize the entirety of diverse issues political leaders of the 21^st century have to find solutions to, expertise the POTUS requires from their council should not justify the chaos in the NSC resulting from its fast expansion (Bobroske, 2016).

The number of NSC members should be strictly regulated and limited to no more than 200 (Bobroske, 2016). The Bible emphasizes that foolish kings took the advice of anyone, who offered it, even though the main source of wisdom and direction should lay in the Holy Spirit (Lucius, 2013). A Christian worldview dictates that the ultimate authority is the Lord, which is why relying on the assistance of others too much is a sign of drifting away from pursuing Gods will (Abramson, 2014).

Even in modern realities of religious freedom and separation of state and church, leaders can learn a lot from the stories of the Old Testament and limit the number of people, who have influence over their decisions and actions. In addition, adopting a Christian worldview can teach leaders to accept they are not the ultimate authority, which is why it is important to serve people, rather than try to exploit them (Abramson, 2014).

Conclusion

To sum it all up, the Old Testament is full of essential lessons that should be studied and integrated into modern policy. The Bible shows how influential advisors can be, which is why it is crucial to choose the council wisely and keep the number of members limited. Moreover, a good leader must stay impartial and recognize the ultimate authority is out of their hands. The aforementioned insights from the Scripture can help a leader to choose and operate their council in the most efficient way, while ensuring they do not abuse their power and continue to serve their people, and not manipulate them.

References

Abramson, P. R. (2014). The ways of a king: Legal and political ideas in the Bible. The Independent Review: A Journal of Political Economy, 19(1). Web.

Baptist Center for Ethics (2003). Looking at leadership: Lessons from 1 and 2 Kings. Web.

Bobroske, A. (2016). Reforming the National Security Council. American Action Forum. Web.

Friedman, H. H., & Friedman, L. W. (2019). What went wrong? Lessons in leadership from Solomon, the Bibles wisest and worst ruler. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 12(1). Web.

Knoppers, G. N. (1990). Rehoboam in chronicles: Villain or victim? Journal of Biblical Literature, 109(3), 423. Web.

Kvanvig, H. S. (2017). Who were the Advisers of the King? A Comparative Study of Royal Consultants in Mesopotamia and in Israel. In J. Baden, H. Namjan, & E. J. Tigchelaar (Eds.), Sibyls, scriptures, and scrolls (pp. 688-713). Brill.

Lucius, C. (2013). Religion and the national security strategy. Journal of Church and State, 55(1), pp. 50-70. Web.

Rawat, S. S. (2018). Who are the Kings advisors? Medium. Web.

The Hebrew Bible is similar to and unlike other ancient Near Eastern writings. Scribes compiled the manuscripts that constituted the Hebrew Bible. They have educated members of society, and many of them worked in the big institutions of society, such as palaces and temples. More essential subjects, like cosmology, rituals, and prayers, were also frequently dealt with by them (Rogerson, 2018). The Hebrew Bible makes a lot more sense when understanding the ancient Near Eastern traditions and concepts.

People have utilized formal agreements for brokerage and allocation of liabilities between two parties throughout ancient Middle Eastern history. To witness the stipulations and pledges of the parties to abide by them, the treaties invoked heavenly powers (Rogerson, 2018). And the actual documents were frequently stored in the temple as a reminder to the gods that they needed to be followed. The Hebrew Bible differs from the rest of the Bible in that God, rather than the monarch, forms a deal or agreement with his people (Rogerson, 2018). Similarly to the Near East traditions, Yahweh, allies with Israel, the subordinate people: I am making this covenant, sworn by an oath, not only with you who stand here with us today before the Lord our God but also with those who are not here with us today (Deut 29: 14-15) (Alter, 2018). When Moses tells the Israelites that they must love Jehovah with all of their heart, soul, mind, and might, we know that this valued love is an act of allegiance and obedience, not a subjective, emotional emotion: You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might (Deut 6: 5) (Alter, 2018). Here the parallels to the obedience to Egyptian and Syrian kings of the Near East can be seen.

Yahweh is frequently depicted in the Bible as having anthropomorphic features, i.e., a human shape and personality. Thus, the authors of the Bible wanted to distinguish him from the other gods, mentioned in the Neat East traditions. God should be envisioned by the readers as he can see, hear, and walk, and he possesses human emotions: Then Moses and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel went up, and they saw the God of Israel. Under his feet, there was something like a pavement of sapphire stone, like the very heaven for clearness. God did not lay his hand on the chief men of the people of Israel; also they beheld God, and they ate and drank (Exod 24: 9-11) (Alter, 2018). Yahweh also had a big temple to reside in, with slaves (priests) to look after his needs (sacrifices). All of this is consistent with most of the Near East.

Throughout certain circumstances in the Near East, the interaction between gods and humans, particularly the monarch, is quite similar to what we find in Israel. One of the most common parallels is that, like Yahweh, the deity of Zakkur (the ancient Syrian ruler), grants the king victory over his foes (Peled, 2019). Whenever Moses raised his hands, Israel was victorious (Exod 17.8-13) (Alter, 2018). Israelites believe in God as a fighter and that he intervenes on behalf of their ruler.

Another issue is that God picked the ritual practice and imbued it with a specific significance that was not implied previously. He used existing knowledge structures to mediate new information. The Babylonian religion, for example, contaminated the temples not with sin or uncleanliness of the people but with demons (Peled, 2019). These demons represented a menace to God and were required to be expelled from the temple once a year. The temple in Israel was cleaned from the peoples sin and uncleanness, not from the menacing presence of demons (Peled, 2019). In all situations, still, the evil is defeated and restored to its source.

The Old Testament and ancient Middle Eastern social organizations, and religious and cultural activities have many common topics. Some similarities between Israel and ancient Middle Eastern rituals and beliefs imply that they may have shared a common ancestor (Rogerson, 2018). However, they also differ in theological discourse. The Old Testaments religion articulated what was once a single-core practice or belief, adding considerable variances while maintaining certain commonalities in its way (Peled, 2019). The major theological differences appear to be in the dimension of Gods sovereignty and traditions. The importance of the adaption of different values, concepts, and traditions should not be overlooked.

There was a cultural adaption of Near Eastern social customs. In the Hebrew Bible, God did not reject all the cultures and took a religious or legal practice and reorganized it (Peled, 2019). The notion of a monarch was inherited from ancient Middle Eastern cultures, but it was modified to fit the Israelite beliefs. The major themes of the Old Testament became such important topics as revelation, sovereignty, and covenant. For instance, the special sovereignty covenant implied by Yahweh on the Israelis. These themes are important to understand in the context of the Old Testament since they are serving as a bridge between old traditions of the Near East and further developments in other Biblical texts.

References

Alter, R. (2018). The Hebrew Bible: A Translation with Commentary (Vol. Three-Volume Set) (Vol. 3). WW Norton & Company.

Peled, I. (2019). Law and Gender in the Ancient Near East and the Hebrew Bible. Routledge.

Rogerson, J. W. (2018). The Old Testament versus Mythopoeic Thought. In Myth in old testament interpretation (pp. 85-100). De Gruyter.

Introduction

Today, many Christians neglect the Old Testament, considering that it only contains bedtime stories and is not relevant for the modern believers.

However, this approach is not correct. Studying the Old Testament gives a modern believer knowledge on the relationship between God and people, explains certain universal principles, helps to understand the mission of Jesus, provides material for analyzing the Apostles writings, and makes the New Testament more comprehensible.

The Reasons for a Modern Believer to Study the Old Testament

A modern believer should study the Old Testament for the following reasons.

First, the Old Testament presents the first part of a history of the relationship between God and people; we cannot merely skip half of this history, turning to the New Testament alone. The Old Testament gives answers to the questions about the origins of the universe and humans (Pratte par. 4).

These issues are of high importance for the todays society, and a believer should have relevant Biblical knowledge. Additionally, the Old Testament mentions many facts about the lives of prophets of the past. The New Testament contains a lot of references to these events, so there is a need to know them (Murray par. 13).

Second, the Old Testament presents the universal principles that are taken for granted in the New Testament. Among these principles are the assertions that God exists, that God is Jehovah and He is the one true God, that He send Jesus to save the humankind, that Jesus is the Christ and His Son, that the nature of God never changes and neither does the nature of a human being, that the Bible is Gods word and, therefore, it predicted the future (Pratte par. 6-11).

Third, as Jesus said, He came not to destroy but to fulfill the Law. To understand why Jesus came to us and what was His mission, we need to study the Law, which He intended to fulfill. For Jesus and His contemporaries, the only source of the Law was the Old Testament.

Additionally to the Law in general, Jesus also brings a new sense to the prophecies and the stories from the Old Testament. To understand the words of Jesus, a modern believer needs to get acquainted with the Old Testament (Palm par. 27-32).

Fourth, studying the Old Testament is necessary for analyzing the writings of the Apostles. The Apostles, who wrote the New Testament, used the information, evidence, and even language formulas from the Old Testament. For instance, Philip the Deacon uses the information from Isaiah to explain the prophecy of the arrival of Jesus. Additionally, apostle Paul himself recommended studying the Old Testament since it is profitable for the believers (Palm par. 38-44).

Fifth, reading the Old Testament makes the New Testament more clear and comprehensible for us. Not only does it give the understanding of the references to certain facts, universal principles, the task of Jesus, and the reasoning of Apostles, but it also allows a modern believer to grasp the overall sense of the New Testament.

The similarities between the two Testaments helps us to understand the religious laws better. The differences between the Testaments makes us appreciate the New Testament more since it lets us see that people were given a means to save their souls after the arrival of Jesus (Pratte par. 13-18).

Conclusion

Nowadays, a lot of believers consider reading the Old Testament unnecessary. Such an approach is entirely wrong. Studying the Old Testament benefits a modern believer, giving them a material for a comprehensive analysis of the information presented in the New Testament. It makes a believer appreciate the New Testament better as well.

Works Cited

Pratte, David E. The Value of the Old Testament Today. 2009. 

Murray, David. Jesus on Every Page: 7 Reasons to Study Your Old Testament. 2013. 

Palm, Justin T. n.d. Why Should You Read the Old Testament? 

The Book of Job is a poetic book included in the Old Testament. As its authors are not specified, the date of writing is not clear as well. It describes Job, a prosperous man who has wealth and a lot of children. However, Job is an obedient and generous man; he feels contempt to inequity, heathenry, and lie. Nevertheless, when Satan comes to God and asks his permission to test the Job’s loyalty and faith, God agrees, and the devil takes away Job’s wealth, children, and health. When Job’s friends, Eliphaz, Zophar, and Bildad, come, they persuade Job to repent his errors as God punishes only sinners and helps righteous people.

Despite the friends’ suasions, Job refuses to repent or curse God as he does not view himself as a person who perpetrated outrages. Although he immeasurably suffers, he continues to believe in God’s just. The fourth friend, Elihu, suggests that God knows better about everything, and Job should stay devoted and trust His actions. At the end of the Book, God explains to Job that every creature in the world has its mission, only He knows the reason of all events, and people should unquestionably trust their God as loyalty is above all (Fox 2018, 7). For his loyalty, Job was awarded health, more children, wealth, and long life.

The Book of Job teaches religious people that the devil cannot destroy anyone physically or financially without God’s permission. It also demonstrates that people cannot see, understand, or explain why people suffer all over the world (Rosner 2015, 285). However, their struggling is not only the result of sins, as there are a substantial number of righteous people who currently experience substantial issues.

The Book of Job destroys the traditional logical orthodox theory that explains suffering by people’s sins. Sufferings are frequently essential as they help to learn, strengthen and purify the soul. In any circumstances of life, people should stay devoted to God, pray, and believe in His sovereignty. The Book reminds its readers that they should trust the Lord even when they do not understand the reasons for events as He is perfect.

From a personal perspective, Job was treated fairly by God. Despite all Satan’s accusations that Job’s godliness is non-genuine and egoistic, the man proved that his faith, devotion, trust, and love to God do not depend on his Lord’s presents in his life, such as family, wealth, and health. Job’s test was painful, however, the godly sufferer passed it honorably and was fairly rewarded by just God. It goes without saying that the Lord should be fair, and He is fair regardless of the people’s understanding.

The world presents the interrelatedness of people, all living creatures, and events. While individuals cannot apprehend the reasons for proceedings, especially tragic events, such as catastrophes, natural disasters, or terrorist acts that cause the deaths of innocent people, God knows that all people have their mission. The world is too huge for the understanding of one person, a group of people, or all mankind. What people should do is to trust in the Lord’s wisdom and love to them.

Personally, I was substantively impressed by the Book of Job when I read it as an adult. Frankly speaking, I frequently do not understand why people, especially children, die in airplane crashes as I do not believe they all are sinners. Fortunately, the Book gave me answers on certain questions and taught me to accept current developments with humility.

Reference List

Fox, Michael V. 2018. “The Meanings of the Book of Job.” Journal of Biblical Literature 137(1): 7-18. Web.

Rosner, David J. 2015. “Self-Deception and Cosmic Disorder in the Book of Job.” Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy 11(1): 285-298. Web.

Jonah lived in the 8th century BC. He was born in the city of Gath-Hefer in Galilee. His age is unknown. Tradition, not without reason, considers him a disciple of the prophet Elisha. The Lord sends Jonah to preach in the pagan city of Nineveh, whose inhabitants lived wickedly. At the beginning of his ministry, Jonah shared the generally accepted Jewish opinion that all Gentiles were enemies of God and deserved only His wrath and punishment. Nevertheless, the Lord, boundless in His mercy, always desires salvation (White 7). The book of the prophet Jonah, which tells about his embassy to pagan Nineveh, is a revelation of God’s love, which appeals not only to the chosen people but to all people. This idea will become one of the main ones in the New Testament.

Jonah had yet to understand that although God had chosen the Jewish people and made a covenant with them, he was not abandoning other nations either. The prophet Jonah confessed to the One God – the Lord of the Universe: “I am a Jew; I honor the Lord God of heaven, who created the sea and the land” (ESV Bible, Jonah 1.9). The story of Jonah is indicative: there is a deep consciousness of his guilt before God and a sacrificial feat when the prophet asks the sailors to throw him into the sea during a strong storm (White 11). It is not the story of a single person but a kind of reflection on the historical fate of the entire Israeli people, to whom the truth about the One God was revealed. He was accustomed to perceiving God as his protection and was right in this – but this is not enough. The Israelites were to take the message of God to other peoples and tribes, even if they thought they were unworthy. Speaking of this prophet, who did everything in reverse, this book points out the same ideas as other prophetic books but does it in a vivid form, in the form of a parable. The moral of the book of Jonah is contained in the last verse-question of the Lord about not pitying the great city, where there are one hundred and twenty thousand foolish people and many cattle.

Jonah’s long and incredible journey can be a lesson in many ways for today’s Christians. First, it is never too late to believe in and serve God; prayers and true Christian love can lead to a miracle. Moreover, this book is an example of the fact that each of us is capable of making mistakes, but by no means despondency and pity are the ways to correct them. Death is not the only possible punishment when trying to escape from God; there is always an opportunity to return to the proper path. For me, the story of Jonah inspires me after life’s failures when it seems that everyone has turned their backs on me. Turning to God through prayers, I believe that only by being imbued with true Christian love for my neighbors will I see a miracle, just like Jonah was swallowed by a whale and saved from death. I try to perceive any failure as a lesson or experience that will give me new knowledge, which I will have to convey to my neighbors so that we can again find the strength to do the right thing.

Work Cited

The ESV Bible. Crossway, 2001.

White, Ellen G. Steps to Christ Youth Edition. Review and Herald Pub Assoc, 2007.

The instructions of Shuruppak and the Liturgy to Nintud, or the Kesh Temple Hymn, are the oldest surviving forms of Sumerian literature in the world. They both date roughly around Sumerian 2600 BCE (Hilprecht, 1904). The Instructions of Shuruppak is an example of Sumerian wisdom literature. Wisdom literature was intended to instruct on piety, virtue and the preservation of community standards (Buchanan, 2012). The Instructions of Shuruppak is a mixed context of sayings and admonishments by Shuruppak, son of Ubar-Tutu, to his son and future hero of the flood, Ziusudra (Lambert, Milliard & Civil, 1996).

In observation, the book of Genesis, and the chronicle of Sumerian Kings try to illuminate the early history of man, where the divinely sent flood brings about ten successions or generations to an end. The flood wipes out the human race apart from one man, who had been forewarned and thus escaped destruction via a specially made boat. This narrative is obviously reminiscent of the story of the flood in Genesis. In Biblical scripture, Noah is the hero of the flood, managing to save his family as well as the rest of God’s creations by taking a pair of each into Ark. In the Sumerian text, which predates the biblical scriptures, Ziusudra, the Sumerian Noah, is informed that man was going to be destroyed. It is then that he is given the assignment to build a special boat that would save him and his family (Barton, 1937).

The similarities between the narrative about the Noah’s Ark and the Sumerian text are demonstrated by corresponding lines in the different versions: “the storm had swept…for seven days and seven nights” (Powell, 1995), which outlines the ancient Sumerian story of the flood, and “rain fell upon the earth forty days and forty nights” (Genesis 7:12). From this, it can be deduced that the Hebrews were not completely original in their story of the deluge.

The Instructions of Shuruppak can also be seen as the Sumerian prelude to the Ten Commandments that were handed down by God to Moses, as well as to some Proverbs cited in the Bible (Alster, 1974). On the 50^th line of the inscriptions are the words “Do not curse with powerful means” which corresponds to the 3^rd Commandment, while the 28^th line “Do not kill” relates to the 6^th Commandment. The 33^rd and 34th lines “Do not laugh with or sit alone in a chamber with a girl that is married” could be the basis for the 7^th Commandment and lines 28 to 31 “Do not steal or commit robbery” being synonymous with the 8^th Commandment, as is the 36^th line, “Do not spit out lies” and the 9^th Commandment.

Similarly, the lines contained in Proverbs 6:1-5; 7:21-27; 22:26-27; 23:27-28 relate to many of the instructions in the Sumerian text. Lines 19 through 20 “You should not vouch for someone: that man will have a hold on you; and you yourself, you should not let somebody vouch for you” are vividly similar to Proverbs 6:1-5

My son, if you have put up security for your neighbor,

if you have shaken hands in pledge for a stranger,

you have been trapped by what you said,

ensnared by the words of your mouth.

So do this, my son, to free yourself,

since you have fallen into your neighbor’s hands:

Go – to the point of exhaustion –

and give your neighbor no rest!

Allow no sleep to your eyes,

nor slumber to your eyelids.

Free yourself, like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,

like a bird from the snare of the fowler. (Holy Bible: New International Version, 1984).

In terms of structure, these instructions are framed in an idiom and placed in a discourse setting, which may have signified a familial relationship. This suggestion is supported by other texts, where the idiom is used as a literary device in several Near Eastern instructions. It may have been used to signify a relationship by blood or one between a teacher and his student. Inasmuch as both notions could be true, the father-son idiom is more likely since Sumerian wisdom texts were framed usually as instructions from a father to his son, who is usually named in the text. Since bureaucratic titles were hereditary in Mesopotamia, the blood relationship framed between Ziusudra and Shuruppak is highly possible (Kitchen, 1977).

The content of this Sumerian text suggests that they only have material related to the official class. The advice handed down from Shuruppak to Ziusudra specified the social virtues that were needed to establish order in society. Therefore, these instructions were not only intended or limited to the ruling class but also contained themes that addressed prominent figures in the bureaucracy. As literary works, these instructions were not, however, available to the general public. This was because most of the populace was illiterate, and writing was used to further the bureaucratic and social hold.

The Instructions of Shuruppak is a suitable base for relating with other people in the society as they instruct on such social virtues as honesty and good morals. They instruct on the meaning of wisdom, breaking it down to personal rules for good dealings in order to be well perceived by other members of society. The Instructions also offer importance to piety, and the concept of the deity, the creator or Supreme Being, is given prominence.

References

Alster, B. (1974). The instructions of Shuruppak: a Sumerian proverb collection. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag.

Barton, G. A. (1937). Archæology and the Bible. (7th ed.). Philadelphia: American Sunday-School Union.

Buchanan, R. Pop quiz, Jeopardy-style: the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn. Web.

Hilprecht, H. V. (1904). The excavations in Assyria and Babylonia. Philadelphia: Department of Archæology of the University of Pennsylvania.

Holy Bible: New International Version. (1984). Grand Rapids: Zondervan House.

Lambert, W. G. (1996). Babylonian wisdom literature. Winona Lake (Indiana): Eisenbrauns.

Kitchen, K. A. (1977). Proverbs and wisdom books of the ancient Near East: the factual history of a literary form. London: Inter-Varsity Press.

Lambert, W. G., Millard, A. R., & Civil, M. (1999). Atra-ḫasīs: the Babylonian story of the flood. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns.

Powell, Barry B. (1995). Classical myth. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

Introduction

The Old Testament is a more or less accurate duplication of the Hebrew Bible, although there may be some differences in terms of the arrangement of the books and some of the content depending on the version used. The Old Testament is the first part of the Christian Bible, the second one being the New Testament. It is believed that it was compiled between the 12th and 2nd Century BC, and much of the difference in content could be laid down at the various translations of Hebrew terms.

The Old Testament consists of 39 books, which are further subdivided into the Pentateuch, the Historical Books, Poetic Books, and Prophetic Books. In this paper, a broad summary of the books based on the New International Version will be provided.

The Summaries

The Pentateuch

The Pentateuch or Books of Moses consists of five books, including Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Many people are most familiar with the part of Genesis that tells of the Creation of Adam and Eve, their banishment from the Garden of Eden for their disobedience to God, and the creation of Original Sin. However, Genesis also relates the reason for the Great Flood and the building of Noah’s Ark, as well as the story of the Tower of Babel in which man’s pride in his accomplishments was punished by God by giving them different languages so they could not understand each other. It tells of the story of Abram, later given the name Abraham, who would be designated the “father of all nations” and given the land of Canaan, provided Abraham performed circumcision on all males. Lot, Abraham’s nephew, witnessed the burning of Sodom and Gomorrah, which turned his wife into a pillar of salt. Isaac was born to Abraham when he was 100 years old and his wife Sarah, who was 90 years old. Abraham remained faithful to God even when he was asked to sacrifice his son Isaac to prove it, and he established many nations himself as well as through his son Isaac, and Isaac’s sons Jacob and Esau. This also contained the story of Joseph of the multicolored coat fame.

The second book is on the Exodus, in which the enslavement of the Israelites or the Hebrews have been described as well as the story of Moses, the son of Jacob’s son Levi. Moses was placed in the Nile River in a reed basket as a baby to escape death from the hands of Pharaoh’s soldiers and was rescued and raised by Pharaoh’s daughter. As a man, Moses was forced from Egypt for killing an Egyptian who was beating up a Hebrew and went to the land of Midian where he met and married Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro. Moses was apprised of his role in freeing the Israelites when God appeared before him as a Burning Bush, and Moses reluctantly accepted the role, appearing before Pharaoh with his brother Aaron to ask Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to worship for three days in the wilderness. Pharaoh refused his requests and Moses was forced to place the 10 plagues on the Egyptians, including the death of all firstborn male children. Moses instructed the Israelites to place lamb’s blood on their door so the plagues would “pass over” their homes and save their children. The Pharaoh, faced with such destruction, finally relented and let the Israelites leave Egypt, but realized later they would not be coming back and pursued them to the Red Sea, which parted to allow the Israelites to pass through but crashed down on the Egyptian Army who followed. The Exodus ends when the Ten Commandments were given to Moses at Mt. Sinai.

Leviticus is primarily an instruction book on the moral conduct and sacrificial system for the system. It described what foods should be eaten and how sacrifices may be accomplished. It also provided days of obligation as well as a ban on homosexuality.

Numbers provided a census of the population after the Exodus and describes how the Israelites fell on evil ways and were punished by being made to wander in the desert for 40 years. Moses was banned from entering the Promised Land because he disobeyed God at Meribah. Joshua was designated as the leader who will bring the people into the Promised Land as Moses was to be left behind in the mountains.

Deuteronomy describes how the tribe of Levi is to be designated to work for the Lord and would have no portion of the Promised Land. It also reiterates the Ten Commandments as well as the directions contained in Leviticus. The text contains the well-known “an eye for an eye” attitude.

The Historical Books

There are 12 books in this section and deal mostly with a description of how the Israelites handled their life in the Land of Promise. The 12 books include Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First Samuel, Second Samuel, First Kings, Second Kings, First Chronicles, Second Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther.

The Book of Joshua deals mainly with the 7-year conquest of Canaan, the Land of Promise, and the partitioning of lands. Unfortunately, according to the stories in the book of Judges, the conquest was incomplete, leading the Israelites into immoral and idolatrous ways, forcing the judges to mete out punishment to lead them back. The people went through seven cycles of foreign oppression, repression, and deliverance but to little avail. This book also contained the story of one of the judges, Samson, whose phenomenal strength lay in his hair. His betrayal by Delilah led to his destruction together with many Philistines who plotted against him. The Book of Ruth, a Moabitess who married Boaz and had a son Obed who bore Jesse who eventually begat King David, speaks mostly of righteousness and love and service to the Lord.

First Samuel speaks of the biography of Samuel, son of Hannah, a barren woman who asked God to help her conceive. Samuel was dedicated to God and eventually became a judge of Israel. When Mizpah was wrested from the Philistines and renamed Ebenezer, Samuel chose the tallest man Saul as king, who made a mistake in making a burnt offering himself instead of Samuel, condemning his dynasty to end. First Samuel also relates the story of David, a young shepherd who took on the challenge of the Philistine champion Goliath to single combat. David considered favored by God and instrumental in soothing Samuel when he was in torment, slew the bigger man with a sling and a well-aimed stone. This gained David fame, making King Saul jealous although David and Saul’s son Jonathan became blood brothers and David eventually married Saul’s daughter Michal. Saul tried to kill David, who still showed mercy when Saul failed. Saul decided to commit suicide when he was wounded by the Philistines in Mt. Gilboa and was cremated. Second Samuel continues the story of David who became king of the Judeans while Ish Bosheth, Saul’s son became king over the rest of Israel. There was some tension between the two kingdoms, one of them resulting in the death of Ish Bosheth’s general. Ish Boshreth was subsequently killed by two of his captains who hoped to curry favor with King David, who had the captains put to death for their deeds. David was made king of all Israel and reigned for 30 years and eventually led his troops to Jerusalem, which became the “City of David.” The prophet Nathan predicted that one of David’s sons would build a temple and that David found favor with God. The same prophet told David that his sin of coveting another man’s wife (Bathsheba) would be forgiven if he gave away his wives (he had seven aside from Bathseba. He had sent Bathsheba’s husband Uriah to the frontlines to meet his death so he could claim Bathsheba and the son she was carrying. Nathan told David the son would die, but Bathsheba conceived another child by David, and the child was named Solomon, which means “loved by the Lord.” David’s rule was challenged by his son, Absalom, who maintained a civil war until he was killed by Joab, an army leader. A threatened plague that was meant to strike Jerusalem for its leader’s sins was stopped by God, as David had hoped.

In First Kings, the stories include the death of King David after a 40-year reign and the succession of his son Solomon, who was given a choice by God for anything to help him in his rule. Solomon chose wisdom. This wisdom was put to the test when two women claiming the same baby came before Solomon for a decision. Solomon told the women they would have to cut the baby in half, a decision that horrified one woman and made her decide to give up the baby. Solomon knew then this was the real mother. He also authored 3000 proverbs and 1005 songs, and was just as prolific in his partners, having 700 wives and 300 concubines. Solomon had the Temple of the Lord built in Jerusalem which took 7 years to build. He reigned for 40 years until his death, at which point the Hebrews were divided into the Southern (including Jerusalem) and Northern (Israel) Kingdoms. The kings who ruled the kingdoms did not believe in the Lord God of Israel, which led to many problems, including the propensity of King Ahab for evil, urged on by his wife Jezebel who desired the death of the Lord’s prophets. One of these, Elijah performed some miracles in the name of God, including returning life to a child after a death. A confrontation between Elijah and the prophets of Baal led to the death of the prophets of Baal and the prophecy for King Ahab that Jezebel would be devoured by dogs.

Second Kings tell of Elijah’s ascension to heaven by a whirlwind, leaving Elisha as the main priest of Israel. Elisha performed many miracles, and he anointed Jehu as king of Israel. Jehu had Jezebel killed and her remains scattered for the dogs. At Elisha’s death, a final miracle happened when a dead man revived when thrown into his tomb. At this point, there is much turmoil as those who worshipped other gods caused strife among the citizenry. It was during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah that the prophet Isaiah caused the time to go backward. In the time of Josiah as king of Judah, a scroll of laws was found by the High Priest Hilkiah in the temple. Josiah destroyed temples to other gods and restored the Lord’s Temple but the prophetess Huldah said Judah is destined for destruction, as is what happened when King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon took over Judah.

The First and Second Chronicles deal mostly with Hebrew history. The first Chronicles considers the lineage of Abraham and the 12 tribes of Israel. Second Chronicles deals with the exploits of Solomon and the temple construction of Mount Moriah in Jerusalem and the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant to this temple. It also details the stories of the alliance between King Jehosephat of the Southern Kingdom and King Ahab of the Northern Kingdom. It also re-tells the story of the finding of the scrolls.

The last three books of Historical books deal mainly with prominent characters during the conquest of the Persians. The Book of Ezra tells of the efforts of King Cyrus of Persia to rebuild the Temple of Jehovah, which was dedicated by the high priest Ezra. The Book of Nehemiah tells of the rebuilding of the city walls of Jerusalem and the pledge of the Jews not to intermarry, and to follow Jewish law. The Book of Esther tells the story of a Jewish girl Esther, also known as Hadassah, who became the queen of Xerxes, King of Persia. Xerxes did not know she was a Jew. When Haman, the prime minister, asked the king to kill all Jews, Esther intervened and had Haman killed. The right to save the Jews was given to her, thereafter celebrated as the “Feast of Purim.”

Poetical Books

This section includes the Books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. The Book of Job is a story of a righteous man who underwent terrible events and suffering after Satan requested God to test the strength of his convictions. The Psalms are a collection of poems, hymns, and prayers that illustrate the religious faith of the Jewish people. It reiterates the blessings that good people can expect while the evil can look forward to being as “chaff before the wind” on Judgment Day. Proverbs is primarily a collection of short sayings, tips on how to manage and handle everyday problems. The Ecclesiastes is less upbeat, dealing mostly with the main idea that everything returns to dust and nothing material attained on this earth lasts. It refers to historical facts to illustrate that nothing ever changes and that the smallest transgression can undo a world of good. The Song of Solomon is a love poem, designed for a typical bride and a groom, although a more fanciful interpretation is where the groom is God and the bride is Israel.

Prophetical Books

The last 17 books mostly deal with the predictions of the major and minor prophets of the time. The first is the Book of Isaiah, which considers the sins of Judah and pronounces God’s judgment. It also refers to the coming of the Messiah and thoughts of everlasting life. The Book of Jeremiah tells of the New Covenant established by God. The prophet Jeremiah claimed he spoke and prayed directly to God, who told him he was “the prophet of the nations.” He warns people that their idolatry will lead to their destruction as the Temple in Judah and Jerusalem are in danger from King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. He predicted the fate of his people as well as of other races. The Book of Lamentations describes the sadness in the aftermath of the destruction of Jerusalem, as predicted by Jeremiah, by Babylon. The Book of Ezekiel tells of the experiences of the priest Ezekiel, who ministered to the Jews who were being held captive in Babylon. It refers to the Valley of the Dry Bones and the end of days. The Book of Daniel reveals the dreams and visions of Daniel, who served as one of four counselors to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. His most striking dreams are that of The Fiery Furnace and The Lion’s Den, both saying that the goodwill remains unharmed. Daniel also spoke of famine and the death of the king, and also talked of the end of days as well as the Messiah.

The remaining 12 books are from minor prophets, including the Book of Hosea, which describes the infidelity of Hosea’s wife Gomer, widely believed to represent Israel’s spiritual adultery. Joel predicts the coming of a locust infestation and only the faithful will be saved. Amos tells of a vision he had of God as a lion from Mount Zion, roaring that as a test to the Hebrews he would scatter the people of Israel across the world, but that eventually their blessings will be returned. Obadiah relates the fall of the land of Edom, a neighboring nation to Israel, as well as other nations while Jonah, otherwise known as the tale of Jonah and the Whale, was ordered by God to warn the people of Ninevah of their impending destruction because of their evil ways. Jonah tried to evade his duty by hiding on a ship, which capsized and Jonah was swallowed by a great fish, probably a whale, and carried to dry land after three days. He delivered the message to the people of Ninevah, who repented and were saved. Jonah was angry at their salvation but God showed him that even Gentiles can be saved. The Book of Nahum also warns the people of Ninevah as well as Assyria that destruction is at hand.

The Book of Micah describes the moral decay in Israel and refers both to the end of days and the Messiah. The Book of Habakkuk refers to two points by the prophet Habakkuk that revelation awaits an appointed time and the earth will be filled with the glory of the Lord. Zephaniah also develops the end of days as the Day of the Lord and that this is the time to seek humility and righteousness. The prophet Haggai tells the governor of Judah, Zerubbabel that the rebuilding of the Temple should be the top priority and that its splendor will be greater than in the past. Zechariah tells of many prophecies dealing with the coming of the Messiah and the end of days, as well as the need to complete the temple. Malachi proclaims the coming of the end of days and the arrogant and evil will burn. Malachi also speaks out against divorce.

Conclusion

The Books of the Old Testament are primarily a learning tool for those who are not of the Jewish religion but who have become Christian to have an understanding of why certain things are done the way they are. It provides background information of those not of the Jewish faith and provides a springboard of discussion for many of the mysterious references in the New Testament. The summaries above are necessarily incomplete, but a more thorough discussion of the 39 books would not be possible at this point.

References

Holy Bible, New International Version. (2007).

Introduction

“You have not come to something that can be touched, a blazing fire, and darkness, and gloom, and a tempest” (Hebrews 12:18). My understanding of this verse before the analysis of the allusions therein prompted me to understand that the apostle Paul was addressing the believers in the church telling them that their faith and relationship with Christ was not touchable. It also prompted me to understand that it was not describable as it exhibits characteristics like a burning fire and a raging tempest. These descriptions further prompt me to think that he implied that they should be afraid and revere this relationship that they have established owing to the qualities that it possesses.

Main body

The allusions represented in this verse that exist in the Old Testament are representative of the Sinai covenant in Exodus and the covenant reenactment in Deuteronomy. Thus, the words that have been used in the verse, “something that cannot be touched, a blazing fire and darkness, gloom and a tempest” are symbolic of what used to happen in the Old Testament when the Israelites would assemble at Mount Sinai and how the mountain would react by thunder and fire; also symbolic of God’s voice or the wrath of the people.

In this verse, however, Paul wants to relay the same message, though the center at which people gather to worship is no longer on the mountain but at the cross. The cross is also representative of Jesus Christ through whom people can establish a covenant with God the Father, just as they would at Mount Sinai in the Old Testament. Similarly, he tries to explain that, just as the Israelites would revere Mount Sinai at which they would hear from God, they are supposed to show the same reverence to the Gospel and listen to it willingly. This way, he is trying to explain that the gospel should be approached with diligence and observed as a greater superior compared to the doctrines of the law. As it is, it is through the gospel that the church and believers will be able to gain a new dispensation. Overall, the writer’s intention is to persuade the Hebrews to heed the words that are spoken by God through Christ Jesus that is on verses Hebrews 1:1 and Hebrews 2:1-4. Further, the use of these allusions tries to create a correlation between the old and the new dispensation, as the symbols apply to show that the old dispensation was characterized by material things and the manifestation of sensible transitory. Notably, the stated qualities of the untouchable are a representation of God as a very inaccessible being, and that his Holiness was very unwelcoming. It further shows that he was an awful majesty, who naturally, men would not be able to get close to.

Conclusion

In conclusion, following the context in which the verse has been used, Paul tries to show that God has now become very accessible to men through the new dispensation who is Christ Jesus. Nonetheless, analysis of the allusions in regards to the Old Testament and the covenant at Mount Sinai, as well as the phrase, shows that, despite a difference in the two dispensations, there are both benefits and consequences of obeying and not obeying God’s commands. For instance, it’s not only that the smoke from the Sinai that is threatening to consume us, but also that “God is a consuming fire.” Notably, God’s wrath through a consuming fire is not symbolic but real.

Work Cited

New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Ed. Ridling Zaine. Washington, D.C: National Council of the Churches of Christ, 1989. Print.