Category: Oil

Energy is vital in our daily life because it is a basic human need. Almost all human activities require energy. Oil is a non-renewable energy source.

Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished in our lifetimes—or even in many, many lifetimes. (National Geographic Society, 2013). On the other hand, renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, that comes from natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished. For example, sunlight or wind keep shining and blowing, even if their availability depends on time and weather. (Shinn, n.d.) Over the past few decades, the world’s leading scientists have been working on ways to limit the use of energy from oil. This is because non-renewable energy sources are the primary source of greenhouse gases for most companies worldwide. To achieve the emission reduction goals, they have to switch to renewable energy. I humbly disagree with the government’s decision to invest in oil exploration. In the coming decades, renewable energy sources will continue to grow, replacing fossil fuels because they are more reliable and easier to obtain. The following reasons explain why I disagree with the government’s decision.

Firstly, crude oil is not renewable. Crude oil is made from fossils, which take thousands of years to decompose to produce new oil for use. Eventually, the oil we have now will be exhausted due to its limitation. We will have to wait longer before proceeding with the decomposition process. Decomposition is the process of breaking down dead organic substances into simpler organic or inorganic substances (such as carbon dioxide) through the action of decomposers. (Biology Online, 2021). This chemical or biological process takes longer to complete to obtain the oil. Unlike renewable energy (such as sunlight), it can be got without a complicated process. It is always available to us. It is easier and faster to obtain it. Therefore, investment in oil exploration can benefit temporarily and eventually run out.

Moreover, oil exploration is expensive. Oil exploration is the positioning and drilling of oil and natural gas in a given oil field. (Oil and Gas Field Exploitation – Access Science from McGraw-Hill Education, n.d.). This process requires specially trained and technical personnel as well as machinery. These personnel must be paid large amounts of money, which generates high costs. This is because this process is sometimes hazardous and detrimental to your health. Sometimes if no oil can be found, oil exploration will result in huge losses. This means that the investment may be wasted, and the main reason for the investment may not be realized. In addition, most oil companies are not located in impoverished areas because the demand there is deficient. People in poor areas always complain about the high cost of oil, so they cannot afford it. In Ghana, our primary source of energy is oil. So how do these poor areas get the energy they need for daily activities? Renewable energy is cheaper, and it is available at any time and everywhere. The government should invest in renewable energy because it can be supplemented and needs a little money to maintain the used equipment.

Last, oil exploration and the use of oil products can cause damage to the environment and individuals. Study has shown that oil exploration had increased the rate of environmental degradation. Environmental degradation is the process by which the natural environment is destroyed. (Environmental Degradation, n.d.). Due to the death of fish and crops and the possible destruction of arable land and fishing activities leading to loss of livelihoods, oil and gas exploration has increased food insecurity. The seismic technology used to detect oil on the seafloor can be harmful to fish and marine mammals. The use of gasoline, light oil, kerosene, and fuel oil releases harmful toxins, such as methane, benzene, and butane, and can also increase greenhouse effects and damage the environment. At several oil exploration companies, employees using oil storage tanks have the highest risk of exposure to toxins and chemicals. Renewable energy is natural and does not require a process that produces toxins that can harm humans and other organisms.

In conclusion, the above reasons are why most investors switch from oil exploration to investing in renewable energy because it is less harmful, more reliable, easier to obtain, and can be replenished after use. (Is It Good to Invest in Renewable Energy [2021] | Greenesa, n.d.) Therefore, the government’s investment in oil exploration will be a waste of money. When the oil runs out, it will also cause national losses, and the toxins produced by oil will harm citizens and lead to loss of life. Renewable energy sources are less harmful, reliable, accessible, and can be replenished after use. Therefore, investing in it by the government can avoid land degradation and risk to life, providing many benefits such as low cost of energy, a lifetime energy source. It would promote proper growth and development of the country Ghana because more money can be saved and used for other development projects.

Each topic sentence is consistent with the thesis statement. The linking words: First, moreover, has linked paragraphs directly from the first paragraph to the last paragraph making reading easier and faster. Synonyms, pronouns, repetitions, and qualifiers of certain words are also used to ensure that the supporting sentence is consistent with the topic sentence, and the topic sentence is also consistent with the thesis statement, so as to avoid deviation from the main theme of the thesis. The relationship between the elements makes the essay cohesive and logical.

As of late, the crude oil price has changed everywhere throughout the world. A few issues have risen because of the higher oil costs. A typical issue is human beings need to spend more than before for their everyday utilization of oil. In the news, we always hear that the world is coming up short on oil, driving us to believe that the world supplies would be littler accordingly, and the price would be higher. In any case, the opposite of it is going on, prices have dropped essentially, making oil moderately less expensive than it has ever been ( Asem, Fouzan, and Usama, 2017).

The price of oil, gas, and coal are framed by the organic market as of not long ago, three forces impacted this. To begin with, the significance of oil, imposing business model positions, and geopolitical games. These three forces constantly decided the price of oil, until the finish of the twentieth century, a fourth power entered the scene which is the consuming oil. Consuming oil is one of the main causes of global warming. Consequently, elective types of self-recharging energy must supplant oil as quickly as time permits (Danzuraidi, 2016).

Be that as it may, for this to occur, the cost of oil ought to be higher and in this way more pleasant than it at present is, which therefore makes sustainable sources progressively appealing to utilize. However, the cost of oil still is by all accounts constrained by monopolistic positions and geopolitical games. The fluctuations of oil costs are more unpredictable than the estimation of some other speculation, and on the grounds that oil is considered a highly demanded commodity universally, the changes in its value give an impact on the economy all in all.

Oil is the world’s most fundamental fuel and supports our raised way of life. It gives contemporary openness and a source of development. Additionally, oil is urgent to transportation frameworks (APPEA, 2016). Oil, diesel, fly fuel, and lamp oil are the results of the oil refining process. Any results created, as optional items made in the synthesis of the oil refining procedure are also significant.

Moradkhani et al. (2010) expressed that an increase in energy costs, including that in crude oil, made different costs rise, as oil assumes a significant job in deciding different costs. The expense of creation additionally ends up higher because of a higher oil value, which results in a decrease in production. In this way, a higher oil value influences the profitability of a country, and lower efficiency can adversely impact financial development.

The two factors that drive oil costs. The primary factor is demand and supply and the subsequent factor is the market sentiment. As demand rises or supply fall the price rises and as demand drop or supply rises, the prices decline. The subsequent factor is market sentiment, which is the frame of mind of the market, and the inclination it gives and closes by characterizing whether the market is winning bullish or bearish markets. Similarly to the price of some other items, oil prices varied throughout the hundreds of years, however, this drop has been the most noticeably terrible since the mid-1990s (Krauss, 2016). In this assignment, we are going to study the effects of oil price fluctuations that are happening in the current years.

Findings

The price of oil has fluctuated throughout the hundreds of years, yet this ongoing drop has been the most exceedingly worst since the mid-1990s (Krauss, 2016). The issue of oil price change has pulled in numerous analysts to research the negative impacts of oil price fluctuation on the economy. In this manner, there are different models that have been utilized by past inquiries to inspect the effects of oil prices. The 1973 oil crisis and the major financial and geopolitical occasions (Salameh, 2014) from that point forward shed light on the monetary fundamental significance of oil prices and their high level of unpredictability, just as the pretended by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in oil markets. For sure, its individuals produce 40% of the world’s unrefined petroleum and their fares speak to about 60% of the exchanged oil globally.

The effect of OPEC’s choices about the outcome level of oil price is a disputable issue among policymakers, controllers, and scholastics specifically. For a few, this effect is powerless or has been declining after some time, particularly recently as increasingly more non-OPEC delivering countries rise their piece of the overall industry. For other people, the effect is solid as costs digress from their focused level when individuals adjust their oil production. At long last, there are some who encourage the view that OPEC’s effect changes after some time because of winning economic situations.

Similarly as with any product, stock, or bond, the laws of supply and demand cause oil prices to change. At the point when supply surpasses demand, prices fall and the backward is additionally obvious when demand outpaces supply. The 2014 fall in oil prices can be ascribed to a lower interest in oil in Europe and China, combined with a relentless supply of oil from OPEC.

The shortage of oil supplies produced a dramatic drop in oil prices. Since then, oil prices have fluctuated and as of September 2019, are calculated at approximately $54 per barrel. The instability of the oil supply seemed to essentially prevent stock markets in both oil-importing countries and oil-exporting countries, and this impact remains for quite a while. In oil-exporting nations, the effects of aggregate demand risk on stock-market returns are unfavorable and so much more grounded and industrious than in countries that imported oil. Demand and supply can have a huge impact on oil price fluctuations.

While perspectives are blended, actually oil prices and interest rates have some connection between’s their developments, yet are not related only. In truth, numerous elements influence the direction of both loan fees and oil costs. Once in a while, those variables are connected, once in a while, they influence one another, and now and again there’s no justifiable purpose to what occurs. One of the fundamental hypotheses stipulates that a rise in interest rates raises purchasers’ and producers’ costs, which lessens the measure of time and money individuals spend driving.

Fewer individuals out and about mean less interest in oil, which can cause oil prices to drop. In this case, we’d call this a backward relationship. By this equivalent hypothesis, when interest rates drop, purchasers and organizations can obtain and spend through cash all the more openly, which drives up demand for oil. The more the use of oil, which has OPEC-forced cut-off points on production figures, the more customers offer up the cost.

Another economic theory recommends that increasing or high-interest fee assistance strengthen the dollar against other countries’ monetary forms. At the point when the dollar is solid, American oil organizations can purchase more oil with each U.S. dollar spent, at last passing the investment funds on to shoppers.

Moreover, when the estimation of the dollar is low against remote monetary standards, the overall quality of U.S. dollars means purchasing less oil than previously. This, obviously, can add to oil getting to be costlier to the U.S., which expends practically 25% of the world’s oil. An exact investigation shows that changes in interest rates influence changes in future exchange rates, yet that differences in return rates don’t straightforwardly influence future interest rates. This is on the grounds that interest rates mirror the basics of an economy and this data is transmitted through the exchange value of the US dollar (Yen W & Ling C, January 2013)

Natural disasters are another factor that can cause oil prices to dramatically change. For instance, when Hurricane Katrina struck the southern U.S. in 2005, influencing 19% of the U.S. oil supply, it caused the price per barrel of oil to increase by $3. In May 2011, the flooding of the Mississippi River likewise brings oil price variance. From a worldwide point of view, political instability in the Middle East causes oil prices to vary, as the locale represents a lot of the overall oil supply. For instance, in July 2008 the price of a barrel of oil came to $136 because of the distress and buyer dread about the wars in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Production costs can cause oil costs to rise or fall also. While oil in the Middle East is generally modest to extract, oil in Canada in Alberta’s oil sands is all the more expensive. When the stock of modest oil is depleted, the price could possibly rise if the main outstanding oil is in the tar sands. U.S. generation additionally legitimately influences the price of oil. With such a great amount of oversupply in the business, a decrease in production declines in general supply and increases costs. The U.S. has a normal day-by-day generation level of 9 million barrels of oil, and that normal creation, while unpredictable, has been slanting descending. Steady week-after-week drops put upward weight on oil costs, therefore.

There are likewise progressing worries that oil storage is coming up short, which affects the degree of investments moving into the oil business. Oil occupied into capacity has developed exponentially, and key centers have seen their storage tanks topping off rather rapidly. Nonetheless, slowing production and pipeline organize enhancements will decrease the opportunity that oil storage will arrive at its points of maximization, which enables investors to shed their feelings of an excessive amount of inventory and an increase in oil prices.

Conclusion

The sharp and steady fluctuation in oil prices since 2004 has stood out from policymakers and macroeconomists the same and prompted a lot of research concerning the effects of oil price fluctuations. In this paper, I have stated a few effects of oil price fluctuations in recent years. Understanding the effects of oil price fluctuations is important as most monetary authorities attempt to keep the fluctuations in their under control. Knowledge about the effects of oil price increases and decreases will then assist monetary authorities to adopt appropriate policies to accommodate these fluctuations. Along these lines, the present investigation has a significant implication for the country’s government in detailing strategies for oil prices. Oil prices ordinarily increase during times of worldwide economic quality and as interest outpaces supply. Oil prices will fall when the reverse is valid, and demand can’t stay aware of developing supplies. Overall, there are a few ways to overcome the effects of oil price fluctuations which is by controlling the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in oil markets and also by enforcing the law of demand and supply of the oil prices which will control the fluctuation of the oil prices.

References

1. Asem, Tahtamouni., Fouzan, Al Qaisi., & Usama Adnan, Fendi. (2017) The Effect of Oil Price Falling on the Jordanian Economic System. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 2017, 7(5), 282-289. Available from : http: www.econjournals.com
2. Danzuraidi, D. (2016), Oil Price Drop. Available from: https://www. dandanzuraidi.wordpress.com/2016/01/26/oil-price-drop.
3. APPEA. (2016), What is Oil? Available from: http://www.appea.com.au/ oil-gas-explained/oil-and-gas/what-is-oil
4. Moradkhani, N., Rashid, Z.A., Hassan, T., Nassir, A. M. (2010). The Impact of Increasing Energy Prices on the Prices of Other Goods and Household Expenditure: Evidence from Malaysia. Retrieved from www.iioa.org/files/conference-1/91_20100424051_sentone,28Feb.doc
5. Krauss, C. (2016), Oil Prices: What’s Behind the Drop? Simple Economics. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/business/energy-environment/oil prices. html?_r=0.
6. M. G. Salameh. (2014). Major Geopolitical Developments That Could Impact On Oil Supplies From The Arab Gulf Region. Working Paper, Research Center for Energy Management.
7. Yudong W, Chongfeng W & LiYang. (November 2013). Oil price shocks and stock market activities: Evidence from oil-importing and oil-exporting countries. Journal of Comparative Economics Volume 41, Issue 4, 1220-1239. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.12.004
8. Amine L, Constantin M & Kostas A. (March 2016). Do OPEC announcements influence oil prices? Energy Policy Volume 90, 262-272. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.11.025
9. Yu Shan W & Yen Ling C. (January, 2013). Dynamic transmission effects between the interest rate, the US dollar, and gold and crude oil prices. Economic Modelling, Volume 30, 792-798. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.09.052

As of late, the crude oil price has changed everywhere throughout the world. A few issues have risen because of the higher oil costs. A typical issue is human beings need to spend more than before for their everyday utilization of oil. In the news, we always hear that the world is coming up short on oil, driving us to believe that the world supplies would be littler accordingly, and the price would be higher. In any case, the opposite of it is going on, prices have dropped essentially, making oil moderately less expensive than it has ever been ( Asem, Fouzan, and Usama, 2017).

The price of oil, gas, and coal are framed by the organic market as of not long ago, three forces impacted this. To begin with, the significance of oil, imposing business model positions, and geopolitical games. These three forces constantly decided the price of oil, until the finish of the twentieth century, a fourth power entered the scene which is the consuming oil. Consuming oil is one of the main causes of global warming. Consequently, elective types of self-recharging energy must supplant oil as quickly as time permits (Danzuraidi, 2016).

Be that as it may, for this to occur, the cost of oil ought to be higher and in this way more pleasant than it at present is, which therefore makes sustainable sources progressively appealing to utilize. However, the cost of oil still is by all accounts constrained by monopolistic positions and geopolitical games. The fluctuations of oil costs are more unpredictable than the estimation of some other speculation, and on the grounds that oil is considered a highly demanded commodity universally, the changes in its value give an impact on the economy all in all.

Oil is the world’s most fundamental fuel and supports our raised way of life. It gives contemporary openness and a source of development. Additionally, oil is urgent to transportation frameworks (APPEA, 2016). Oil, diesel, fly fuel, and lamp oil are the results of the oil refining process. Any results created, as optional items made in the synthesis of the oil refining procedure are also significant.

Moradkhani et al. (2010) expressed that an increase in energy costs, including that in crude oil, made different costs rise, as oil assumes a significant job in deciding different costs. The expense of creation additionally ends up higher because of a higher oil value, which results in a decrease in production. In this way, a higher oil value influences the profitability of a country, and lower efficiency can adversely impact financial development.

The two factors that drive oil costs. The primary factor is demand and supply and the subsequent factor is the market sentiment. As demand rises or supply fall the price rises and as demand drop or supply rises, the prices decline. The subsequent factor is market sentiment, which is the frame of mind of the market, and the inclination it gives and closes by characterizing whether the market is winning bullish or bearish markets. Similarly to the price of some other items, oil prices varied throughout the hundreds of years, however, this drop has been the most noticeably terrible since the mid-1990s (Krauss, 2016). In this assignment, we are going to study the effects of oil price fluctuations that are happening in the current years.

Findings

The price of oil has fluctuated throughout the hundreds of years, yet this ongoing drop has been the most exceedingly worst since the mid-1990s (Krauss, 2016). The issue of oil price change has pulled in numerous analysts to research the negative impacts of oil price fluctuation on the economy. In this manner, there are different models that have been utilized by past inquiries to inspect the effects of oil prices. The 1973 oil crisis and the major financial and geopolitical occasions (Salameh, 2014) from that point forward shed light on the monetary fundamental significance of oil prices and their high level of unpredictability, just as the pretended by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in oil markets. For sure, its individuals produce 40% of the world’s unrefined petroleum and their fares speak to about 60% of the exchanged oil globally.

The effect of OPEC’s choices about the outcome level of oil price is a disputable issue among policymakers, controllers, and scholastics specifically. For a few, this effect is powerless or has been declining after some time, particularly recently as increasingly more non-OPEC delivering countries rise their piece of the overall industry. For other people, the effect is solid as costs digress from their focused level when individuals adjust their oil production. At long last, there are some who encourage the view that OPEC’s effect changes after some time because of winning economic situations.

Similarly as with any product, stock, or bond, the laws of supply and demand cause oil prices to change. At the point when supply surpasses demand, prices fall and the backward is additionally obvious when demand outpaces supply. The 2014 fall in oil prices can be ascribed to a lower interest in oil in Europe and China, combined with a relentless supply of oil from OPEC.

The shortage of oil supplies produced a dramatic drop in oil prices. Since then, oil prices have fluctuated and as of September 2019, are calculated at approximately $54 per barrel. The instability of the oil supply seemed to essentially prevent stock markets in both oil-importing countries and oil-exporting countries, and this impact remains for quite a while. In oil-exporting nations, the effects of aggregate demand risk on stock-market returns are unfavorable and so much more grounded and industrious than in countries that imported oil. Demand and supply can have a huge impact on oil price fluctuations.

While perspectives are blended, actually oil prices and interest rates have some connection between’s their developments, yet are not related only. In truth, numerous elements influence the direction of both loan fees and oil costs. Once in a while, those variables are connected, once in a while, they influence one another, and now and again there’s no justifiable purpose to what occurs. One of the fundamental hypotheses stipulates that a rise in interest rates raises purchasers’ and producers’ costs, which lessens the measure of time and money individuals spend driving.

Fewer individuals out and about mean less interest in oil, which can cause oil prices to drop. In this case, we’d call this a backward relationship. By this equivalent hypothesis, when interest rates drop, purchasers and organizations can obtain and spend through cash all the more openly, which drives up demand for oil. The more the use of oil, which has OPEC-forced cut-off points on production figures, the more customers offer up the cost.

Another economic theory recommends that increasing or high-interest fee assistance strengthen the dollar against other countries’ monetary forms. At the point when the dollar is solid, American oil organizations can purchase more oil with each U.S. dollar spent, at last passing the investment funds on to shoppers.

Moreover, when the estimation of the dollar is low against remote monetary standards, the overall quality of U.S. dollars means purchasing less oil than previously. This, obviously, can add to oil getting to be costlier to the U.S., which expends practically 25% of the world’s oil. An exact investigation shows that changes in interest rates influence changes in future exchange rates, yet that differences in return rates don’t straightforwardly influence future interest rates. This is on the grounds that interest rates mirror the basics of an economy and this data is transmitted through the exchange value of the US dollar (Yen W & Ling C, January 2013)

Natural disasters are another factor that can cause oil prices to dramatically change. For instance, when Hurricane Katrina struck the southern U.S. in 2005, influencing 19% of the U.S. oil supply, it caused the price per barrel of oil to increase by $3. In May 2011, the flooding of the Mississippi River likewise brings oil price variance. From a worldwide point of view, political instability in the Middle East causes oil prices to vary, as the locale represents a lot of the overall oil supply. For instance, in July 2008 the price of a barrel of oil came to $136 because of the distress and buyer dread about the wars in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Production costs can cause oil costs to rise or fall also. While oil in the Middle East is generally modest to extract, oil in Canada in Alberta’s oil sands is all the more expensive. When the stock of modest oil is depleted, the price could possibly rise if the main outstanding oil is in the tar sands. U.S. generation additionally legitimately influences the price of oil. With such a great amount of oversupply in the business, a decrease in production declines in general supply and increases costs. The U.S. has a normal day-by-day generation level of 9 million barrels of oil, and that normal creation, while unpredictable, has been slanting descending. Steady week-after-week drops put upward weight on oil costs, therefore.

There are likewise progressing worries that oil storage is coming up short, which affects the degree of investments moving into the oil business. Oil occupied into capacity has developed exponentially, and key centers have seen their storage tanks topping off rather rapidly. Nonetheless, slowing production and pipeline organize enhancements will decrease the opportunity that oil storage will arrive at its points of maximization, which enables investors to shed their feelings of an excessive amount of inventory and an increase in oil prices.

Conclusion

The sharp and steady fluctuation in oil prices since 2004 has stood out from policymakers and macroeconomists the same and prompted a lot of research concerning the effects of oil price fluctuations. In this paper, I have stated a few effects of oil price fluctuations in recent years. Understanding the effects of oil price fluctuations is important as most monetary authorities attempt to keep the fluctuations in their under control. Knowledge about the effects of oil price increases and decreases will then assist monetary authorities to adopt appropriate policies to accommodate these fluctuations. Along these lines, the present investigation has a significant implication for the country’s government in detailing strategies for oil prices. Oil prices ordinarily increase during times of worldwide economic quality and as interest outpaces supply. Oil prices will fall when the reverse is valid, and demand can’t stay aware of developing supplies. Overall, there are a few ways to overcome the effects of oil price fluctuations which is by controlling the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in oil markets and also by enforcing the law of demand and supply of the oil prices which will control the fluctuation of the oil prices.

References

1. Asem, Tahtamouni., Fouzan, Al Qaisi., & Usama Adnan, Fendi. (2017) The Effect of Oil Price Falling on the Jordanian Economic System. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 2017, 7(5), 282-289. Available from : http: www.econjournals.com
2. Danzuraidi, D. (2016), Oil Price Drop. Available from: https://www. dandanzuraidi.wordpress.com/2016/01/26/oil-price-drop.
3. APPEA. (2016), What is Oil? Available from: http://www.appea.com.au/ oil-gas-explained/oil-and-gas/what-is-oil
4. Moradkhani, N., Rashid, Z.A., Hassan, T., Nassir, A. M. (2010). The Impact of Increasing Energy Prices on the Prices of Other Goods and Household Expenditure: Evidence from Malaysia. Retrieved from www.iioa.org/files/conference-1/91_20100424051_sentone,28Feb.doc
5. Krauss, C. (2016), Oil Prices: What’s Behind the Drop? Simple Economics. Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/business/energy-environment/oil prices. html?_r=0.
6. M. G. Salameh. (2014). Major Geopolitical Developments That Could Impact On Oil Supplies From The Arab Gulf Region. Working Paper, Research Center for Energy Management.
7. Yudong W, Chongfeng W & LiYang. (November 2013). Oil price shocks and stock market activities: Evidence from oil-importing and oil-exporting countries. Journal of Comparative Economics Volume 41, Issue 4, 1220-1239. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.12.004
8. Amine L, Constantin M & Kostas A. (March 2016). Do OPEC announcements influence oil prices? Energy Policy Volume 90, 262-272. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.11.025
9. Yu Shan W & Yen Ling C. (January, 2013). Dynamic transmission effects between the interest rate, the US dollar, and gold and crude oil prices. Economic Modelling, Volume 30, 792-798. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.09.052