Category: Odyssey

Introduction

Homer’s The Odyssey remains one of the most popular classical texts, particularly due to its captivating narrative and the fact that the work allows expanding the readers’ understanding of the Ancient World. The roles of fate and prophecy are addressed throughout the story, whereas the detailed portrayal of the Greek concepts of death and the underworld provides an excellent insight into the culture that gave birth to the literary work. For instance, Retief and Cilliers argue that Book XI of The Odyssey largely shaped the perception of Hades, or the Greek land of the dead, as well as of the Ancient views on death and the afterlife, in the later centuries (45). Books VIII to XI of The Odyssey is also particularly interesting as they include both an overview of Odysseus’ adventures prior to his captivity on Calypso’s island and an account of his current adventures.

Such a variety of the time periods studied in the text allows for a deeper exploration of the issues of fate and the images of prophecy, as evident in Books VIII to XI. Gartziou-Tatti shows that fate is examined throughout the work, but Odysseus’ story of his wanderings, as well as his interactions with the deceased people in Hades, provide the poet with another angle for the exploration of these concepts (16-18). Finally, Odysseus’ tale, or the Apologue, represents a narrative structure that is characteristic of the Homeric poems (De Jong 221). However, De Jong argues that the Apologue is unique in its scale and examination of the themes and motives of The Odyssey: “This is by far the longest embedded story in the Homeric epics and, together with his many lying tales, forms the basis for Odysseus’ status as ‘singer’” (221). This paper aims to explore the narrative of Books VIII to XI, including the quest narration, as well as the representation of fate, prophetic images, death, and the underworld in this part of The Odyssey.

Fate and Prophecy

In The Odyssey, the nature of fate is rather interesting. There is no doubt in the reader’s mind as to whether Odysseus will return to Ithaca in the end. The resolution of the story is clear from the very beginning. However, Gartziou-Tatti argues that:

The total sum of the poet’s information can be generally demarcated into two categories: those events that have already taken place up to the specific moment of time within the narrative, and those events that will happen. (Gartziou-Tatti 12)

The fate of Odysseus is known to the audience and the poet; it is the hero who is not usually aware of what is coming next. The only characters that have the knowledge of the story and Odysseus’ fate are divine characters, including gods, half-gods, and deities. The cannot impact the outcome of Odysseus’ journey since it is predetermined; however, they can either act as prophetic mediums or influence the course of the story, by assisting Odysseus or, on the contrary, postponing his return home.

Book IX is an excellent example of how the divine knowledge of fate is used in the poem. At the end of the Book, Odysseus manages to escape the Cyclopes’ island by blinding Polyphemus. After the Cyclops learns his name, he cries out (Homer IX.566-570):

We once had a prophet here, a great tall man,

Telemus, Eurymus’ son, a master at reading signs,

who grew old in his trade among his fellow-Cyclops.

All this, he warned me, would come to pass someday –

that I’d be blinded here at the hands of one Odysseus.

Despite the fact that the Cyclops could not influence the outcome of the episode, being a half-god, he had complete and certain knowledge of the upcoming events before they occurred. Moreover, he acts as a prophetic medium by cursing Odysseus (Homer IX.588-595):

…Odysseus, raider of cities,

Laertes’ son who makes his home in Ithaca,

never reaches home. Or if he’s fated to see

his people once again and reach his well-built house

and his own native country, let him come home late

and come to a broken man – all shipmates lost,

alone in a stranger’s ship –

and let him find a world of pain at home!

After the Cyclops’ curse is pronounced, it is evident to the audience that it is prophetic; Odysseus will indeed come back home a broken man on a stranger’s ship, and he will have to fight Penelope’s suitors who took residence in his home before he can return to his place as the rightful king of Ithaca.

Cyclops’ father Poseidon, on the other hand, is also an example of god’s influence on fate. Even though he is a god, he is unable to impact the known outcome of Odysseus’ story; however, he can still create obstacles that would postpone the hero’s return home, thus avenging his son Polyphemus. Poseidon’s curse is explained in another prophecy in Book XI when Odysseus speaks to the dead prophet Tiresias (Homer XI.113-116):

…a god will make it hard for you – I know

you will never escape the one who shakes the earth

quaking with anger at you still, still enraged

because you blinded the Cyclops, his dear son.

The dead prophet explains to Odysseus what is already clear to the audience: that the misfortunes in his travels are due to Poseidon’s wrath and the curse that Polyphemus has put on Odysseus. The fact that the prophet knows of the plot can be partly attributed to the fact that he is no longer part of the human world; he is somewhere between the divine and the human, which is why he is one of the characters who can explain the current event and predict the future. This is further highlighted by Tiresias’ further words (Homer XI.129-132):

And even if you escape, you’ll come home late

and come to a broken man – all shipmates lost,

alone in a stranger’s ship –

and you will find a world of pain at home

The words of the prophet mirror those of Polyphemus (Homer IX.592-595), which supports the parallel between a dead soul and a half-divine being, emphasizing that fate is only known to those outside the human realm.

Overall, throughout the story, the poet portrays fate as being the power above all else; in the world of The Odyssey, the fate is pre-determined, and neither the gods nor the humans can alter the hero’s destiny. However, the beings that are not part of the human world have a somewhat tighter relationship with future events, in that they can influence the course of the story without changing its outcome, like Poseidon who has made Odysseus’ journey more difficult, or enlighten the hero on his future, as Tiresias does in Book XI.

Death and the Underworld

To start with, it is necessary to underline that the topic of death and the underworld occupied the minds of many ancient poets. Homer was not an exception. Therefore, Book XI of The Odyssey is devoted to the main character’s descending to Hades and his communicating with ghosts.

It is acknowledged that Odysseus could not return to Ithaka since he was followed by Poseidon’s wrath. Therefore, so as to clarify his further route, Odysseus had to get a prediction from Tiresias’s ghost that was to be found in Hades. Odysseus’s ship was taken to the far north. This was the place where the sun did not rise, and three rivers met and went to Hades. The goodness of magic Circe had given Odysseus two black sheep in order to attract ghosts with sacrificial blood. Odysseus put some honey, wine, and grains to the sacrificial hole. Then he poured some blood and called the gods of the Underworld – Hades and his spouse Persephone. Ghosts started to fly together over the holes, but Odysseus had to keep them off with his sword. He needed Tiresias’s ghost to be the first to taste the blood in order to get a prediction. It is critical to point out that Tiresias managed to preserve his diaphragm, which was considered as the reservoir of the mind. So, he was the only one not to lose his consciousness:

The great blind prophet whose mind remains unshaken.

Even in death – Persephone has given him wisdom,

Everlasting vision to him and him alone…

The rest of the dead are empty, flitting shades (Homer X.115-119).

So, Tiresias’s ghost tasted the blood and revealed to Odysseus that Poseidon’s wrath would cause much trouble to Odysseus and his companions. However, Odysseus would be able to return to the motherland upon the sacrifice to all the gods. Next, Odysseus saw his mother’s ghost. As a matter of fact, when Odysseus was leaving home, she was alive. His mother did not recognize him until she tasted some blood. Nevertheless, afterward, she told Odysseus what was going on in Ithaka. He tried to hug her but in vain since she was unbodied. Then, Odysseus met the heroes’ ghosts. He was sorrowful to find out about Agamemnon’s death. The greatest hero Achilles was glad to see the story of his son’s feats under Troy. Despite this, in reply to Odysseus’s praise he pronounced his famous utterance about ghosts’ unhappy life in Hades:

By god, I’d rather slave on earth for another man –

Some dirt-poor tenant farmer who scrapes to keep alive –

Than rule down here over all the breathless dead (Homer XI.356-359).

Ajax was the only one who failed to forgive Odysseus and did not reply to his reconciliatory speech. Odysseus witnessed the last judgment of Minos, who was sitting with his gold scepter in front of a crowd of ghosts in the palace of Hades. Besides, Odysseus happened to see the giant Orion who had dared to compete with Artemis in the art of hunting. Hence, Orion was sentenced to his everlasting hunt in Hades. After that, Odysseus saw the shadow of Heracles. However, it was difficult to understand whether it was just a phantom or the hero himself who was enjoying his immortality among the Olympic gods. Odysseus was willing to see other heroes. In spite of this, the ghosts’ cry brought a terrifying thought to his mind: Persephone could send the phantom of Gorgon to turn Odysseus and his crew into stones. So, they decided to leave Hades immediately.

Taken into account the above said, it is possible to arrive at the conclusion that, at the times of Odysseus, the dead had the power to cause harm to them alive. Therefore, the alive had to be careful when descending to Hades. The underworld was considered as a dull place where it was boring even to be a king. The dead would have preferred being alive and having a lower status in the world of them alive. However, it was not possible anymore. Besides, it is essential to note that the description of the underworld happens to appear full of controversies. Phantoms in Hades were unbodied and soulless, as well as they were deprived of their mind and memory. However, unbodied ghosts were scared of a sword. What is more, Tiresias was the only one to possess his mind and memory. However, he needed to taste sacrificial blood to use his gift of a foreteller. Apart from that, in Hades, ghosts continued their secular activities. Nevertheless, these activities tended to be devoid of any sense. Moreover, it is reasonable to point out that, contrary to many other poems of those days, the visit to the underworld in The Odyssey was not motivated (De Long 164).

The Quest Narrative

Odysseus’s narration contains the story of his adventures. These are mainly Books VIII-IX. The character speculates on the events which have happened to him and gives their evaluation.

Odysseus started speaking about his adventures. He outlined his departure from the shores of Troy. Besides, he dwelt upon the destruction of the city of Ciconians and touched his companions’ death. He continued speaking about the storm which entrained his visit to lotus-eaters. Afterward, his ship reached the area where Cyclopes lived. Odysseus decided to leave his ships by one of the islands and took one ship to the Cyclopes’ shores. He chose twelve of his companions to go to the cave of Polyphemus. In the course of this visit, six of Odysseus’s companions died. However, the hero himself was rather brave and skillful enough. Odysseus managed to inebriate Polyphemus. Next, he pierced his eye with his sword, and, thus, he rescued his companions and himself. They purloin the Cyclope’s herd and came back to their ships. However, Polyphemus was so furious that he addressed to his father Poseidon and asked him to take revenge on Odysseus and his crew for the deed:

Hear me –

Poseidon, the god of the sea-blue mane who rocks the earth!

If I really am your son and you claim to be my father –

Come, grant that Odysseus, raider of cities,

Laertes’ son who makes him home in Ithaka,

Never reaches home (Homer IX.136-142).

Therefore, Odysseus was doomed to the everlasting travel in the kingdom of Poseidon, who was furious with his son’s offender. In his narration, Odysseus sounded confident when he described the events. He did not seem to have anything to regret. However, it is obvious that he was willing to come back home to Troy and that he would continue struggling for this.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is necessary to state that this paper has been devoted to the concepts of fate, prophecy, death, and the underworld in Books VIII-XI of The Odyssey by Homer. The paper has analyzed these notions. Besides, the paper has considered the narration by Odysseus where the character describes his adventures.

Works Cited

Gartziou-Tatti, Ariadni. “Prophecy and Time in The Odyssey.” Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica, vol. 96, no. 3, 2010, pp. 11-28.

Homer. The Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles. Penguin Classics, 1997.

Retief, François P., and Louise Cilliers. “Burial Customs, the Afterlife and the Pollution of Death in Ancient Greece.” Acta Theologica, vol. 26, no. 2, 2006, pp. 44-61.

De Jong, Irene J. F. A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey. Cambridge University Press, 2001.

In his intriguing epic Odyssey, Homer focuses on the social, political and spiritual practices of the Greek people. However, through discussing the adventures and social attributes of the characters, Homer highlights the aspect of xenia as per the Greek culture.

Therefore, a critical analysis of the story enlightens the contemporary society on the aspect of hospitality in relation to the people of Greece. Intuitively, the author highlights that constrained relationship arising from aspects like mistrust, greed, disunity and other ill motives, which can lead to the failure of xenia in the society.

Through focusing on the relationships and elusive interaction of various characters in the story, the next discussion elaborates the theme of xenia as per the Greek culture.

Authentically, xenia is the aspect of an individual/society being courteous or generous to a total stranger. Originating from the Greeks, xenia promotes a social culture more so, hospitality. Initially the relationship between the two parties (guest and host) may run smoothly but after sometime, the partnership either strengthens or weakens.

For instance, Penelope and Telemachus warmly welcome the guest whose main aim is to lure her into marriage. The suitors not only receive a shelter but also hold feasts. However, trouble ensues when Telemachus discovers that the visitors want to marry his mother forcefully.

Due to constant conflicts between Telemachus and the suitors (guests), he decides to seek advice from various people in order to eliminate them.

On one occasion, Telemachus faces a difficult decision because Athena tells him “think it well over in your mind how, by fair means or foul, you may kill these suitors in your own house (Fagles I 81-82). This statement proves that the interaction between the guests and Telemachus has slowly diminished the essence of hospitality.

During the conflict, there is bitter exchange of words between Telemachus and the suitors. For example, to drive them away Telemachus boldly says,” “Shameless,” he cried, “and insolent suitors, let us feast at our pleasure now, and let there be no brawling” (Fagles I 105-107).

In return, Antinous curses him and prays to gods not to give him the throne. Therefore, Homer tries to enlighten the society the issues that led xenia to diminish in ancient Greece. Most of them either eyed for the throne, wealth or had lustful ambitions (to marry Penelope forcefully).

How can a stranger become an enemy with the host? More over, the presentation of the suitors may kill the spirit of hospitality especially when it comes to Penelope, Telemachus and other people who live within their vicinity.

Consequently, in future Telemachus and his mother may decline to welcome any other visitors because of the poor foundation laid down by the suitors. Intuitively, peace would have prevailed if they had decided to return to their homes the moment Penelope declined to heed to their request.

According to the author, the poor spirit of xenia initiated by the suitors promotes unacceptable social skills like hatred and unfriendliness especially towards other strangers. The essence/value of xenia is to promote love and trust amid strangers and not other vices.

In book III, through interaction of Telemachus and Nestor, Homer gives an example of the right way to treat guests. When Telemachus decided to seek Nestor for assistance on how to solve the crisis at home, Nestor and his family treats him and Athena as explicit guests.

The hosts offered Athena and Telemachus comfortable seats, drinks (wine) and meat to eat. Surprisingly, Nestor’s son “gave them their portions of the inward meats and poured wine for them into a golden cup, handing it to Athena first, and saluting her at the same time (Fagles III 12).

They joined the feast as though they were Nestor’s family members. Amazingly, Nestor only inquires about the identity of the visitors after celebrations and interactions. Furthermore, Nestor readily listens to Telemachus’ problem as though it also directly affects him.

In retaliation, Athena and Telemachus pray for the success and happiness of Nestor’s family. in her prayers Athena says, “we pray God send down thy grace on Nestor and on his sons; thereafter also make the rest of the Pylian people some handsome return for ” (Fagles III 16).

The prayer is a form of thanksgiving Athena and Telemachus offer to Nestor and his family thus, strengthening the relationship of the two groups as guests and hosts. Love, patience, trust and equality are some of the major characteristics, which strengthen xenia as highlighted by Homer.

Similarly, guest should practice the spirit of appreciation especially to their hosts thus contributing to its success. Secondly, through xenia Nestor provides Telemachus with both means of transport and company (Nestor’s son Peisistratos) to enable him seek assistance from Menelaus (Fagles III 25).

For instance, Nestor says, “Still, I should advise you by all means to go and visit Menelaus, who has lately come off a voyage” (Fagles III 20). Thus, this shows that xenia can lead to the development of social, political and economic elements especially in a disputed environment. The value of xenia is to promote companionship among strangers.

Similarly, Homer promotes the element of xenia further, through the character of Menelaus. When Telemachu and Peisistratos visit Menelaus, he gives them a chance to bathe, eat and join the ongoing wedding feast. Initially, Menelaus scolds Eteoneus, who wanted to send away the strangers.

Due to anger Menelaus refutes Eteoneus suggestion by saying, “you never used to be a fool, but now you talk like a simpleton” (Fagles IV 10). Furthermore, he listens to Telemachus’ problem especially with the suitors. Besides mourning the disappearance of his friend Odyssey, he prays that god will punish the suitors.

According to Menelaus, he has been a guest in many homes and this was his chance to retaliate. Therefore, he gives his best to Telemachus and Peisistratos as visitors/friends. Through Menelaus, Homer reveals that the spirit of xenia should be uniform in the society.

For instance, Menelaus accepts Telemachus not only because he is a son of his friend but also because he has been a guest in many homes.

Finally, Homer promotes xenia when Menelaus rebukes hostility in the society by declining Eteoneus move to send away strangers (Fagles IV 10) thus, calling for societal unity/peace, which is a value of xenia.

Furthermore, Homer insists on the value of xenia when he writes, “there are some strangers come here, two men, who look like sons of Jove (Fagles IV 7). This shows the value of xenia is to promote humanity in the society.

In conclusion, Homer highlights that sociopolitical development as the major benefit of xenia (successful). In book three, the dialogue between Nestor and Telemachus proves that friendship is the basis of xenia.

For example, Nestor uses terms like ‘my friend, my dear son/friend’ to refer to Telemachus (Fagles 30) thus, reinforcing the importance of xenia. Through focusing on the relationship of Telemachus and other characters like the suitors, Menelaus and Nestor, he enlightens the society on the importance of social unity.

For instance, by discussing the characters of the suitors, he condemns greed, enmity and lust among guests. Secondly, he reveals that the success of xenia leads to peace especially during social and political crisis.

Works Cited

Fagles, Robert. Homer, the Odyssey. New York: Penguin Books, 1996. Print

Homer is known for uniquely combining cultural concepts and values to create a complete and comprehensive story enriched with morals, which is shown in his masterpiece The Odyssey. Through the first four books, the author develops a storyline with an interaction of a variety of themes, such as fate, free will, justice, grief, glory, honor, loyalty, and others. The mentioned value serves the revealing the feelings and emotions of characters and displaying the atmosphere of ancient Greece. One of the instances is the development and formation of Telemachus’, the son of Odysseus, identity after he visits Nestor and Menelaus. The hospitality he faced is already the indicator of how the author tries to create an accurate insight into the time he lived in, particularly into the generally accepted moral code. Although Nestor does not know much about Odysseus’ fate, he tells Telemachus how heroic and protective his father is, making the young man proud of the blood he possesses.

Through the meeting of Telemachus with Menelaus, the author emphasizes the significance of hospitality as a primary value and develops such features and discretion, leadership, and heroism of the son of Odysseus. The king of Sparta is impressed with his quest and tells about his friendship with Odysseus, showing how much this value means for warriors that they are not even ashamed of weeping. Homer reveals and makes to interact dozens of themes, creating readers’ insight into moral code and primary values.

The first four books of The Odyssey are focused on the son of Odysseus, Telemachus. I assume that it provides several advantages, which contribute to the story in general. First, it is vital to show the readers the complete process of growing a hero. Odysseus is already a mature one, and his further education cannot be a point of focus. On the other hand, Telemachus is young and shall be taught in his own journey. Moreover, providing readers with information about the main protagonist occasionally and indirectly creates a feeling of unknowing. It also conceives a desire to reveal additional details and take a look at the story from the other side.

Besides, growing up without a father and, respectively, having the wish to find out his fate is a strong motive to move on. Telemachus has grown in an insecure house, where suitors are not good men capable of teaching the young boy. In opposite, they make the boy see how his inheritance is being wasted. Nevertheless, the son of Odysseus has a robust moral code and knowledge about hospitality and respect. He is still a teenager of his time, shy, modest but unconfident, vulnerable to strong feelings and inner desires. In the situation when there are no good mentors, he lacks experience and knowledge. However, he possesses strong blood, and the signs of his future heroic stand already exist. Telemachus is a teenager of ancient Greece who still has the knowledge to learn and skills to acquire.

Greek Gods are significantly involved in many vital events in The Odyssey and play an essential role in the story’s plot development. The story about the House of Atreus told by Zeus reveals the curse that began with king Tantalus, punished and imprisoned for all eternity for killing and serving food with his son’s flesh for gods. Agamemnon and Menelaus, who belong to the House of Atreus, are also doomed to be plagued by corruption, betrayal, and murder of family members. Zeus warns Agisthos not to kill the man, do not touch his wife, or face a reckoning. However, the refusal to listening results in seducing Agamemnon’s wife Clytemnestra, killing Agamemnon, and murdering Agisthos by Orestes. This sequence of events is predictable in the view of the curse of the House of Atreus. Therefore, the story about the House of Atreus was used to parallel described occasions and one that might happen with Odysseus, Penelope, and Telemachus.

In addition, Telemachus said to Nestor that the fate of Penelope’s suitors should coincide with what happened to Agisthos. It implies that they know about the story and the warning is obvious. Suitors are compared to cursed members of the house, and they shall be doomed as well. The story plays the role of a cautionary tale not to violate divine warnings and maintain morality by proclaiming what is forbidden. Zeus warned Agisthos by the example of what happened to Tantalus, his bloodline, and family members, and the consequences of breaching God’s will were shown and connected to other characters.

By comparing such literary works as the Epic of Gilgamesh and Odyssey, one can gain valuable insights into the cultures and societies described by the authors.

This paper is aimed at discussing the journeys undertaken by the main characters; in particular one should focus on their motives of the protagonists and the way in which both Gilgamesh and Odysseus were transformed in the course of their adventures. This discussion can throw light on the values and beliefs of people who could live many centuries ago.

At first, it is important to speak about the motives that prompted the epic heroes to leave their homeland. For instance, one can mention that Odysseus was forced to go to the Trojan War. At the very beginning he wanted to remain at Ithaca, but he was compelled to join the army of Agamemnon and Menalaus. In contrast, Gilgamesh was willing to undertake this journey. Moreover, he is driven by several motives.

For instance, he is willing to leave a semi-god called Humbaba because this victory can gain him fame and recognition of other people. On the whole, this example can throw light on the differences between the culture of Ancient Greece and Sumer. The behavior of Odysseus indicates that Greeks emphasized the devotion to home country or family. In turn, the culture of Sumer attached importance to power and glory.

Additionally, it is vital to discuss how the journey affected both Odysseus and Gilgamesh. In the course of his travels, Odysseus encountered many difficulties and in some cases, he had to use cunning, brutal force, and sometimes even cruelty in order to survive and return to Ithaca. Furthermore, he could remain with Calypso. Nevertheless, he remains loyal to his wife Penelope and his homeland.

In turn, Gilgamesh becomes transformed in the course of his adventures. It is difficult for him to accept the idea that he is mortal. In turn, Odysseus does not even try to acquire the status of a deity. Again, the experiences of the main characters can reflect very important differences between the cultures of Greece and Sumer. Greeks recognized the limitations of a human being. Yet, one can say the same thing about Sumerian culture in which individuals could claim the status of a deity.

Special attention should be paid to the role played by female protagonists. Their behavior can also tell the readers about the values and beliefs of different cultures. For instance, Penelope remains faithful to her husband even though he has been absent from Ithaca for many years. More importantly, she rejects the offering of her suitors. This character shows that Greek women were responsible for maintaining families and households.

One can even argue that Penelope’s difficulties are much greater than the challenges faced by Odysseus. The Epic of Gilgamesh gives a different portrayal of women. For instance, Ishtar falls in love with Gilgamesh. However, the protagonist is afraid of her. Moreover, the readers should take into account that unlike Gilgamesh, Ishtar is a deity. So, it is possible to say that the culture of Sumer culture could give a very high social status to women.

Overall, the comparison of these literary works can increase readers’ understanding of Sumer or ancient Greek culture. Homer’s epic indicates at such values as marital fidelity, devotion to homeland, and acceptance of human limitations, especially mortality. In turn, the Epic of Gilgamesh stresses power, fame, and recognition of others.

Background

Although, occasionally, it is difficult for contemporary people to understand the importance of Iliad and Odyssey, its power should not be underestimated. The significance of Iliad and Odyssey in the modern world can be explained by the fact that they are the first ancient epics, which have survived to this day. It provides a deep insight into the lifestyle of ancient people. In addition, it appears to be the only historical and written source for the period of Dark Times. Therefore, it presents its main difference from other ancient stories, which are not relevant anymore. The primary reason for it is the fact that there is a range of other stories and historical sources about other periods. As for me, I find these books engaging to read these books, as they are informative in the context of the ancient people’s way of thinking.

The Role of Gods in Homer

It should be admitted that the role of gods in Homer is significant. There are numerous of them in the poems and they are capable of influencing their lives considerably. An illustrative example for this thesis could be the fact that Athena supported and provided Telemachus with essential help. There is a likelihood that the journey of Telemachus was not successful to the same extent without her involvement. Therefore, it is evident that the story could not exist the same way without the participants of gods.

The Attitude to War

The attitude to war in Homer’s poem presents a matter of discussion. On the one hand, the author paid significant attention to warrior honor, while describing the characters and their behavior. Preparations for fights and the process itself are present as something exciting. On the other hand, he illustrates the negative and destructive consequences of war (Sehgal, 2017). For this reason, there is no precise answer to this question.

Reference

Sehgal, S. (2017). War times. Medium.

Introduction

Many people live on the planet, so it becomes natural that all may not think, act similarly in a given situation. Considering this another thing which becomes natural is that all the people will not follow a particular religion or believe in one god, for instance, the people who believe in Islam worship Allah, people who believe in Christianity worship Jesus Christ and there are many more religions which the people believe in across the globe. Among those many religions, there is a beautiful religion called Hinduism. A person who practices Hinduism is called a Hindu. 13% of the people across the world practice Hinduism. The sole aim of all the religions is to make the people realize the value of life and to make the most of the same but doing holy acts and by not indulging in undesirable activities, to make sure that this happens every religion has its holy book, the Christians follow the Holy Bible, the Muslims (people who believe in Islam) follow the Quran, similarly as the other people follow their holy books, the Hindus follow the Bhagavad-Gita.

Bhagavad-Gita focuses upon the attainment of god, which can only be possible if the holy book is read and followed in all situations. The holy book focuses upon the fundamental teachings of Hinduism and is divided into 18 chapters to simplify complex concepts for a better understanding of the people. All the other holy books focus upon the same fundamental teachings but the only difference is that those books put across the same concepts in different words and situations.

The Fundamental teachings of Hinduism

Hinduism stresses upon the four most important teachings, the same will be seen one by one. The first concept is the concept of Dharma; the term means “A comprehensive ordering of life according to principles and practices appropriate for one’s age and station (“caste”) in life. This includes the basics of the Indian caste system, which segments people from birth into certain levels in society, placing each person in the caste where they will live out their life. Although the caste system was abolished by national law in 1949, it remains a significant force throughout India.” (Windmill). To simplify it can be said that Dharma is nothing but the duties which an individual has to realize and fulfill during his/her period of existence. The same is talked about in the chapter by the name “The Eternal Duties of the human beings” in Bhagavad-Gita. “Chapter three establishes the fact by various points of view that the performance of prescribed duties is obligatory for everyone. Here Lord Krishna categorically and comprehensively explains how every member of society must carry out their functions and responsibilities in their respective stage of life according to the rules and regulations of the society in which one lives. Further, the Lord explains why such duties must be performed, what benefit is gained by performing them, what harm is caused by not performing them. Plus what actions lead to bondage and what actions lead to salvation. All these points relating to duty have been described in great detail. Thus this chapter is entitled: The Eternal Duties of Human Beings.” (Bhagavad-Gita). Lord Krishna is very firmly believed in Hinduism, there are so many myths about Lord Krishna in Hinduism. In this way, Bhagavad-Gita covers and puts across the first Fundamental principle of Hinduism.

The second Fundamental teaching is known as Samsara, under this teaching it is believed that the soul is immortal; it cannot be destroyed come what may. But on the other hand, it is believed that the body is never immortal, this teaching talks about reincarnation better known as rebirth. According to this principle, the deeds of an individual decides the fate of the individual, for instance, if an individual repeats evil actions over and over again he/she is bound to be born again in the category in other words the soul of that particular person will take lower forms of worldly life and the person will suffer for his/her deeds in the previous birth. The same can be seen in Bhagavad-Gita under the chapter titled “Actions and Renunciations”. The chapter aims at the achievement of the very same principle of Samsara. The next concept is Karma. “The doctrine of karma relates to the law of cause and effect. It states that everything people do (karma) leaves impressions in their mind, which determines what kind of people they will be in the future, and hence their fate.” (Windmill). Samsara and Karma are very similar concepts the aim of both is the same which is to make an individual realize that his/her actions decide the fate of that individual.

The fourth and final teaching is Moksha. “When the cycle of rebirth comes to an end, a person is said to have attained Moksha. All schools of thought agree that Moksha implies the cessation of worldly desires and freedom from the cycle of birth and death, the exact definition depends on individual beliefs.” (Windmill). This principle is also the ultimate reality and a should individual start realizing this reality by leaving all the worldly things aside only then can he/she attain Moksha. Attaining Moksha requires the ultimate control over oneself and this applies to all the situations because only the most difficult of situations test the temperament of people and to attain Moksha it becomes inevitable to have a good temperament. “In chapter eighteen Lord Krishna sums up the conclusion of the previous chapters and describes the attainment of salvation by the paths of karma in chapters one through six and in jnana yoga section which is chapters thirteen through eighteen. The Lord explains that while doing so one must offer without reservation everything to God. The knowledge revealed gets progressively more and more confidential than in all the previous chapters. Thus this chapter is entitled: Final Revelations of the Ultimate Truth.” (Bhagavad-Gita). This chapter talks about the last teaching which is Moksha. Only good deeds and good deeds alone can bless an individual with a good life in the following birth and the choice is in the hands of the people, even after knowing the ultimate truth, people often look for materialistic wealth and other luxuries. In this way, Bhagavad-Gita reveals the fundamental teachings of Hinduism

Bhagavad-Gita in a lyrical format

The holy book is an epic and the lyrical nature of the book helps in putting across the message better. The main reason the Bhagavad-Gita being lyrical is because of the rhyming mater used in the epic, the meter is very mellifluous and harmonic. A rhyming meter often has 32 syllables in each verse, there are 18 chapters further divided into many verses and each verse has 32 syllables. This is what makes the Bhagavad-Gita lyrical and this is good because when anything is lyrical people often get attracted towards it fast and look up to the writers and the message portrayed in the book. Bhagavad-Gita is translated into many languages. “The Bhagavad-Gita is composed of 700 Sanskrit verses contained within 18 chapters, divided into three sections each consisting of six chapters. They are Karma Yoga the yoga of actions. Bhakti Yoga the yoga of devotion and Jnana Yoga the yoga of knowledge.” (Bhagavad-Gita). The holy book is also called the song of god. There are many chants in the holy book this is another factor that makes it lyrical.

Ulysses

Ulysses or odyssey is an English word of Greek origin that means an adventurous journey. The story mainly focuses on a Greek hero who is consistently in pursuit of achieving something big which has never been achieved before. He sets himself to be a part of a bloody battle called the Trojan War. He shows extraordinary dedication by living without his wife Penelope whose contribution will also be discussed in the paper and his Telemachus. It is an epic that narrates the story of a hero and how things turn out when he returns to his kingdom after a gap of twenty years. The epic shows the struggles faced by Penelope the unsung heroine of the play; she keeps her suitors at bay and also protects her son Telemachus from getting killed. The people wanted to kill Telemachus to gain control over the kingdom of Ithaca. Ulysses is a great epic that shows more struggles than one and it is truly a great epic that has all the makings of a great epic. This paper will throw light upon this great epic and comprehensive analysis of the character of Penelope will also be provided in this paper.

The character of Ulysses is very famous and it is mainly associated with two epics namely the Iliad and the Odyssey both these great epics were written by homer. Ulysses was a Greek king who went on an expedition in the later parts of his life leaving his kingdom, his wife Penelope, and his son Telemachus all alone. His son was born just when he was about to leave for the Trojan War which was supposed to be a bloody battle.

“I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees: all times I have enjoyed Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone; onshore, and when Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades Vexed the dim sea: “(Ulysses). These lines were said by the great king Ulysses. These lines clearly show the intent of the great king. He says that he will refrain from resting and wasting his life. He says that he has enjoyed his life and he does not want to waste it by a remaining idol. He wants to conquer and to make a mark for himself and the same motivates Ulysses to participate in the Trojan War.

The will of Ulysses becomes the highlight of this Epic. He is extremely motivated even after being the king of Ithaca. He wants to prove to the world that he can achieve and conquer even in his old age. He is so motivated in the Epic that he does not even think about his son Telemachus and his wife Penelope. Telemachus is a very important character in Ulysses. He gets really worried about his kingdom after the departure of his father. He gets tensed about the suitors who come and try their luck to please Penelope to take over the kingdom. Telemachus also goes on a journey to find his father Ulysses so that the happiness and the prosperity of the kingdom of Ithaca get restored. Odyssey is all about the struggle of various characters. It all starts with the voyage of Ulysses. He is in pursuit of happiness and struggles hard to find the same in the Epic. Telemachus is in pursuit of his father to ensure that his kingdom remains prosperous and Penelope is in pursuit of ideas to ensure that she does not succumb to pressure in the absence of her husband Ulysses. So Ulysses is about the struggle and the hardship faced by the different characters of the Epic. Ulysses reflects on his past and feels good that he has achieved something but when he realizes that he is not satisfied living a domestic life with Penelope, he decides to live his life to the fullest and to explore and relive his past. Age takes a toll on Ulysses and his fellow sailors but his will and his motivation keep him going strong. He advises all his sailors to be brave and to fight till their last breath. His fighting spirit and his never say die attitude speaks volumes about his character in this great Epic. He openly declares that he wants to sail and explore beyond sunset and even beyond death. Such enthusiasm is truly unprecedented and shows a lot of courage in the character of Ulysses. Ulysses returns home after a long gap of twenty years and derives a lot of satisfaction from the fact that his wife remained very faithful to him and his kingdom. Her contribution to this Epic will be discussed in the following part of the paper.

This part will throw light upon the character of Penelope and the way she reacted in the absence of Ulysses to safeguard the kingdom against the suitors. A comprehensive analysis of her reactions will be presented in this part.

Penelope the Unsung Heroine of the Epic

“In Homer‘s Odyssey, Penelope is the faithful wife of Odysseus, who keeps her suitors at bay in his long absence and so is eventually rejoined with him. Before recent readings, her name had been associated with faithfulness.” (Cambridge University Press). Penelope is believed to be the faithful wife of Ulysses and she stood strong in his absence. Women were known for the deeds of their sons and by their deeds early on, Ulysses wanted his wife to be faithful to him without looking at his track record and Penelope certainly fulfilled this desire of Ulysses in his absence. Even though Ulysses goes on an expedition for many years, Penelope always spoke about him with respect and gratitude and the relationship between Ulysses and Penelope forms the base of the story, the whole story revolves around these two most important characters. Women have always taken a back seat in most of the early stories but Ulysses is a bit different from the other stories, Penelope stands all alone protecting the kingdom of Ulysses changes the whole image of women taking a back seat.

Penelope could have easily married some suitor and the kingdom would have gone to the suitor but she did not do this to ensure that she protects the kingdom of her husband even in his absence and she stood by his wishes, he wanted her not to get married and she did the same. “She waits twenty years for the final return of her husband during which she has a hard time snubbing marriage proposals.” (The Odyssey, P 628). She waited for twenty long years for her husband to come back, this clearly goes to show that she was a woman of character and self-control, had it been any other woman, she would have surely failed to resist the temptation of getting married again. She had a lot of persistence and composure, her image had been overshadowed because of Ulysses, and this is because he is the protagonist in the play and the contribution of his wife Penelope has never come to the limelight. It is very fair to say that she never gets the appreciation that she deserves because of the overshadowing nature of the character of Ulysses.

“To avoid choosing a husband, Penelope came up with a plan. She announced that she was weaving a shroud for Laertes, her father-in-law. She said that, once she had finished, she would choose from among the many suitors.” (Penelope). This goes to show her faithfulness and her thoughtful attitude, she decides to protect the kingdom against all odds and she succeeds in doing so, the Poem is also about the struggle of Ulysses and Penelope to get back together after twenty years of long gap.

Penelope wove during the day to keep her suitors at bay and removed it at night to buy herself some time. She certainly succeeded in keeping all her suitors at bay and in protecting the kingdom in the absence of the king for twenty long years. Penelope’s loyalty has been discovered by the people of late and she features in many paintings, poems, prose, etc.

“Men in The Odyssey only value women who they can use for physical needs and wealth, such as the women in the underworld that Odysseys encounters, and Penelope. Homer shows us how men in The Odyssey consider women less important than men. We rarely hear of women throughout the book. When we do, we are shown that men did not consider women important and are careless with their relationships with women, as we see in Odysseus’ relationship with Penelope. While Odysseus expected Penelope to stay faithful even after he was gone for twenty years and was unfaithful to her many times, through his relationship with Calypso. But today women can have accomplishments other than those of Penelope and the other woman Odysseus encountered in the underworld; they have the same opportunities and are treated as equals by men.” (Treatment of Women)

Compare and Contrast

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest epics and so is Gita and Odyssey, these epics have supernatural elements involved in them. This is one striking similarity in all three epics. Gilgamesh is the hero in the epic and it is all about his greatness in the Epic of Gilgamesh, similarly, Odyssey is all about the expedition of Ulysses. Bhagavad- Gita is slightly different because it admonishes the readers and it is all about how to live your life. Gita is a very reliable source especially for the Hindus; the other two epics are quite different from this great Epic.

Enkidu’s death is the highlight of the Epic of Gilgamesh, it affects the thought process of Gilgamesh and brings in many changes in the Epic. The aspect of Immortality has also been discussed in the epic of Gilgamesh, immortality has also been discussed in Gita, and it admonishes the readers about how one can become immortal by living a holy life and by doing great deeds. Gilgamesh quickly became a household name after this Epic, he is the protagonist in the epic, the whole epic is centered around him and this is why he became so popular after this epic. To conclude it is very fair to say that all the tree epics are different in their way, there are some similarities and these similarities have been mentioned in the paper.

Works Cited

Bhagavad-Gita. In Bhagavadgita.com. Web.

Bhagavad-Gita. In members.aol. Web.

The Bhagavad-Gita. In Eawc. Web.

For everyone in all the worlds, In Bhagavad-gita.org. Web.

Homer. The Odyssey, Book XVI, in The Iliad & The Odyssey. Trans. Samuel Butler. p. 628.

The Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin Books, 1996.

The other Faiths. In Windmill Ministries. Web.

Penelope. In Trojan War. Web.

Treatment of Women in Homer’s Odyssey.” Web.

Ulysses. In The Victorian Web. Web.

W. Mackail, with Penelope in the Odyssey (Cambridge University Press, 1916), epitomizes the traditional view of the dutiful Penelope.

Odyssey is an epic story done by Homer. It is one of the best epic stories which revolve around a hero who is faced by many challenges and problems which he conquered. The author has used an admiration tone throughout the book which helps to improve the character of the hero. The epic story is characterized by supernatural powers that have an effect on all that happens in the book, by influencing their outcome.

The Odyssey is sequential to the Iliad and it has twenty four books. It is a story of how Odysseus helped to fight and defeat the Troy by the use of the Trojan horse. It is a book with a story that has lasted for ages due to its major themes such as the relation between father and son, the role of women, the significance of hospitality and the use of disguise in the book. The essay delves in the above themes to show the importance of the book.

The relationship between father and son

It is always said that “like father like son”. This is true in the epic story, The Odyssey. Odysseus who is a man of advanced age is the main protagonist in the book.

He has succeeded in gaining a lot of respect, heroism and glory among his people due to his brave response in guarding Ithaca’s honor. This character makes Odysseus to be admired worldwide due to his character of an ideal man with a lot of intelligence and demeanor. “Like Odysseus, Telemachus is undertaking his own journey in an important sub-plot to Odysseus’s return voyage to Ithaca.

By examining this sub-plot and the character and trials of Telemachus, the reader is able to predict how Ithaca will go on once Odysseus dies (Caldwell, 2004)”. Under the leadership of Telemachus, Ithaca will be safe since the son will take over from his father in terms of his charismatic and brave leadership.

The relationship portrays the culture of the Greek society which was patriarchal in nature. Sons were rewarded for taking after their father and showing skills and determination shown by their fathers. Odysseus and his son Telemachus show similar characters. Odysseus is proud of his son who shows a promise of greatness and Telemachus is proud of his father who had admirable character as a warrior and defender of Ithaca. Both father and son are not close to each other and they develop their love for one another in a distance.

The distance between them is what prompts the son to start identifying his own worth. In the book, there is evidence that Odysseus and his son longed to see each other and they were determined to face any challenges in their quest to meet and reunite their family. The absence from one another gave them a psychological reason of redefining themselves and creating the urge to meet one another (Homer, 1999).

Women in Odyssey

From a cultural perspective, women’s position in the society was different from that of men, but women in Odyssey had influence and power. The book portrays women as modern and he shows their role in the book. For example, Odyssey’s wife who was called Penelope exerted a lot of power and influence. She knew that men would be lured by her sexual charms which she used to her advantage by obtaining what she wanted from them as she was waiting the return of her husband.

Women are seen as pitiful and people who are strong willed though they are defeated in the end. “Telemachus first asserted his manhood by ordering Penelope from the public rooms of the palace, indicating to the suitors of his intention to assert his claim to his father’s throne. The dependence of mothers on their son’s devotion to them is made clear elsewhere in Homer, as in the case of Anticlea and her statement that she died not of illness but of longing for her son Odysseus (Pomeroy 1995, p.28)”.

Significance of Hospitality

It took more than ten years for Odysseus to go back to his home after the victory for Ithaca in the Trojan War. He took long because he had to accept all the hospitality and welcoming nature of all the people he met along the way. Hospitality forms an integral part in the book since it is an aspect of social life and cooperation of relationships.

It fosters open communication in rather hostile environment. “For instance, in Homer’s Odyssey, when Telemakhos goes off on his own and encounters the castle of Menelaus, there is no hesitation to bring him inside and allow him to join the feast and welcomes them personally (Homer, 1999)”.

The story show how hospitality is used to open doors and it serves as a tool to create conducive environment for communication in a rather threatening situation.

The use of disguises

The book has used disguise of characters to enable the easy movement of characters from one region to the other in the world. There are players in the book who disguises themselves in more than one way. The goddess Athena disguised herself more than three ways. Odysseus also used the disguise of a horse to lull his enemies into trap and thus defeat them. Disguise was used for psychological as well as for pragmatic reasons (Homer, 1999).

Works Cited

Caldwell, Richard. The Origin of the Gods: A Psychoanalytic Study of Greek Theogonic Myth. New York: Oxford University Press., 2004. Print.

Homer. The Odyssey. NewYork: Signet Classics, 1999. Print.

Pomeroy, Sarah. Goddesses, whores, wives, and slaves : women in classical antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1995. Print.

The Odyssey is the story of an old man (Odysseus) returning home and a young man (Telemachus) venturing out in search of himself. Telemachus, throughout the story, considered the heroic Odysseus as his model.

Throughout the story, there is a constant struggle of the growing Telemachus to imitate the actions of his father and then eventually become like him that he comes to an end of his journey. In the beginning of the poem, Homer does not give any indication to the readers that Telemachus will eventually go on a journey like his father.

Telemachus’s headway towards this goal actually shows how difficult were the goals and ventures of Odysseus. The text of The Odyssey presents a single framed narration of the hero, Odysseys, and the journey of a child, Telemachus, into manhood. This essay will demonstrate the comparisons and contrasts the tale draws between the two central characters of father and son.

There are distinct similarities between the character of Odysseus and Telemachus. The resemblance are so close that in one account Penelope had to reverse the procedure in identifying the true identity of her visitor as Odysseus.

In Odysseus 4, Helen’s description of Telemachus actually shows the close physical resemblance between the two characters. However, as a character in the book, Telemachus is often found to move under the shadow of his father’s heroic feats.

Odysseus is hailed a hero for his heroic adventures and conquests in the battle of Troy. Telemachus too tries to emulate his father, and like him, goes out on a voyage, but fails to attain full respect like his father. Therefore, a continuous struggle is observed in the text wherein there is continuous comparison between the two characters.

The writer, the readers, does it and even by Telemachus himself who felt that, he could never match up to his father’s valor. In Odyssey 2, the episode in which Telemachus leaves a sword in unlocked room that helped the suitors to possess arms to combat the former.

Odysseus, though had made mistakes, could not be expected of making such a careless mistake. Eurymachus states that Telemachus could never muster the courage and conviction to face the threats of the suitors. In another instance, Leocritus points out that Telemachus may not venture out in a journey even after continues encouragement from his elders.

Homer’s epic poem portrays the character of Telemachus as a son who takes change of situation due to an absent father. Only till the father returns to take back the reigns. Therefore, to a great extent the character of Telemachus and his adventures hs been belittled in the text. However, Telemachus does show a sense of pride in his family and blood when he says that he will not shame his family.

Odysseus is critical of Telemachus when they reunite after the former’s return to Ithaca. Telemachus expresses his doubt on their reunion if the man who had transgressed from a beggar to the state of a hero could really be his father, to which Odysseus answers with impatience that had he not been the real father he would not have returned to Ithaca after twenty years of toiling.

In general, the characters of telemachus and Odysseus reflects on that of an obedient son tied by his duties and a gentle father happy to reunite with his family.

The poem stresses on equality and a cordial relation between Telemachus and Odysseus. However, it cannot be overlooked that the poem is more about Odysseus, who fought at Troy, and his grand heroic adventures and that of a mediocre son who lived a mundane life in the island of Ithaca encompassed by his family duties.

In most cases, forces that are completely beyond our control define the course that our life takes. This makes predestined fate and divine interventions responsible for nearly everything that happens in a man’s life. By looking at history, one is able to realize that most of Ancient Greek believed in the power of fate and the existence of forces that were beyond man’s control.

By analyzing most Greek literature, one is able to realize that there is usually an “unseen hand” that clearly controls people’s destiny. According to this mythology, the gods are responsible for engineering our fate and directing our lives in direction that we would not have taken by following our free will.

Although there is much literature written on this subject, Sophocles’ Oedipus and Homer’s Odyssey are classic examples that demonstrate how fate and divine intervention can dictate the course of our lives. In both plays, there is strong evidence, which proves that events in both Oedipus and Odysseus lives are engineered by forces that are beyond their control. (Homer 209)

In fact, it is interesting to note that fate and free will are interconnected in such a way that it is almost impossible to differentiate between the two. This is because while the gods are obviously responsible for choosing the path that one’s life is to take, it still takes the free will of the involved person to follow that path.

This is evident in Homer’s Odyssey where for close to eight years Odysseus is held captive by a force beyond his control. In fact, these unseen forces were responsible for his initial capture and they held him captive for almost ten years. When the same forces decided that it was time for Odysseus to return to his own country, they released him and notified Kalypso of this fact. (Homer 265)

When Odysseus was about to leave, Kalypso tried to coax him to stay but instead he chose the latter. This can be seen when Kalypso tells him, “You should stay here, and guard this house, and be immortal” (Homer 267) Instead of heeding this advice, Odysseus decides to leave for his home country and back to hi people.

Although this is the case, it is clear that Odysseus is merely following the path that the gods have preordained for him. This is seen at the beginning when the god Zeus claims, “all man’s afflictions come from us, we hear.” (Homer 210) This clearly shows that Odysseus was merely following a path that had already been established by divine intervention.

Apart from the detainment of Odysseus by the gods, the play contains many other scenes where the hand of fate is evident. An example is where Athena goes to Ithaka to meet Odysseus son. This meeting is called to rally the support of the community to reject Penelope’s suitors. Since the disappearance of Odysseus, Penelope has remained chaste but at one point, she gives in and makes herself available to other men. It is surprising that all this happens just as Odysseus is beginning to find his way back home.

In order to buy time, the gods cause Athena to rally the support of the community to ensure that Penelope is not married before the arrival of her husband. It is clear that had it not been for the interference of the gods, the suitors would have succeeded and Odysseus would never have gotten home in time owing to the turbulent condition at sea. One can therefore confidently conclude that the hand of fate was responsible for all the happenings in the life of Odysseus. (Homer 340)

In fact, this same hand of fate is witnessed in Sophocles’ Oedipus where divine intervention is responsible for Oedipus destiny. Just like Odysseus in the Odyssey, Oedipus has the free will to follow the course that the gods have predestined for him.

Since his birth, Oedipus is destined to kill his father and become the husband of his mother. No matter the path that he chooses, this oracle delivered by Apollo has to be fulfilled. Although the gods have ruled Oedipus past, he has the free will to dictate what happens in Thebes and his future by extension. (Sophocles 37)

From the opening of the play, it is evident that Oedipus took deliberate steps that led to his downfall. Once the plague appeared in Thebes, Oedipus could have chosen to ignore it but he instead chose to send Creon to consult the oracle at Delphi. When he learned of Apollo’s prophecy, he could have chosen to investigate the matter in a quiet manner but instead he cursed the murderer who was indeed himself.

This can be seen in the following text by Sophocles, “Upon the murderer I invoke this curse- whether he is one man and all unknown, or one of many- may he wear out his life in misery or doom! If with my knowledge he lives at my hearth, I pray that I myself may feel my curse.” (Sophocles 45)

In order for the Greek’s to identify with Oedipus, Sophocles presented him in such a way that gave him some human flaws, which were meant to equate him with the rest of the human race. For Oedipus, these flaws were his inflated ego, arrogance, an apparent disregard for the gods and an almost obsessive quest for truth.

Upon learning that he was indeed the killer of king Laius, Oedipus became enraged and claimed that the old oracle had lied. By fleeing from Corinth, Oedipus was actually trying to outrun the proclamation of the gods. Once Jocasta learned that indeed the old prophecy had been fulfilled, she tried to beg Oedipus not to pursue the matter but to let it rest. However, his only reply was, “I will not be persuaded to let chance of finding out the whole thing clearly.” (Sophocles 50)

It is at this point that the truth is bared before him and he goes ahead to curse the fate in his life. In order to show the responsibility of the gods, Oedipus claimed, “It was Apollo, friends, Apollo, that brought this bitter bitterness, my sorrows to completion.” (Sophocles 51) This clearly shows that it was divine intervention and not an act of free will that was responsible for what happened to Oedipus.

Conclusion

By looking at the two plays, it is evident that no man can elude the fate that the gods have preordained for him. However, everyone is given an option of choosing how to handle the second chance that life proffers. In the Odyssey, Odysseus reunites with his wife and forgives her for allowing other men to court her.

On the other hand, Oedipus also chooses to accept the fate that the gods have for his life and decides to resolve it using his own ideology and standards. He gives himself a punishment befitting his crime and decides not to blame the gods for anything that has happened to him. The analysis of these two plays clearly proves to us that fate not character is responsible for the course that people’s lives take.

Works Cited

Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Fiztgerald. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces: the Western tradition. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1999. 209-514. Print.

Sophocles. Oedipus the King. Trans. David Grene. University of Chicago Press, 2010. 36-52. Print.

Introduction

Sarcasm is a theme commonly expressed in various forms of writings. People use sarcasm when irritated, disappointed or angered by an action and they expect the recipients to recognize their vengeful intension (Minchin 542). In this case, we analyze Homer’s poem, Odyssey. Odyssey describes the sufferings and struggles of a king who spends ten years in war and another set of years in his journey back home.

Many transformations have taken place since Odysseus left home. Suitors have taken advantage of his absence to destroy his wealth. On his return home, Odysseus pretends to be a beggar and this causes a series of sarcastic instances. This paper discusses the expression of sarcasm in the Odyssey.

Sarcasm in Scheria: Euryalos vs. Odysseus

Laodamas invites Odysseus to participate in a game. However, Odysseus declines the offer because his concerns about his return home engaged his brain (Minchin 541). Euryalos, a young Phaiakian utters sarcastic words to Odysseus saying he refused to play because of his incompetence.

He likens him to a merchant seaman who obtains profits from trading; a “heart-biting” statement that insults Odysseus. In anger, Odysseus leaps to his feet and displays his superior skills in the game. Euryalos feels ashamed. With guilt, he apologizes and offers Odysseus a gift.

Sarcasm in the palace: Antinoos, Eumaios and Telemachos vs. Odysseus

Eumaios leads Odysseus (the beggar) to the palace where he begs from one suitor to another. Antinoos mocks Eumaios for his exaggerated politeness to the “disgusted swineherd”. He calls Odysseus a noxious beggar. This leads him to a series of arguments with Eumaios until Telemachos intervenes. Telemachos sarcastically states that Antinoos is senior and his actions portrayed politeness.

He tells Antinoos to continue with his generosity to the poor beggar and ignore servants who distracted his generosity (Minchin 543). However, Telemachos gains courage later on and openly accuses Antinoos of his extreme greediness. Antinoos is infuriated, becomes arrogant and threatens violence. Antinoos hurts the poor beggar, but the beggar decides to remain calm.

Sarcasm at the pack Eurymachos vs. Odysseus

Eurymachos is a suitor leading the pack. He is a dissembler who taunts Odysseus and cracks a joke of his baldness. He sarcastically tells Odysseus that because he chose to live as a beggar, he should continue living on the mercies of generous people. He cannot offer him paid work in the pack.

Odysseus is infuriated by Eurymachos insult and he subjects him to a series of rustic and aristocratic challenges. The beggar insults Eurymachos telling him that should Odysseus return to the palace, he would escape swiftly such that the wide doors would appear narrow (Minchin 545). Odysseus makes this insult publicly and Eurymachos threatens to harm him.

Sarcasm at the hall: Ktesippos and Telemachos vs. the beggar

Telemachos had known that the beggar was his real father and he welcomed him with utmost hospitality. Ktesippos is the third suitor who pretends to offer sentiments to the beggar. He openly mocks the beggar by stating that he would offer him an ox-hoof as a guest-gift.

He throws the ox-hoof on the beggars head. Fortunately, Ktesippos misses the beggar’s head and Odysseus gives him a sardonic smile (Minchin 547). Odysseus is filled with bitterness, but Telemachos comes to his rescue to physically attack Ktesippos.

Sarcasm prior to the contest of the bow: Theoklymenos vs. the suitors

Theoklymenos prophesies a sad and horrifying death for the suitors who merely laugh. The suitors laughed and teased Telemachos of his struggles to defend the beggar. They make repeated jokes of Theoklymenos prophesy. The suitors make irritating jokes of the beggar stating that he struggled to have his stomach full.

They even suggest shipping and selling the beggar and other guests to the Sicilians to raise Telemachos household income. These jokes deeply hurt Odysseus and Telemachos while they arouse jeers and laughter to the suitors.

Sarcasm at the contest of the bow: Odysseus vs. the suitors

A series of events happen leading to the contest of the bow. Two suitors, Antinoos and Leodes gang up to insult and mock Eumaios. Their actions flash hostility and bring in tension amongst the suitors. They considering the beggar as naïve and allow him to take the bow and take part in the fight.

Odysseus simply examines the bow and one of the suitors mocks him saying he is a connoisseur. Another suitor sarcastically says that the beggar’s good fortune would equate to his success with the bow (Minchin 551).

Odysseus strings the bow and announces that it is time to rejoice. He commands the gathering, strips off the suitors and takes over the powers at the palace. Odysseus and his son, together with the loyal retainers claim victory in the bow context.

Conclusion

Sarcasm prevails in most parts of the poem. It is evident that sarcasm can lead to a series of events. The exaggerated politeness of Odysseus in response to sarcasm leads to a series of dramatic events. Odyssey is one of the best poems representing sarcasm, where, Odysseus exaggerated politeness covers the better part of the poem.

Works Cited

Minchin, Elizabeth. “The Expression of Sarcasm in the Odyssey.” A Journal of Classical Studies, 63.1 (2010): 533-556. Print.