The administration of Ronald Reagan contributed to the Federal ocean policy in the 1980s. There were debates over ocean policy and pollution resulting from the wastes that were released in the oceans by society members. Some were opposed to policy changes. The basis of the arguments is that the oceans could decompose the wastes because of their massive volumes. Generally, the administration of Reagan advocated for the reforms of laws and regulations governing ocean dumping because the benefits resulting from the reformed laws would outweigh old laws’ costs. During this change, analysts believed the United States was making a shift from ocean protection of the 1970s to ocean management of the 1980s. This was seen as a transition from an ocean policy that was strict to a policy that is flexible in management.
Changes in ocean dumping policy
The control of ocean dumping started in the early 1970s, after the passage of several laws on environmental protection. A ban on uncontrolled ocean dumping was announced by President Nixon in 1971. This preceded the establishment of the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. This led to a stricter standard in dumping. The goal of this Act was to reduce and end dumping within 5 years. The permit system was introduced by the Act and the EPA and Corps of engineers regulated it jointly. In 1973, EPA announced its final rules and criteria. The EPA wanted to end harmful ocean dumping even if the dumping could not degrade the marine environment. A policy to end all forms of ocean dumping of sewage sludge was established. However, in 1980, the City of New York applied to continue with dumping sludge but was denied the permit by EPA. The EPA shifted from strict protection of the oceans to a flexible management strategy during the period 1971-1985. The reasons behind this shift include; knowledge on the state of the ocean’s vulnerability to contamination had changed, social cultural attitudes changed in the late 1970s and early 1980s because of the oil embargo and energy dislocations, and the governing coalition changed with the coming into power of Ronald Reagan. The ocean policy change happened as new policy images and changes in political and economic.
The concept of policy termination
Policy termination is the agency termination of basic policy redirections, program eliminations, partial terminations and fiscal retrenchments. This phase of the policy cycle is the most difficult because of the following; policies and agencies have a life of their own with substantial momentum, no incentive to admit past mistakes, political reluctance to termination due to vested interests will fight to keep the program, anti-termination groups mobilize resources to retain the policy, lastly, the costs of termination are high. The following are the reasons that have contributed to a growth in interest in policy termination. Some policies and programmes are seen as not effective or they are no longer needed thus, should be done way with, and a political climate of fiscal retrenchment that began in the late 1970s and early 1980s led to cuts in several programs. Types of termination include functional termination, organizational termination, policy termination and program termination. My position is the change in laws can contribute to better management of the ocean environment especially ending ocean dumping. Therefore I support the EPA strategy for ocean management.
Modern society is highly reliant on electrical power, which can be generated in many ways, though burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil remain the most widespread option. For example, the U. S. consumed a total of about 7.26 billion barrels of petroleum in 2021 (How much oil is consumed in the United States?). A big number, but what does it mean for us and our planet? Rising sea levels, water and air pollution, and increasing weather unpredictability are some of the consequences we already experience.
One of the most controversial topics in modern politics is climate change. CO2, one of the main waste products of burning oil, is a potent greenhouse gas responsible for trapping heat inside the Earth’s atmosphere, causing a dangerous rise in global temperatures (Gani 1). The rising sea level, melting of polar glaciers, and uncharacteristic weather patterns are some of the consequences that affect wildlife suffering from forest fires, melting polar ice, and the resulting collapse of biomes.
Another negative effect of burning oil is pollution. Nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon oxides are responsible for the rising acidity of seas and oceans, leading to the death of marine life, including relict coral reefs (Falkenberg et al. 2). This trend, if it continues, can lead to drastic changes in the global food change and weather patterns considering the role of marine organisms in maintaining the global climate.
The increase in global oil extraction directly results from excessive oil burning. Oil extraction is associated with significant environmental hazards, including oil spills and fires that pose a long-term danger to marine ecosystems (Zhang et al. 396). While coastal communities and marine life are directly impacted by these events, the effects are felt worldwide due to global processes like marine life migration and food chain disruption, changing currents, and wide-area coastal pollution.
The adverse effects of burning oil are hard to overestimate. While governments propose treaties and legislations on limiting the extraction and use of fossil fuels, few of them are actually implemented. Unless specific and practical actions are taken to address the issues of global climate change and pollution issues and reduce reliance on oil, the future of the planet’s ecosystems remains in danger.
Works Cited
Falkenberg, Laura J., et al. “Ocean Acidification and Human Health.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 17, no. 12, 2020, p. 4563. Web.
The issue of value of life whether on dry land or in water is unquestionable. Life is precious and should be cared for at whatever cost because no one can give life, therefore, no one should take it. The debate on ocean dumping still rages.
Critics and adherents alike have valid points concerning ocean dumping; nevertheless, this issue calls for serious investigations to separate facts from propaganda. Regrettably, oceans bear an almost unavoidable exposure to waste materials due to its expansive and open nature. This forms the basis of argument for those who support the issue. However, the long-term repercussions of such a shortsighted argument are far-reaching.
For instance, oceans support the lives of a vast number of species, majority of which provide food for other species and human beings alike. Moreover, virtually all industries rely on ocean waters for their continued running coupled with provision of the cheapest and safest mode of transport, with people exporting and/or importing tons of goods via the water transport.
If ocean dumping continues then, there would be massive obstruction of numerous activities that take place in the oceans. Therefore, based on these negative effects, ocean dumping is wrong and stern measures against the practice need to be established.
Changes are ever happening, either for the better or for the worse. Policies addressing the issue of ocean dumping and the need to curb it have been in place. In fact, the establishment of strategies as ‘ocean protection,’ came into place in 1970s.
Brewer and Peter (1983) posit that, “The first concerted effort to control ocean dumping began in the early 1970s, when many environmental protection laws were passed” (p. 45). However, the period thereafter was marked by a change of these laws. This change, to a greater extend, loosened the prevailing policies thus allowing ocean dumping.
Several factors fueled the change; for instance, change in the information concerning the effect of ocean dumping to the ocean environment. Statisticians claimed that the effect was insignificant and for some countries like America, ocean dumping became a routine. Nevertheless, one would wonder what fueled the nullification of some policies.
Policy change marks the beginning of its termination. Most of the changes render the policies useless, hence terminating their applications. These terminations vary in terms of policy redirections, program adjustments, and fiscal retrenchments among other factors.
These terminations play a vital role in the study of policies for they remove obsolete policies, giving a room for the establishment of new others. However, the establishment of new policies to replace the existing ones does not always pave way fro better conditions. People have devised reasons as to why termination of a policy can pass as the only solution to a given problem.
For instance, Stewart, Hedge, and Lester (2008) assert, “Political considerations, rather than evaluative elegance, are at the root of most termination decisions” (p. 158). In most cases, politics do not seek solve a problem amicably; politicians pursue personal ends and this cripples any attempt to offer a lasting solution. Economic crises also play a major part when making termination decisions.
In conclusion, policy-making stands out as an unavoidable practice. Though applied virtually everywhere, a lot of attention ought to be availed when changing or terminating policies. Policy review and amendments has given way to some policies that favor the dumping of wastes into the ocean. Following the already realized effects on the aquatic life as well as some other predicted long-term water transport problems caused by this malpractice, it suffices to infer that ocean dumping is wrong.
Reference List
Brewer, G., & Peter D. (1983). The Foundations of Policy Analysis. Homewood: Dorsey Press.
Stewart, J., Hedge, D., & Lester, J. (2008). Public Policy: An Evolutionary Approach (3rd ed.). United States: Thomson Wadsworth.
The concept of ocean circulation refers to the movements of water in the oceans and seas. The thickness of the surface layer of water that is moved by wind varies from 500 to 2000 meters. Surface ocean currents carry water from the poles to the tropics, where it is heated, and, afterwards, this water moves back to the poles, where it becomes cold and moves from the surface to the deep level because of its increased density.
The intensity and path of surface currents depend on wind patterns, strength, and locations (Wilson et al., 2016). The major surface ocean currents are Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Indonesian Throughflow, East Australian Current, North Equatorial Current, South Equatorial Current, North Equatorial Counter Current, and North Queensland Current (Wilson et al., 2016). Deep ocean circulation is also known as thermohaline circulation because it is caused by the different densities of water that, in its turn, are caused by the changes in temperature and salinity of the water.
The significant factors that affect the water movements are related to the wind patterns, differences in salinity and temperature of the water, and ebb and flow. Additionally, ocean circulation is strongly affected by climate change. According to Wilson et al. (2016), the intensity and path of many ocean currents will inevitably alter because of climate change. This, in turn, will negatively affect marine life (Molinos, Burrows, and Poloczanska, 2017). The reason for this destruction is that climate change alters ocean currents and, consequently, changes the habitat of marine organisms.
Ocean Circulation
The climate change and the subsequent alteration of ocean currents in the central Indo-Pacific region put in danger tropical reef ecosystems. Even though this tropical region is currently marked with the “highest levels of marine biodiversity in the world,” changes in the temperature of the environment could be detrimental for many tropical species that inhabit the Indo-Australian Archipelago (Wilson et al., 2016, p. 927). What is more, many species that used to live in the tropical region move towards poles where the temperature is lower (Wilson et al., 2016). In the temperate region, water moves in both directions: from the equator towards poles and vice versa.
Climate change in the temperate region caused the recolonization of planktonic organisms (Jaspers et al., 2018). In the subpolar region, ocean circulation is characterized by the divergence of surface water. Subpolar gyre includes Norwegian Current, North Atlantic Current, Labrador Current, and Subarctic Current, to name but a few.
Ocean Current Drive Invasion Species
As it has already been mentioned above, climate change provokes alterations in an ocean current that, in turn, affect the movement of initial inhabitants and invasion species. For example, the study conducted by Jaspers et al. (2018) reveals that ocean current connectivity propelled the “secondary spread of a marine invasive comb jelly across western Eurasia” (p. 815). At the same time, Jaspers et al. (2018) argue that the dispersal of non-native species might also be caused by other factors such as the “release of ballast water from container ships” (p. 815). Still, the importance of ocean current should not be underestimated because this was how the comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi moved from the Black Sea to the northern Europe area (Jaspers et al., 2018).
Wilson et al. (2016) and Molinos et al. (2017) come to similar conclusions on the relations between ocean currents, climate change, and behaviour of local organisms. Overall, it could be concluded that the critical reason for the drive of invasive species and the move of the initial inhabitants is that they try to find such an environment suitable for them and resembles the living conditions before climate change occurred.
The damage to fish populaces brought about by modern fishing has been a worldwide discussion for quite some time. The hour and a-half narrative by movie producer and narrator Ali Tabrizi begin as a nature narrative attempting to comprehend whale abandoning. However, before long transforms into an excursion revealing the impacts of the business fishing industry (Tabrizi). With stowed away cameras and shooting in hazardous areas, the narrative attempts to uncover the illicit fishing markets, which have a more profound, stowed away arrangement of debasement, subjugation, and extortion, including the enormous business names and government reinforcement.
The main point of contention tended to be manageable fishing and more than once underlining that it is incomprehensible. Producer Ali Tabrizi demands individuals quit eating fish and change to plant-based items. While discussing the issue of plastic in our seas, the narrative says that 46% is from plastic fishing nets (Tabrizi 00:31:00-00:31:20). While all significant sea protection foundations stress decreasing the measure of single-use plastics like plastic straws, George Monbiot, a tree hugger, proposes these are not the genuine issue (Tabrizi 00:27:55-00:29:00).
Regardless of the prevalent view that plastic straws are an actual danger to turtles, these creatures are either harmed or killed as bycatch because of fishing each year in the U.S. alone (Tabrizi 00:29:47-00:29:55). Subsequently, the most significant wellspring of plastic contamination on the planet’s seas is disposed of fishing gear. Nonetheless, it seems that the film contains some unapproved data on statistical numbers it presents. Thus, more research needs to be done to convey such information.
The film has brought issues to light of the emergencies on the seas. Its stunning pictures, including ridiculous whale-hunting in the islands, draw in a ton of consideration. Seaspircy encourages everybody to quit eating fish and thrashes the endeavors of protecting bodies and the fishing business to make fishing economical. Regardless of the remarkable information on the emerging issues, I do not support the way this mindfulness has been raised. The audience has been left with an incomplete comprehension of specific topics. Plastic in the sea is an issue, but an absence of awareness of fundamental science is a significant imperfection of the documentary.
The plight of environmentalism has gained quite some traction over the past couple of decades, yet its message still needs further promotion. With the rise in consumerism and the emphasis on production volume rather than its ethics, global industries, as well as individual consumers, have contributed massively to a rise in environmental concerns, particularly, pollution (Sharma 79). Ocean dumping is one of the core environment-related concerns presently (Sharma 78). Causing not only global-scale water pollution but also the destruction of lives and habitats of countless species, ocean dumping needs to be terminated, as the image by Ocean Conservancy demonstrates (see Fig. 1). By incorporating a smart visual that hints at the negative consequences of ocean pollution and the textual part that details the problem and its solution succinctly, the poster represents an ideal approach to building environmental awareness.
This analysis targets a general audience that needs a more nuanced perspective on ocean pollution. Due to the lack of creativity and nuance in which the issue has been addressed for decades, most people have developed a rather ironic attitude toward environmental PSAs (Sharma 88). Therefore, the goal of this paper is to prove that the poster in question manages to accomplish an impressive goal of subverting the audience’s expectation and encouraging them to shift from an ironic perception of the issue to a critical one.
Summary
In the image in question, a visual metaphor is depicted. From left to right, three fish attempting to eat each other are portrayed, with the largest one about to be devoured not by an even bigger fish but by an enormous plastic bag. The caption above reads, “The New Food Chain,” whereas below, statistical data is cited, followed by an invitation to the official site. The background color of the poster is blue, which makes the color scheme outstandingly simple, with only three colors (blue, white, and black) used. The organization’s logo is represented in the lower right corner.
Figure 1. The New Food Chain
Visual Components
The image strikes with its visual simplicity and the effectiveness of its message. First and most obvious, the visual metaphor has been crafted with outstanding mastery and an incredible understanding of the target audience. The metaphor of the plastic bag becoming the supposed top of the food chain by causing the deaths of multiple species and creating a very tangible threat of their possible extinction is an outstanding use of visuals. Due to the use of simple and easily recognizable imagery, the metaphor is easily understandable and translatable into any language or culture., thus, targeting the global audience. The simple three-color palette keeps the viewer’s attention on the visual components, whereas the choice of the font size, shape, and location allows zooming in on the essential information and directing the viewer to the further data, thus, creating a powerful call for action.
Rhetorical Appeals
In turn, the appeal of the textual part of the poster is also immense. Specifically, the ethos of the textual part of the image in question is quite apparent. Having introduced a biting metaphor of water pollution becoming the unhinged creature that devours other species, the authors of the poster have established an ethical argument of ocean dumping being the direct product and, therefore, responsibility of the humankind. The fact that the specified statement is written in the largest fond also established the collective responsibility for the specified issue.
Likewise, the pathos is also transparent in the text. Namely, by positioning the humankind and ocean dumping that it has been encouraging as the aggressive beast that targets other creatures, the text elicits a significant amount of empathy toward vulnerable species. Furthermore, by mentioning the deaths and extinction of species directly, the textual part of the image makes the viewer empathize with innocent ocean dwellers. Therefore, the pathos functions remarkably well even without directly appealing to feelings and, instead, providing statistics and facts.
Finally, the logos of the text in the image also serves the purpose of convincing the audience to contribute to saving the ocean. Namely, the statistical data mentioned earlier coupled with the call to action creates a compelling message and an impetus for changing the situation. In addition, the different size of the key textual parts introduces the order in which the viewer perceives the message, thus, establishing the urgency of the issue, determining the solution, and encouraging the viewer to act. Therefore, every element of the text works perfectly and has its unique function.
Conclusion
Due to the combination of a visual metaphor that manages to be both straightforward and not annoying, as well as the clear and accurate summary of the problem and its solution, the Ocean Conservancy poster offers a perfect example of environmental campaigning. The picture captures the attention of its viewers immediately due to the smart and easily perceivable drawing, while the textual part is arranged in the way that elicits a range of emotions. Finally, the textual part concludes with the suggestion of a solution, which is perceived as a powerful call to action. Therefore, the visuals and the textual parts of Ocean Conservation’s poster deserve to be regarded as a stellar example of an environmental PSA.
Works Cited
Sharma, Akanksha. “The Disregarded Dilemma of Ocean Dumping.” Supremo Amicus, vol. 18, 2020, pp. 78-91.
Mining is the act of extracting something from the earth. In the ocean, this usually refers to deep-sea mining for minerals and deposits in/on the seafloor. Ocean mining can also include mining for aggregates, like gravel and sand. Offshore sand and gravel extraction involve the abstraction of sediments from a bed that is always covered with seawater. Cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper are among the metals deep seabed mining seeks to extract from the polymetallic nodules on the seafloor and seamounts (Janin, 2021). Dredging, alluvial, and pipe mining techniques extract these metals and minerals.
Ocean Use in Canada and Internationally
Regions with an economic interest in seabed mineral exploration and mining are located in maritime countries. These locations include the Penrhyn Basin-Cook Islands, exclusive economic zones of Papua New Guinea, Japan, and New Zealand, the Clarion–Clipperton nodule Zone, Peru Basin nodules, and the Central Indian Ocean Basin (Miller et al., 2018). In addition, zones such as Chatham Rise, offshore Baja California, and on the shelf off Namibia are major producers of manganese. Canada’s maritime mining zones include New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island (Miller et al., 2018). Europe is the largest producer of marine-dredged sand and gravel, with sand being the most sought-after product. In addition, large amounts are needed for building projects such as the expansion of Hong Kong Airport and the Port of Singapore (Miller et al., 2018). Dubai is a large consumer of marine sand used to build artificial islands such as the Palm Islands despite the readily available desert sand
Evolution of Ocean Use
Mineral resource extraction from the water is by no means a novel endeavor. This activity started in the early twentieth century but did not reach a significant scale until the 1970s when markets for marine sand and gravel expanded and dredging technology improved (Bero, 2022). In the global economy, sand and gravel have always been valuable resources fueled by increased urban development projects. Deep-sea mining has experienced rapid growth over the past ten years due to significant advancements in ocean exploration technologies, rising consumer demand for metals used in technological devices, and the dwindling availability of these metals on land. Two Canadian firms, Nautilus Minerals Inc and The Metals Company, have started mining operations to extract minerals such as sulfides from hydrothermal vents and sea mounts in regions with rich biodiversity (Morse, 2021). The increase in demand for sand and gravel due to the global urbanization boom will result in increased marine sand and gravel mining, as they are key components for building projects.
Regulating Ocean Use
Deep-sea mining should be stopped until the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) requirements are satisfied, including implementing evaluations, efficient regulation, and mitigating measures. There is an international push to halt deep seabed mining before it completely ruins deep marine ecosystems leading to the loss of biodiversity not explored by man. Many NGOs call for a global moratorium on deep-sea mining, especially on the high seas (Oceans North, 2022). Canada and other maritime nations are discussing proposals regarding the rules, criteria, and recommendations for exploiting the oceans’ seabed. However, these proposed regulations do not establish culpability for harm to the seabed and associated ecosystems and are not supported by reliable evidence.
Policies and Regulations
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the leading international framework for policing the ocean’s use. The legislation aims to ensure that the seas and oceans are used for both individual and collective human benefit in a peaceful, cooperative, and legally defined manner. The International Seabed Authority oversees activity in the high seas regions outside of national jurisdiction. ISA’s responsibility is to ensure that the marine environment is effectively protected from any negative repercussions that might result from deep-seabed-related operations (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2022). The ISA has granted 31 contracts to companies to explore deep-sea mineral resources without international guidelines on deep-sea mining.
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is developing rules that allow mining on the seabed within the next two years. In June 2021, the Government of Nauru notified the ISA of its intention to start deep-sea mining (Morse, 2021). The ISA rule requires countries that have signed UNCLOS to consider deep-sea mining exploitation permits, regardless of whether authorities have established regulations to govern the practice (Jind, 2019). Canada has regulations that effectively ban deep seabed mining in Canadian territorial waters. Mining the seabed is fundamentally incompatible with the Law of the Sea Convention, which Canada has ratified. This convention mandates effective marine environment protection (Oceans North, 2022). The creation of large sediment plumes in the marine environment is recognized as one of the most detrimental aspects of deep seabed mining to the seabed and the biologically diverse regions. Provisions under the Fisheries Act limit the amount of sediment that may be released in fish-bearing waters in recognition of the harmful effects on fish Coumans, 2021). Deep seabed mining models project that heavily-sedimented effluents will be ejected from a support ship each day, thus disrupting the ocean ecosystem.
The great ocean conveyor belt of currents is responsible for the transfer of heat throughout the Earth’s oceans. This ocean water phenomenon is a result of the temperature difference in the ocean waters between the warm, salty surface water, and the less salty cold water in the ocean depths.
The surface cold water at the Polar Regions is saltier than deeper water due to both evaporation and the formation of sea ice, which squeezes out ice from the forming ice. This increases surface water density and causes it to sink to the ocean depths.
The pumping effect causes the cold water at the ocean depth to flow horizontally towards the tropics where it can displace lighter and warmer water to complete the current loop.
This motion of oceanic water is evident in equatorial waters, namely the Indian and Pacific oceans, due to variations in both water temperature and salinity; hence, the name thermohaline circulation.
The YouTube video available on this link, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAOSFAGOuS8, shows an animation of the motion of warm ocean water at the equatorial region towards the poles. As this water cools, it becomes denser and sinks to the deep ocean before returning to the equator.
One of the vital benefits of the great ocean conveyor is its ability to deliver life sustaining oxygen to the ocean depths. Oxygen gets mixed with the ocean water through the turning action of waves, currents and tides on the surface.
This motion is also responsible for the delivery of a warm climate that prevents the formation of sea ice in various parts of the northern hemisphere where the conveyor passes, such as Iceland and the southern region of Greenland.
It also provides the British Isles and Scandinavia with warmer temperatures than other landmasses at similar latitudes.
The region of the Southern Hemisphere where the ocean conveyor passes has no landmass, which allows the water to flow all around the world, resulting in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Consequently, the surface and deep waters flow eastwards around Antarctica, forming a link between waters from multiple oceans.
This causes the cold waters from the Indian and Pacific oceans to force themselves below the Atlantic waters, where the latter can join the surface circulation in its Northward flow.
The warm water forms part of the wind driven surface currents that return to the northern hemisphere where the cycle begins again in the region around Greenland.
The ocean conveyor is a product of two factors, salinity and temperature. As such, reducing salinity of the North Atlantic surface water may reduce the pumping effect to supplement the flow of cold deep ocean currents, causing the ocean conveyor belt to slow down or cease.
This phenomenon is said to have occurred in the period between 1400 and 1800 AD. This period is known as the Little Ice Age, when the Northern Europe’s climate was observed to be significantly colder than usual.
Scientists suggest that an increase in temperatures due the greenhouse effect is likely to result in melting of the polar ice, creating the dilemma of the possible implications with regard to the conveyor belt currents.
In addition to this, there is likely to be an increase in more fresh water in the Atlantic Ocean due to additional precipitation on land masses such as river run-off from storms and melted snow.
An increase in fresh water from melting glaciers and sea ice in the waters around Greenland would reduce the salinity and consequently the density of deep cold waters, inhibiting the southward flow of deep ocean currents. This would, in turn, slow the conveyor.
It is a well known fact that the oceans cover 70 percent of the Earth’s surface (EPA). It is a storehouse for 1,000 times more heat than the atmosphere, and is the earth’s largest reservoir of water. The hydrological cycle that is caused because of the oceans and is vital to all the living organisms on the earth. It is through evaporation, the ocean transfers huge amounts of water vapor to the atmosphere, where it cools, condenses and eventually falls to the ground as rain or snow (Environmental Defense n.pag).
Even though the ocean and the resources in it seems limitless, today there is obvious evidence that human impacts particularly due to over fishing, habitat destruction, and pollution disturb marine ecosystems and intimidate the long-term productivity of the seas (UNU-IAS Report 10-35, Worm et al. 787 – 790). This paper focuses on the polar oceans and gives a detailed account on the physical environment, the producers and the consumers, and the interaction between various components.
Polar oceans: geographic location
The polar ecosystems are composed of the Arctic and Antarctic regions. This ecosystem is characterized by ice and snow, cold temperatures all through the years, and severe changes in photoperiod that avoid photosynthesis during a large part of the year (NOAA). The water in and around the Antarctic continent is referred to as the Antarctic or Southern Ocean. The Antarctic ecosystem is highly influenced by physical factors such as weather & climate, ice, and ocean currents. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current, at 0 to 200 meters in depth, is the dominant surface-water circulation pattern in this polar region.
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is a geostrophic current, and is mainly influenced by the existing Antarctic wind patterns and is controlled by the adjoining landmass which is the Antarctic continent. In general, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is also called the West Wind Drift that flows from west to east around the Antarctic landmass. It is only during the seasonal melting of sea ice, the sunlight is able to penetrate the ocean and enable the vegetative growth. The favorable light conditions stimulate phytoplankton growth and yield surges in primary productivity. Subantarctic Surface Water which is the north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is in general the warmer and more saline.
The physical environment of the Antarctic Ocean has also got several unique features. The Antarctic Bottom Water has average salinity, temperature, and density values of 34.65, −0.5°C (31°F), and 1.03 gram per cubic centimeter, respectively. The Antarctic Deep Water which is formed in less extreme latitudes and is less salty and warmer when compared to Antarctic Bottom Water, flows northward near the surface until it reaches the Antarctic Polar Front Zone, where the Antarctic Deep Water sinks and continues to flow northward beneath the warmer, less dense North Atlantic Deep Water.
The Arctic Ocean is yet another part of polar oceans and is divided into the Eurasian and Canadian basins by the Lomonosov Ridge which is a bathymetry feature that runs from Greenland past the North Pole to Siberia. Arctic Ocean surface water is 0–200 meters in depth and mainly flows counterclockwise in the Eurasian basin and clockwise in the Canadian basin.
The physical environment of the artic ocean is also having its own unique features. For instance, there are three distinct marine water masses located within the Arctic Ocean: the Arctic Surface Water which extends from 0–200 meters; the Atlantic Water from 200–900 meters; and the Arctic Deep Water which extends from 900 meters to the seafloor. The Arctic Surface Water is further sub divided into three layers: the surface, subsurface, and lower surface layers. In fact each of these water layers has distinct salinity and temperature characteristics.
The Atlantic Water is situated between the Arctic Surface Water and the Arctic Deep Water. The average temperature of the Atlantic Water is warmer than both that of the Arctic Surface Water and the Arctic Deep Water which is approximately 3°C. The Atlantic Water has a higher salinity range (34.8–35.1) when compared to that of the Arctic Surface Water (28.0–34.0). The Arctic Deep Water, has a salinity range of 34.9 to 34.99 (Advameg Inc). There are fundamental differences that make the two Polar Regions (the Arctic and Antarctic) very different both physically and biologically.
The Arctic Vs the Antarctic
The Antarctic marine ecosystem is situated in the circumpolar Southern Ocean surrounding the central continent of Antarctica. As a result there is no inflow from rivers or sediment as in the case of the Arctic. But nutrient rich water rises to the surface and fertilizes the Antarctic surface waters. The Antarctic fauna is much richer than the Arctic and has a high degree of endemism and biomass. In fact the Antarctic benthic communities generally have several dominant species. The fish fauna present in this region is generally endemic and tailored to below-freezing water temperatures. The bird communities are similar at given latitude in all parts of the Southern Ocean basin.
The Arctic Ocean system is an isolated sea, permanently covered by ice in the center, and surrounded by landmasses. The Arctic Ocean has several large rivers that bring in a large quantity of sediment into the basin resulting in a substrate of particulate matter and a low-saline stratified surface layer. The Arctic fauna is poor and mainly depends on the Atlantic Ocean. Arctic benthic communities are habitually dominated by one or only a few species and the fish fauna is generalized. Additionally there are also strong differences between the bird communities at similar latitudes in different parts of the ocean basin (NOAA).
Primary producers and secondary consumers in the Antarctic Ocean
The extent of ice cover in the Antarctic Ocean affects competition between species of phytoplankton which are the primary producers. As a result of this competition, there exist competitions between zooplankton species which are primary consumers. For instance colder winters mean greater ice cover than warmer winters and colder winter favor larger phytoplankton, like diatoms. Diatoms are the favored food of krill, which are sequentially eaten by many other animals in this food web. Therefore, when winters are very cold and the ice is more, nearly every group in the food web has enough of food because more food energy is transferred from lower to higher feeding or tropic levels.
On the other hand when the winters are not so cold, and more of the ice melts, it favors different species of phytoplankton growth and reproduction. Warmer winters in general favor smaller phytoplankton such as cryptophytes. However, the krill does not consume this smaller phytoplankton and therefore less of the food energy from cryptophytes gets into the food web. Researchers have found that during the past five decades, cold winters that has extensive sea ice development have been less frequent. This has resulted in reduced krill populations. Therefore it can be side that in the Antarctic, the food web is directly affected by climate factors.
It is generally believed that anthropological activities have had a major impact on the changing climatic pattern. In recent years the burning of fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of carbon dioxide and other green house gases in the atmosphere. It is well known that carbon dioxide gas is a principal warming agent in the atmosphere that is causing global warming. Therefore, if this pattern of warming continues and goes unchecked, the cost could be devastating not only for the Antarctic regions, but for the entire planet (Botos n.pag).
Primary producers and secondary consumers in the Arctic ecosystem
The Arctic ecosystem has an exclusive, complex food web that is designed by its unique plankton, animal species, and environmental factors. Phytoplankton and algae that are the primary producers take up carbon dioxide from seawater and utilize it for photosynthesis. The Arctic ecosystem is covered with a formidable ice and snow cover. As a result this ocean is plunged into total darkness during the winter, banged by blizzard winds, and is very cold. The Arctic Ocean is however considered as one of the most inaccessible and yet beautiful environments on Earth.
Great polar bears are among the uniqueness in this region. They roam over the Arctic ice and swim the Arctic seas and are on the top most part of the food web. Supporting these top predators is a complex ecosystem that includes plankton, fish, birds, seals, walruses, and even whales. Phytoplankton and algae that produce organic material using energy from the sun are the main producers of this food web that support all of this life.
In recent years, the scientists have reported that the warming temperatures are affecting the Arctic Ocean and are producing changes that may not only effect on the Arctic’s interlink but also its delicately balanced food web. Any small change in the food web not only threatens life in the Arctic region, but also could have impacts on the entire Earth’s climate. For instance, the populations of Arctic plankton not only provide food at the base of the food web in the Arctic region but also serve to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic matter that eventually sinks to the ocean bottom thus effectively extracting a heat-trapping greenhouse gas from the atmosphere (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution).
Primary productivity in the polar oceans
Primary productivity is affected by the availability of sunlight, carbon dioxide, and inorganic nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and trace elements. In the polar marine environment, nutrients are recycled from phytoplankton to animals to decomposers such as bacteria before returning to phytoplankton and this cycle goes on and on. In the polar oceans, phytoplankton blooms happen during the summer months. As a result of this phytoplankton blooms under favorable light conditions lead to short-term improved primary productivity. In fact studies have found that during these summer months, the Antarctic Ocean’s upwelling zone exhibits some of the Earth’s highest primary productivity.
As mentioned earlier, in the polar oceans, the sea-ice formation and melting processes play important roles in primary productivity. Frazil ice is mixed with surface and subsurface water, entrapping phytoplankton between ice crystals that are ultimately integrated into pack ice. The phytoplankton particularly the diatoms will proliferate within the sea-ice brine channels, resulting in the pack ice to appear greenish-brown. During the yearly ice melt process, the diatoms are released back into the water, resulting in local increased primary productivity.
Marine biodiversity normally decreases towards high latitudes, reaching a minimum in the polar oceans. Additionally, the few marine species that exist in the polar oceans are likely to grow at slower rates, live longer lives, attain larger sizes, and have fewer offspring than their tropical counterparts. Besides, some of the marine species that are able to survive the comparatively harsh polar conditions tend to exist as larger populations than their more diverse tropical counterparts.
In contrast, to the Antarctic, the Arctic Ocean is mainly dominated by shallow marginal seas. This is a major factor that has resulted in the different biota spatial distributions in these two oceans. While the greater part of the Antarctic Ocean Polar habitats sustain populations of diving birds such as penguins and puffins, and marine mammals such as whales, seals, and polar bears, these animals are more visible than the invertebrate and microscopic communities found in the water column, on the seafloor, and in sea ice. The Arctic Ocean biota resides and feed throughout the water column and along the seafloor.
Among the larger populations of biota present in the Antarctic region are the five types of seals (namely the crabeater, elephant, leopard, ross, weddell), six varieties of penguins (namely adelie, chinstrap, emperor, gentoo, macaroni, king), and five whale species (namely blue, sperm, orca, mink, southern bottlenosed). These are present in addition to a variety of seabirds, squid, fish, krill, copepods, and diatoms.
On the other hand the major sea mammals linked with the Arctic Ocean are whales (namely the beluga, orca, bowhead, California gray, narwhal), polar bears, sea otters, seals (namely ringed, ribbon, bearded, spotted), and walruses (Figure 1). Additionally arctic birds such as the tufted puffin, laysan albatross, and spectacled eider mainly depend on the Arctic Ocean as a primary food source. These birds feed by diving into the water for fish, crustaceans, and/or mollusks.
As mentioned earlier in the Arctic Ocean, the dominant types of phytoplankton and zooplankton are diatoms and copepods, respectively. Water-column productivity of the shallow Arctic marginal seas promotes the growth of productive benthic communities which include mollusks, polychaetes, brittle stars, and amphipods, which support bottom feeding by the spectacled eider, walrus, bearded seal, sea otter, and the California gray whale (Advameg Inc).
Summary
The polar oceans form the most unique ecosystems on the planet earth. However, with the present day human activates, this fragile ecosystem is also affected. As it is a well known fact that the Arctic is an important indicator of the state of global well-being. Studies have predicted that the impacts of climate change will be felt most extremely in the Arctic. There are also problems due to the over hunting. Populations of some whales are dangerously low after centuries of hunting even though most commercial whaling has legally being ceased. It is also reported that fish stocks in some arctic waters are at its extinction.
Sea birds and even polar bears suffer from over-hunting in parts of the Arctic. The problems in the polar oceans are increasing due to the climate changes both due to human activities as well as due natural reasons. These fragile ecosystems are among the most unique ecosystems on this planet that holds unique importance. It is the duty of each and every one of us to protect these environments through sustainable development.
This article focuses on the implications of the process of calcification marine systems (Orr et al. 681). The authors assert that the calcium that is used in ocean calcification is obtained from living organisms that live in seawater.
This article correlates calcium with oceanography because the process of acidification, which causes the ocean’s pH to decrease because of excess carbon from the atmosphere, has impacts on calcifying organisms in the oceans. Furthermore, decreased pH in the oceans affects some ocean organisms detrimentally, which results in coral bleaching. Coral bleaching significantly reduces the number of living organisms in seawater (Orr et al. 682).
According to the authors’ estimations, ocean surfaces in the southern parts will have significant under-saturation of calcium-carbonate because of little aragonite, which is a major component of calcium carbonate (Orr et al. 685). Low concentration could be as soon as 2050 with the case extending to cover large parts of the oceans, including the Pacific Ocean by 2100.
In the experiment, the researchers noted significant levels of dissolution on the exposure of live organisms to the projected levels of under-saturation. From the study, the findings highlight the detrimental impact of under-saturation on the ocean ecosystem, especially in high-latitude places. The article has practical implications for oceanography, and the authors highlight the impact of acidification and calcification on the survival of marine organisms in now and in the future.
Works Cited
Orr, James, Victoria Fabry, Olivier Aumont, Laurent Bopp, Scott Doney, Richard Feely, Anand Gnanadesikan et al. “Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms.” Nature 437.7059 (2005): 681-686. Print.
