An ocean current refers to a continuous water flow in the ocean following a defined path. This occurs either at the surface of the ocean or below the surface, it also may be parallel or vertical to the surface. These currents are either caused by wind or changes in density (Thermohaline currents). Ocean currents affect the climate, temperatures, and biotic systems especially the fisheries but also those plants and animals on the seashore (Gray et al. 1).
Ocean currents affect marine life in different ways some of these include; as water flows along a given path, there are many sea animals along the same path. Depending on the strength of the ocean current, sea animals along the path are flown along with the water, and the animals are moved to new regions that are sometimes thousands of kilometers away causing redistribution of marine life. During the flow, nutrients are also moved from the bottom of the sea and exposed to sunlight in the process called upwelling. This increases marine nutrients leading to the increased nutrient provision to marine life.
Ocean currents sometimes cause the movement of warmer water to colder regions or cold water to water regions. This interferes with the temperature of the water and may affect sensitive marine life in the region like it may end up freezing some marine animals to death. This paper discusses how the ocean currents affect marine animals with particular reference to turtles, sea urchins, and Nektones
Ocean Currents and Marine Turtles
Marine turtles rely entirely on ocean currents for their movements. Young marine turtles especially are moved to their pelagic nurseries by ocean currents and these serve as their habitats. The hatching of turtle eggs relies on oceanic tides and more especially on the frontal tides. This reduces the risk of exposing these eggs to predators. The fertilization of the turtle eggs also depends on ocean waves that transport the larvae to allow for fertilization to occur.
During the development of these turtles, their movement is still aided by ocean currents like in the case of searching for food they flow along with the currents to newer regions that could have food to keep them alive. The turtles are cauterized by two major directional movements where one is usually to the feeding area and the other to the nesting area; both two movements are aided by oceanic currents (Luschi, HAys, and Papi 294).
Nekton’s (Fishes)
These are families of sea animals that are strong swimmers and large enough to have the strength to propel against ocean currents. Their bodies are streamlined such that they move swiftly. These include fishes, whales, and Dolphins. Ocean currents have such effects on these sea animals as they bring food to them from the shores and other places so the animals can feed on it. Besides the food, they cause the animals to move about and this allows the animals to be away from predators for their survival. During winter, ocean currents cause oceans waters to swirl around which causes a warming effect on the water and this allows the animals to survive the cold weather.
During summers, cold water from the Polar Regions is flown causing a cooling effect in the warmer regions. The currents also allow the animals to migrate or relocate to more accommodating weather conditions. Animals play in water and ocean current give the animals the whirling effect that gives the sea animals especially the large sea animals like Dolphins to whirl out and enjoy the changing weather.
Sea urchins
Sea urchins and the starfish are greatly affected by ocean currents just like the other sea animals. Their larvae are transported over long distances to allow for fertilization to occur anywhere in the sea. These currents also aid the movement of these sea urchins. This allows them to have easy access to food, to redistribute to regions that are unoccupied and maybe unexploited. However, it should be noted that sometimes very strong oceanic currents can cause the death of sea urchins (Gray et al. 7)
Conclusion
Ocean currents are water movements in large volumes along a given path in the oceans, seas, or any large water bodies. These movements are usually caused by wind or the upwelling movement in the water bodies. It is important for the sea animals as it causes their movement to food-rich areas or brings feed to the animals. Food is the most essential part of the survival of any creature including those in large water bodies. Ocean currents are therefore inevitable to the survival of sea animals as they cause the flow of food nutrients within the sea.
Works Cited
Gray Eileen, Alexander Ann, Darling Tina, and Sharkey Nelda. “Moving water-Ocean currents and winds.” Drifters, 1998. Web.
Luschi Paolo, HAys Graeme, and Papi Florian. A review of long-distance movement by marine turtles and possible role of ocean currents. Cesenatico: Oikos, 2003.
Relationship between the feature of the bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonic
Bathymetry of the ocean seafloor refers to the measurement of how deep the sea is in relation to the sea level. This measurement may be used to determine the depth of the ocean. The measurements can show the underlying complexity of the sea and the ocean (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002). Additionally, Plate tectonic is a geological feature that describes the movement relative to the movement of the ocean lithosphere. The substantial density of the lithosphere in correlation to the asthenosphere makes tectonic plates move at ease toward the seduction zone (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006). There has been a geological argument by the scientist of the underlying relationship between bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonic. The Plate tectonic theory argues that the earth’s surface is subdivided into plates commonly known as shifting slabs. The shifting slabs move in relation to each other on the surfaces above the hottest zones at an average speed per unit of measurement (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002). The platonic theory further suggests that there is a correlation between the spreading of the sea and intercontinental drifts. This is substantiated by the evidence of the seafloor spreading and continental drift movements, whereby there is a similar manner of movements between the continent drifts and bathymetry of the seafloor spreading (Garrison, 2010).
Additionally, geologist holds that initially, the world was one continent, but through continental drift theory, several continents emerged, and hence, these continents have been moving continuously away from each other. Despite the underlying evidence of the continental drift theory, the theory has been facing criticism. Critiques argued that the theory does not provide substantial grounds for people to believe how continents moved away from each other. However, the emergence of new technology and seafloor exploration has provided substantial evidence for people to believe that initially, the earth was one continent. This argument also substantiates the underlying relationship between the Bathymetry of the seafloor spreading and plate tectonic. Additionally, geologists suggested that there had been seafloor spreading, which can be explained by the movement of the magma toward the deep-sea trenches (Garrison, 2012). The herein movement of magma on the seafloor spreading has been supported plate tectonic theory on the earth surface, which formed the basis of conceptualization of the forces that cause earthquakes. The morphological structure of the sea also portrays a significant correlation between the Bathymetry of the seafloor spreading and plate tectonic (Kearey, Klepeis & Vine, 2009).
Happenings on either side of the transform fault
There are several movements, which happen on either side of a transformation fault. Transformation faults are a horizontal movement that occurs on either side of sinisterly and dextral locations. These faults are more prevalent in deep seas and oceans whereby, transform faults are created via Mind Ocean ridges (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006). Transform faults movements on either side may be distinguished from strike-slip faults in the manner of their movements occurs in horizontal directions where plates slide against each other in an opposite horizontal direction. On the contrary, the movements of the strike-slip fault occur in the horizontal and vertical directions. Additionally, transform faults have a junction at the end of the plate boundary, which helps to support its movement in a horizontal direction. In the middle of the ocean ridges, transform faults remain fixed in one location, unlike the ocean seafloor, which may be pushed away from the ridges (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002).
There are different types of transform faults, which help to identify the happenings on either side of the faults. Among them include growing length faults, Constant length faults, and decreasing length faults. Growing length faults is whereby the growth of transform faults is as a result of linkage between the upper block of seduction zone and transform faults. On the contrary, constant length faults are those whose length does not reduce or exceed in any way whatsoever. This may be attributed to the movement of plates parallel to each other. On the other hand, decreasing length faults are those whose length shrinks as a result of decreasing in the length of the plate’s seduction. This act continuously occurs until transformation faults disappear entirely (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006).
The meaning of Charles Darwin’s statement that the geology of the Galapagos Islands was sinking
This statement means that the Galapagos Islands, which provided habitat for the wild life, was undergoing some geological changes. These changes made the species of the Galapagos Islands change to cope with the new geological changes which were happening on the Island (Darwin & Glick, 1996). The changes were witnessed by Darwin during his voyage to Galapagos Islands. Whereby, Darwin was fascinated by the underlying discrepancies’ in species of Galapagos Islands and species of other Islands, which he used to visit. The evolutionary changes in species in order to cope with geological changes as a result of volcanic eruptions led to the emergence of the statement Galapagos Islands were sinking.
References
Davidson, J. P., Reed, W. E., & Davis, P. M. (2002). Exploring earth: An introduction to physical geology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Darwin, C., & Glick, T. F. (1996). On evolution: The development of the theory of natural selection. Indianapolis, Ind. [u.a.: Hackett.
Garrison, T. (2010). Oceanography: An invitation to marine science. Australia: Books/Cole
Garrison, T. (2012). Essentials of oceanography. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
Kearey, P., Klepeis, K. A., & Vine, F. J. (2009). Global tectonics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Monroe, J. S., Wicander, R., & Hazlett, R. (2006). Physical geology: Exploring the earth; [the wrath of Hurricane Katrina; could you survive a Tsunami?; catastrophic earthquakes; global warming]. Belmont [u.a.: Thomson.
Fishing activities around the world have a big impact on sustainable growth and reproduction of species which live in the ocean. Large scale fishing activities that use advanced processes endanger the wellbeing of fish and other species which live in the ocean.
It is necessary for fishing industries to use better fishing methods in the ocean to ensure that their activities do not endanger the ecological balance. This paper will discuss ways ocean fishing can be made more sustainable.
Ocean fishing has increased at a very fast rate. The international waters are governed by international treaties whose enforcement is weak. Large scale industrial fishing is mainly responsible for the dwindling numbers of fish in the ocean. Trawlers that use large nets with small holes scoop big quantities of fish.
These nets trap fish species that are still breeding which stifles their growth. Fish species do not get the chance to replenish and this severely limits the quantities of fish in the ocean.
Large seine trawlers are responsible for this destructive practice which threatens to make some species to become extinct (National Research Council 116). To reverse this trend, there is a need to use pole and line fishing methods instead of purse seining which destroys marine ecology.
Marine life is vital for ecological balance on planet earth. The total quantity of fish caught from the world’s oceans has increased which has led to over-exploitation. It is estimated that on average, 100 million metric tons of fish are caught annually in the world’s oceans since 2000. Marine resources are getting exploited and there is a growing danger of some marine fish and species becoming extinct.
The fishing procedures have become more advanced yet fish supplies in major oceans have continued to dwindle. Fish industries need to share information with their governments to understand the average sustainable fish yields to be caught from oceans.
Danson and D’Orso argue that breeding grounds such as continental shelves and coastal fringes need to be protected (67). Ocean zones that are close to the shoreline are most vulnerable to over fishing yet they are the most suitable for plankton growth; the main food for many fish species.
The use of the logistic growth curve has failed to conserve fisheries. The logistic curve approach does not take into account the age, the quantity and the reproductive capacity of the fish being caught. The approach does not propose means through which people involved in the fishing industry can be managed.
Ocean ecosystems are interconnected and complex and as such, the logistic growth curve is not a suitable tool for managing ocean fisheries (Helfman 290). The ecological environment in which fish breed and survive has become unpredictable because of the rapid increase in fishing activities. Countries have not agreed on a common way through which restrictions that are imposed on large scale fishing activities are to be observed.
The fourth option of assigning each fisherman a quota is more sustainable. It is necessary to control the manner in which the quotas are transferred. The allocation of quotas should only be done after the equipment to be used for catching fish is assessed and certified to be appropriate (Morissey and Sumich156).
Fishing zones need to be divided to ensure that fishing in vulnerable breeding areas is prohibited. Marine sanctuaries need to be established to protect the biodiversity of the world’s oceans from destruction. Marine sanctuaries offer rare ocean species the chance to breed and replenish their quantities.
Works Cited
Danson, Ted, and Michael D’Orso. Oceana: Our Endangered Oceans and What We Can Do to Save Them. London: Rodale, 2011. Print.
Helfman, Gene S. Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fisheries Resources. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2007. Print.
Morrissey, John, and James Sumich. Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life. London: Jones and Bartlett, 2011. Print.
National Research Council. Sharing the Fish: Toward a National Policy on Individual Fishing Quotas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 1999. Print.
Sudden climatic and biological shifts are intrinsic parts of the Earth’s past. Yet, the mechanics of such shifts in the environment of the Earth are not always completely grasped, especially in previous warm climates that seem to have equivalents to prospective climate change.
The variety of the planet’s biological and climatic factors impedes the utilization of models to correctly anticipate potential ecosystem patterns. Still, the Earth is quickly reaching a severely changed climatic setting with no previous parallel for the last 30 million years. Hence, the researchers’ strategy is to explore prior analogs to prospective temperatures in the history of the Earth. Nevertheless, in order to grasp the dynamic behavior of quickly changing settings, scientists needed to identify recordings with sufficient accuracy to investigate the phenomena they sought to grasp.
The Foundation of Ocean Drilling
When it comes to ocean drilling, a natural plumbing system facilitates the flow of fluids through the ocean crust beneath the bottom. Such flows reduce the temperature of the planet’s core, change the composition of the foundation bedrock, and impact microorganism dispersion in the subterranean ecosystem. Drilling deeply into the seabed has expanded our knowledge of the function of fluid movement through ocean sediments and foundation bedrock, particularly how hydrogeological processes are linked inside the seafloor (Board, 2011). The research based on this has resulted in advances in our knowledge as to how sediments and water interact, how ocean structure systems build seabed natural accumulations of minerals, and also how clathrate hydrates develop. Researches based on ocean drilling have also transformed comprehension of subterranean bacterial diversity thriving at the borders of existence.
Objectives of Expedition 342
Expedition 342 of the IODP intended to retrieve Paleogene geological layers with abnormally high sedimentary rates compared to the moderate rates of 0.51 cm/k.y characteristic of Paleogene sea deposits. The objective of the researches was to seek sediment drifts, which build at a higher rate than conventional deep-sea soils, in order to recreate the past of a heated planet with exceptional precision. Another goal included a collection of given recordings along a deep sequence of sites in a variety of aquatic levels.
The Chosen Site of Expedition 342
The chosen site was selected in order to collect geological and geochemical data on water structure and flow under the stream of the Deep Western Boundary Current located in the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 1). This mission also aimed to recreate “the Paleogene carbonate compensation depth (CCD)” in the Atlantic Ocean for contrast with newly discovered increased estimates of the carbonate compensation depth in the tropical Pacific (Expedition 342 Scientists, 2012, p.8). Apart from an exceptionally elaborate climate’s past and a thorough evaluation of the structure and movement of such ocean, the last important goal was to retrieve soil segments including well-saved microfossils appropriate for the study of ocean’s historical recreations using mark component and isotope geological chemistry, along with zoological statistics to examine the functioning of ecosystems and transformation on the heated planet Earth.
Figure 1. The sites of Expedition 342 (Sexton et al., 2013, p. 2).
The Target Locations of Expedition 342
The target locations for the given scientific project are in encrusted movements that may be observed in two specific places: the area of J-Anomaly Ridge and the Newfoundland Ridge. Each of the flows developed adjoining the ocean floors’ upper routes, mainly on the slopes in the northeast and southwest of submarine mountains. Several of such movements are extremely confined structures that generate “lenticular bodies” with the major axis that stretches over deep gradients of more than 1000 m (Expedition 342 Scientists, 2012, p.32). This gave the drifts their distinct shape on seismic data maps (Sexton, Bown, & Liebrand, 2012). Others are surely accretionary structures that already have grown around submarine mountains.
One of the observed spots, a silt ridge, lies between J-Anomaly Ridge and Southeast Newfoundland Ridge, close to Titanic Canyon. According to core samples, the Titanic Canyon slide is wholly composed of silt and was formed as a succession of breakaway hills pressing on the northern slope of J-Anomaly Ridge (Sexton et al., 2012). The data of the geological nature showed that the given ridges seem to be built mostly of mud waves and contain reservoirs of recent, perhaps Pleistocene era silt. Drilling the tectonic drifts, particularly, would be excellent for further expeditions since the sequences allow cores of sedimentation to be deposited at significantly higher rates and offset shallow penetration locations.
Results of Expedition 342
As a result, Expedition 342 carried out four of the drift episodes, each of which was coated by a thin layer of Pleistocene and Pliocene silt, and occasionally Miocene to top Oligocene material. The groundwater locations were drilled on J-Anomaly Ridge, the place where the process met “a carbonate-rich Cretaceous to Paleocene sequence overlain by a clay-rich Eocene to lower Miocene sequence” (Expedition 342 Scientists, 2012, p.32). Further drifts were examined near the peak of Southeast Newfoundland Ridge. Every one of those drifts appears to maintain a succession from the mid-Ecene to the Lower Cretaceous, covering an Albian or earlier barrier structure (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The reported seismic findings from Expedition 342 (Sexton et al., 2013, p.3).
Moreover, drilling at U1407 and U1408 retrieved a large portion of such patterns in one of the given drifts. Drilling inside other drifts, including sites U1409 and U1410, concentrated on the indicator’s earlier, middle Eocene to Paleocene period (Sexton et al., 2012). Lastly, Site U1411 focused on a drift that was confirmed to have a greatly enlarged sequence of the middle Eocene and Oligocene atop an undrilled portion that is presumably of the mid-Eocene period, owing to the fact that seismic links pertain to Site U1410.
The Historical Findings of Expedition 342
As a consequence, the findings made during Expedition 342 suggest that the commencement of highly clay-rich, fast-accumulating sedimentation. Such sedimentation is usually characterized as the beginning of drift depositing, occurred in the early-mid Eocene across the areas of both J-Anomaly Ridge and Southeast Newfoundland Ridge (Expedition 342 Scientists, 2012) (Figure 3). That conclusion is consistent with current research on the timeframe of drifts initiation in the areas of the northeast Atlantic.
Figure 3. Images of preserved microfossils from the sites (Sexton et al., 2013, p.6).
Therefore, the beginning of drift sedimentation to the north and south is estimated to be no later than the mid to late Eocene era. Nevertheless, destruction related to a major “regional unconformity” that formed at the time of the Eocene–Oligocene shift has eliminated material related to early or mid-Eocene drifts all along the American margin in the east (Expedition 342 Scientists, 2012, p.33). The research made great progress by discovering and recovering an enlarged late Eocene segment at various locations maintained in the Newfoundland drift system.
At last, a correlation of the drilling findings with seismographic formations from the Southeast Newfoundland Ridge reveals wide geographical changes in the period and depth of silt drift packages, implying that the region is a potential platform for prospective explorations designed to restore high-deposition rate data from several areas of the Cenozoic. Thus, the research set the foundation for further expeditions of the sediments in the given area.
The Importance of Ocean Drilling
In this regard, such findings are crucial in the understanding of sediments’ age and their belonging to specific eras. As well as putting instruments deep below the Earth’s crust, scientists can sample rocks by drilling in the ocean. Ocean drilling provides scientists with the most reliable data which pertains to Earth cycles, flow, and fluid of seafloor. Through drilling, sediments and rocks beneath the seabed have been recorded and used in studying the Earth’s history and structure (Stein, 2019). Thus, without the utilization of modern technologies and ocean drilling, findings from Expedition 342 could not be recovered. Extensive drilling gives an opportunity to discover older sediments from various eras (Humphris et al., 2011). Thus, the deeper the drilling in the ocean, the older the sediments, which allows us to attain better knowledge of history.
Hence, the primary scientific question which was being addressed in Expedition 342 was the search for sediment drifts, which build at a higher rate than conventional deep-sea soils. The objective was set according to the aim to recreate the past of a heated planet with exceptional precision. The site was chosen on the basis of water structure and flow under the stream of the Deep Western Boundary Current located in the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently, with the help of the research, we know that the start of drift sedimentation to the north and south is considered to have originated no later than the mid to late Eocene era. The expedition showed that such findings could be provided only by ocean drilling, which aids the determination of sediments’ age.
References
Board, O. S., & National Research Council. (2011). Scientific ocean drilling: accomplishments and challenges. National Academies Press.
Humphris, S. E., Demenocal, P. B., Edwards, K. J., Fisher, A. T., & Saffer, D. (2011). The need for scientific ocean drilling. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 92(10), 84-84.
Sexton, P., Bown, P.R., & Liebrand, D. (2013). Expedition 342: Paleogene Newfoundland Sediment Drifts. Integrated Ocean Drilling Program: UK Newsletter, 38, pp. 2–7.
Stein, R. (2019). The late Mesozoic‐Cenozoic Arctic Ocean climate and sea ice history: A challenge for past and future scientific ocean drilling. Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, 34(12), 1851-1894.
Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncates) are known for their short, thick snouts. Most of them have a light gray to almost black color, which may be seen around their dorsal fin. A light gray to practically white can also be found on their belly (Australian Museum). There have been several studies on dolphin habitat usage in deep, narrow channels, but few have examined dolphin reactions to different habitats (Piwetz 2; Ranù et al. 2). This paper describes the natural habitat of the bluenose dolphin, along with the other species that it coexists with.
Bluenose Dolphin’s Natural Habitat
Depending on where they reside and what they consume, bottlenose dolphins may be found in a wide variety of habitats globally. The temperate and tropical oceans of the world are home to bottlenose dolphins (NOAAA Fisheries). It is possible to find them in a variety of environments, such as ports, bays, gulfs, and estuaries, as well as coastal waters nearshore and farther out to the sea (see fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Common Bottlenose Dolphin straying near a gulf (NOAAA Fisheries)
Natural and mechanically dredged rivers with an abundance of fish food or fish aggregation are frequent habitats for coastal marine mammal species (Piwetz 1). Dredged channels built to accommodate large ships are also homes for dolphins. Bluenose coexists with other animals in such habitats.
Other Things Existing in the Habitat
Bottlenose dolphins may be found in a broad range of ocean environments, and the marine animals that cohabitate with them vary greatly (Bergsma). They live in the same habitat as jellyfish, seals, and humpback whales in the Atlantic Ocean. Bottlenose dolphins also live with otters, penguins, and sea lions in coexistence in the Pacific Ocean, which is also home to whale species, salmon and barracuda (Bergsma). Large plankton-eating whale sharks and dolphins swim together in the open ocean, and most of the shallow water is covered by coral reefs. The diversity of their natural habitat enables them to adapt to different environments globally.
The Global Availability of Habitat
The bluenose dolphin’s habitat is abundant globally, particularly in tropical and warm-temperate regions. On the American continent, bottlenose dolphins can be seen along California’s southern beaches and the eastern seaboard from Massachusetts to Florida, and even further afield in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (NOAAA Fisheries). A wide variety of these species may be observed in both the Atlantic and Pacific seas. They can be found in Norway and Nova Scotia all the way down to South Africa. In places like Hawaii, bottlenose dolphins can be spotted in the open ocean (Self et al. 2). As they are found globally, it is important to explore how they live in different habitats.
Life in Different Habitats
The bluenose dolphin is not restricted to any specific habitat, as it is a naturally versatile animal. In tropical and warm-temperate regions, bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops) can be found in coastal and pelagic populations (Piwetz 1). Both the Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (T. aduncus) and the common bottlenose dolphin (T. truncatus) are found in Australia (Piwetz 2). T. truncatus has also been located in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean. In addition, T. truncatus and T. aduncus can be found in South Africa (King et al. 1). There are large populations of T. truncatus across the eastern Pacific Ocean, including the cold and warm temperate and tropical zones. This species can also be found in the middle Pacific (Hawaii) and westward to Japan (Piwetz 2). Owing to their high versatility, it is necessary to identify how they get their energy.
How Bottlenose Dolphins Get Energy
The diets of coastal and offshore organisms are distinct. A variety of shellfish, including squid, are consumed by South African Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Ranù et al. 2). Atlantic bottlenose dolphins consume a variety of fish and crustaceans. Even though bottlenose dolphins are known to feed alone, they are an exceptionally sociable species that gather around each other to consume their food (Australian Museum). If dolphins come together in large groups, they may catch schools of fish or squids by clustering them together and diving towards the center (Lauderdale et al. 13). The usage of sea sponges as tools, which appears to represent a separate cultural practice, helps females form bonds with each other (Mann and Karniski 624). To defend the females, several first-order alliances form teams (King et al. 1). Defense is critical when they encounter a predator. At this point, it is important to figure out what kinds of predators they face.
Bottlenose Dolphins’ Predators and Competitors
Bottlenose dolphins are preyed upon by a variety of shark species, including the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), the dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus), the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier), and the great white shark (Carcharodon Carcharias). In addition to tiger, dusky, bull, and great white sharks, several other natural predators may be found in the ocean (Wilson). Shark bites scar at least 31% of the dolphins in Sarasota Bay, Florida. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) occasionally hunt bottlenose dolphins, although confirmed cases are rare (Heithaus 5). Dolphin mortality has also been connected to stingray poisoning, which causes death. Nevertheless, some species depend on the bluenose dolphin.
Species that Depend on Bottlenose Dolphins
Humans are the major dependents on the bluenose dolphin. Aside from the fact that little is known about their interactions, the benefits appear to be mutually beneficial. Both humans and dolphins must work together to obtain and share a common prey item. The two engage in cooperative foraging (Kownacki). Certain dolphin populations have adjusted their behavioral responses to take advantage of the feeding opportunities enabled by human commercial fisheries, leading to forms of mutualism (Ranù et al. 2). This is typical along the coast of Brazil (see fig.2). As a result, bottlenose dolphins use less energy in their search for food when fishing boats are nearby. Like bottlenose dolphins, people who fish for dolphins, have a big impact on their behavior and use (Rosa 2).
Fig. 2. Cooperate fishing between dolphins and humans in the coat of Brazil (Kownacki)
As a result, when dolphins exist in the area, fishermen benefit because they catch more fish, and they presumably gain as well (Ranù et al. 2; Rosa 2). The dolphin population’s spatial distribution, social behavior, auditory behavior, and population dynamics are all affected by this link.
Conclusion
The bottlenose dolphin’s natural behavior has been extensively researched. Bottlenose dolphins may be found in a wide range of environments in tropical and warm-temperate regions across the world, depending on where they live and what they eat. Food is critical when it comes to where bottlenose dolphins can live and how they get their energy.
da Rosa, Daiane, et al. “The Ability of Artisanal Fishers to Recognize the Dolphins they Cooperate with.” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol 16, no 30, 2020, pp. 1-17.
Heithaus, Michael, et al. “Spatial Variation in Shark-Inflicted Injuries to Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins of the Southwestern Indian Ocean.” Marine Mammal Science, vol 1, no 1, 2017. pp. 1-7.
King, Stephanie, et al. “Cooperation-Based Concept Formation in Male Bottlenose Dolphins.” Nature Communications, vol 12, no 2373, 2021, pp. 1-12.
Lauderdale, Lisa, et al. “Habitat Characteristics and Animal Management Factors Associated with Habitat Use by Bottlenose Dolphins in Zoological Environments.” PLoS ONE, 16(8), 2021, pp. 1-17.
Mann, Janet and Caitlin Karniski. “Diving Beneath the Surface: Long-Term Studies of Dolphins and Whales.” Journal of Mammalogy, vol 98, no 3, 2017, pp. 621–630.
Piwetz, Sarah. “Common Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops Truncatus) Behavior in an Active Narrow Seaport.” PLoS ONE, vol. 14, no 2, 2019, pp. 1-23.
Ranù, Marco, et al. “Bottlenose Dolphins and Seabirds Distribution Analysis for the Identification of a Marine Biodiversity Hotspot in Agrigento Waters.” Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, vol 10, no. 345, 2022, pp. 1-22.
Self, Holly, et al. “Tourism Informing Conservation: The Distribution of Four Dolphin Species Varies with Calf Presence and Increases their Vulnerability to Vessel Traffic In The Four-Island Region Of Maui, Hawai‘I.” Ecological Solutions and Evidence, vol 2, no 2, 2021, pp. 1-18.
The discovery of the ocean floor is performed through bathymetry (Garrison and Ellis 104). Mapping the ocean floor of the Hudson River would enable the analysis of sediments and the bottom surface hardness as well as would provide data on bottom features and the depth of the river. To perform the mapping, the following geophysics methods would be employed: the global positioning system (GPS), side-scan sonar, multi-beam swath mapping, and sub-bottom profiling using the ground-penetrating radar (“Hudson River Mapping”).
Another useful device for the analysis would be a push core sampler. With its help, specimens would be collected for further investigation of habitat and other elements. Different areas of the Hudson River would be analyzed, and later, the comparison of gathered data would be performed. The investigation of the Hudson River’s ocean floor would bring significant outcomes that could make the analysis of various processes easier.
When considering the idea of mapping the area under the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, it would be necessary to bear in mind that the topography of deep-ocean basins is quite different from that of the sea basins (Garrison and Ellis 120). Also, the ocean floor structure is divergent from the continental margins. The seafloor of the ocean is a “blanket” of sediment overlying basaltic rocks that are nearly 5 kilometers thick (Garrison and Ellis 120). Over half of the planet’s surface is composed of deep-ocean basins.
Taking into consideration the depth of the ocean floor, the following methods might be suggested for its mapping: satellite altimetry and multi-beam sonar (“Mapping the Ocean Floor”). The approach using satellite altimetry would be useful due to the following opportunities:
the method employs satellites to estimate subtle but lasting divergences in sea-surface height;
the approach enables global coverage;
the resolution is 2-5 kilometers;
the vertical accuracy is 200-300 meters.
The multi-beam sonar method has the following advantages:
it employs a variety of echo-soundings to map narrow segments of the ocean floor (2-10 kilometers);
it has a good resolution (25-100 meters) (“Mapping the Ocean Floor”).
One of the most effective ways of mapping the seafloor is the side-scan sonar system (Rona). This method works by towing a sounding device behind the research vessel. The device then produces acoustic sounds that are reflected off boundaries of various mediums (Rona). The measurement of the sound’s intensity allows predicting the composition of the seafloor. Also, such an approach helps to establish the shape and size of any vertical components of the floor.
A side-scan sonar system helps to find out the characteristics and distribution of the surface sediments (Rona). The boundaries between various seafloor materials are demonstrated graphically in a seismic record. These measurements are based on the amount of time during which the acoustical sound source travels from the towed device to the material and back to the receiver (Rona).
Analyzing the ocean floor has a high significance because the sediments situated there to provide valuable data on the history of the continents surrounding the ocean, the basins’ edges, and the biological productivity of the overlying water (Garrison and Ellis 120). The investigation of rivers’ floor is also important since it results in the discovery of habitats and the possibility of analyzing the travel routes as well as potential dangers for people living next to the river.
Works Cited
Garrison, Tom, and Robert Ellis. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science. 9th ed., CENGAGE Learning, 2016.
Ocean currents are the routed movements of oceanic water which are constantly flowing within the ocean or on the ocean surface. An ocean current is created by several forces and elements that act upon a unit mass of water in the ocean and such factors on an environmental scale include the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, wind, salinity levels, and the rotation of the earth, temperature and tidal waves. However, the two forces that create the most conducive conditions for a current to form are the Sun and the rotation of the Earth.
Physical factors such as the depth of the ocean, contact with other currents and the composition of the shoreline will determine a current’s course and potency. Ocean currents are known to surge for great distances and the gravitational centrifugal pull of great currents round the earth has a pivotal role in influencing the global climate especially of islands and coastal regions.
It is well know that the California Current makes the weather of the Island of Hawaiian to be cooler as measure up to other regions which are situated at the same latitude, the current is a tropical one leading to the sub-tropical climate of the islands. Ocean currents also determine the marine life of a region because they play a major role in determining the salinity of the water.
Currents can carry a large volume of highly saline water for great distances and the marine life of the region where the water gets deposited can significantly be altered. There are different currents are flowing at different levels in the ocean and it is possible for two or more currents to flow through a single region simultaneously but at different levels.
There are generally two types of ocean currents depending on the water level where the movement of oceanic water takes place and they are the deep ocean currents and the surface ocean currents. Deep ocean currents are mainly caused by the fluctuation in the mass of water and by gravitational forces acting in the deeper parts of the ocean usually below three thousand feet.
Variation in temperature and the salinity levels of the water cause a change in the mass and volume of water leading to deep ocean currents. A submarine river is another term which is used to refer to deep water currents basically because the currents occur in the lower levels of the ocean.
The deep ocean currents carry large volumes of water which flow the greatest distances leading to thermohaline circulation. The submarine rivers are at times responsible for transferring deep water plankton and marine life from one part of the ocean to another and also cause the vertical movement of water in the upwelling and down welling parts in the oceans.
On the other hand, surface ocean currents take place on the upper levels of the ocean and are commonly caused by air currents acting on the ocean’s surface. Surface currents are composed of about ten percent of the total water volume in the ocean and are usually limited to the upper one thousand three hundred feet of the ocean.
Surface currents form the Ekman spiral effect which is the circular movement of ocean surface water at a given tangent relative to the prevailing air currents. The Ekman spiral effect is usually in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in a counter-clockwise spiral in the southern hemisphere due the alternate air movements inflicted.
However, the Indian Ocean does not follow this rule due to the strong torrential rains and the atmospheric system in northern region of the ocean which alters its trend twice every year. The southwest torrential rain which occurs off the coast of Somalia is caused by the Great Whirl, which is a strong current which has a circular motion.
The currents on the ocean basin surface are normally asymmetric with the eastern currents flowing towards the equator and the western currents flowing towards the North and South poles. Such currents are majorly influenced by gravity, with the eastern currents flowing in separate extensive currents whereas the western currents for instance the Gulf Stream are relatively contracted.
Deep water current movement patterns are formed through a complex process which begins with the freezing of the water in the ocean. Once the water is frozen, the salt in the ocean water is also condensed in the freezing process and this leads to the creation of a layer of cold salt concentrated water which forms near the surface of the water where freezing generally takes place.
The brine then gradually sinks because of the density difference, brine being denser than the water below. The salt concentrated water is more viscous which makes it become denser than the water around it. Consequently, the gelatinous salty liquid sinks, leaving the surface levels of the ocean and will only settle when it gets to a region in the ocean where it bears an equal density to the surrounding ocean water.
This process is very prominent in the Greenland and Labrador Seas that are located in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Weddell and Ross Seas in the Southern Hemisphere. Similar to surface currents, most of the current movement takes place on the western sides of ocean basins except that deep ocean currents have their progression towards the north.
Surface currents flow in a succession of nearly circular gyres in the ocean basins. Most of the gyres are located in the western regions of the globe where the currents are contracted and carry large volumes of water for example the Gulf Stream, Agulhas and East Australian Currents.
The oceanic and atmospheric gyres help to move heat generated in the equatorial regions towards the poles. The polar movements of the ocean currents constitute the northward warm water current in the North Atlantic and in the North Pacific and the southward flow through the East Greenland and Labrador Currents. The surface currents that flow towards the equator move alongside the eastern edges of the gyres and are usually cooler than the currents that flow towards the poles located on the western margins.
Air movement causes upwelling and provides the requisite wind stress towards the equatorial region moving water away from the coast and gravitational force pushes cooler subsurface water to replace the unoccupied water spaces. The Southern Ocean region experiences persistent westerly air movement leading to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, a constant circumglobal current which hinders the formation of gyres.
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current allows for the integration water from different ocean basins making it the largest current on earth. Sverdrup (Sv), is the standard unit used to measure ocean currents with one Sv being equivalent to a volume flow rate of one million cubic meters per second.
The equatorial region experiences little or no gyres and currents here are usually surface currents stirred by the trade winds that originate from the eastern regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere.
The North and South Equatorial Currents which move toward the west are formed by trade winds which lead to an upwelling along the equator due to the movement of the southeast trade winds across the equator. Furthermore, the equatorial region does not incur Coriolis force which is potent even with a one degree shift north or south of the equator.
The Doldrums region is formed in the equatorial region where the northern and southern currents border. The Doldrums region is generally permeable to the Equatorial Countercurrent water that flows back eastwards since the water would otherwise get concentrated on the western boundary allowing the doldrums region to act as an outlet. The velocity of the currents also varies, with the western currents moving faster than the eastern currents.
Marine life in the oceans is totally dependant on ocean currents for survival. Oxygen derived from the atmosphere is mixed with water through the flux of surface water like waves which are more or less generated by surface currents. For the oxygen to be delivered to the organisms, the oceanic currents and welling are needed to translocate the oxygen to all tiers of the ocean.
Furthermore, marine victuals for instant phytoplankton which are minute organisms that are primary in the marine food chain are distributed in the ocean through the ocean currents. The organisms are usually caught in the currents and transported for great distances before being deposited in an ecosystem where they establish sustenance.
Therefore ocean currents play an important role to both shallow and deep water organisms because they push food into the organisms’ environment. Surface organisms such as crabs are also reliant on the currents which carry microorganisms from the oceans and deposit them near the shores.
In addition, currents provide inimitable signals in the life cycle of almost all marine organisms through transport of subtle chemical indicators. Turtles for instance migrate for long distances to mate and the precursor to their migration is the sensing of chemical triggers produced by sources that are more than a thousand miles away which are transported by ocean currents.
Warm water used by marine life such as fish and turtles to incubate their eggs is deposited to the nesting grounds through ocean currents. Physical features such as lagoons are put together through the ocean currents which carry marine particles that are then deposited onto the lagoons leading to the expansion of the ecosystem. Due to the fact that ocean currents can move for great distances, they are also likely to spread out toxins in the oceans.
For example, DDT which was a deadly insecticide was commonly used in America in the mid twentieth century. Through deltas, slight concentrations of the insecticide were moved to the ocean. The eventual consequence was that the product was found in penguins in both the north and south poles which had led to the thinning of the penguin egg shells. The only possible reason as to how the insecticide moved to such great distances is through ocean currents.
Life has always been a fascination of human beings. While we all strive hard to detect and analyze the essence of life and the impact it has on our lives, we need to understand that life in itself is a big mystery, the truth of which, is still a secret that is yet to be ascertained by the sharpest brains on the planet. While talking of life, we need to understand that beings dwell both in the air as well as on land. But do we know that life also exists at the depth of the ocean. Well, the answer is yes. There is a large colony of living species which are stated to life and flourish on the oceans floor. In this research paper, we would be discussing the various life forms which dwell on the ocean’s depth but are relatively unknown to the entire world. We would not be finalizing our research on animals alone, instead we would like to diversify and provide an insight into the bustling new world while life hidden in the depths of the murky water.
Introduction
Life at the Ocean’s Depth
Did you know that at the depth of the ocean, the pressure of water is equivalent to almost 50 jumbo jets? The feeling is like having fifty large jumbos parked right over your head. Yet despite the terrific pressure, life is stated to exist deep in the bed of the ocean. According to a research that was conducted by eminent marine biologists, it was found that life exists in Challenger Deep, which lies at a depth of almost seven miles. When the soil was tested through the aid of an external tool, it was found that most of the surroundings were single walled and they were composed of single celled organisms. According to the researchers, these life forms seem to resemble the earliest forms of living creatures. The living forms are termed as foraminifera. They are single celled life forms and are supposed to belong to the category of algae and slime molds. There are approximately four thousand varieties of foraminifera living in the ocean’s depth. While most of them dwell on the ocean’s floor, some are stated to live approximately 100 meters below the water surface and a few live on land as well. The program director of the marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) in Yokosuka, clearly stated his surprise in finding 432 varieties of foraminifera. Challenger Deep is supposed to be the deepest point of the Mariana Trench the surprising factor was that despite the immense water pressure, the microorganisms were able to survive without any evident problem (Roach, 2005).
The History of Foraminifera
Foraminifer is often the most exclusive variety of organisms that are said to infect the oceans floor. They are also considered to be the most exclusive as well as elusive organisms that are found to live in the most extreme conditions. Numerous discoveries and researches have shown that bacteria live in beneath the earth’s surface and that they have the ability to slip through the earths crust and seep inside the ocean’s floor. Numerous research studies have shown that bacterium have been found in the lakes that are covered by a layer of ice. Researches have also proven the fact that bacteria live beneath the lakes in Antarctica, wherein the surface of the lake is covered by a layer of thick ice. Researchers are of the belief that this bacterium is habitual of living at such depths for millions of years and hence, it has the ability to withstand tremendous water pressure and lead a fruitful existence. When researchers tested the DNA samples of foraminifera, they realized that the samples belonged to the oldest living beings on the planet. They also state that these organisms came into existence some 543 million years ago and are still alive and living in the Challenger Deep. Foraminifera are considered to be of vital importance in order to maintain the biology of the ocean. They comprise of almost half of the living creatures that are found in the deep sea and make up most of the lower food chain. From the point of view of research, the mysterious creatures are often looked on as an essential means of defining the secrets of the deep seas (Roach, 2005).
Protecting the Ocean Environment
The oceans environment needs to be protected by all means. There have been various laws that have been formulated to safeguard the marine environment and while most laws have been audited from time to time, there are a few that need to be taken care of and adhered to at all times. In order to preserve the living as well as the non living organisms dwelling in the oceans depths, the United States government has taken certain steps to step pace and ensure that the laws are followed on a regular basis. In order to ensure the preservation of navigation and preservation rights on high seas, all member nations need to have the right to innocent passage in territorial waters without the need to seek prior permission from the coastal bodies of the concerned state. Likewise, the right to transit ships, planes and freight carriers need to be adhered to for the purpose of international navigation. This right is legal and it cannot be hampered, impaired or changed. The right to archipelagic sea lanes is also considered valid. Sea planes are allowed to navigate through international routes while passing archipelagic states without any sort of restrictions from the concerned state. The high seas also exercise freedom to conduct military exercises at their personal discretion. Military activities and surveys can therefore be conducted without any sort of restriction. In order to cleanse the existing marine environment, the introduction of clean bio-fuels was undertaken at the cost of $18 billion. Battery, hydrogen fuel cells and wind, solar and clean and safe nuclear power were also introduced in sea travel (Bush, 2009).
Rare Findings
It has been noticed that fossils of rare animals have been sought as a rare occurrence in the present day marine scenario. In order to preserve the soft bodied organisms, which once made up for the oceans floor, an attempt is being made to revive the general ecosystem of the ocean in accordance with the set standards. While in the recent past, only the hard bodied parts such as the bones, skull and the teeth were considered as a symbol of preservation, it needs to be understood that remains of well preserved marine fossil is still considered as an exceptional find. There are some remains, nonetheless, which have the ability to remain intact regardless of the number of years. The remains of the Burgess Shale, is a classic example of a fossil that has the gut, eye as well as the muscle intact, even though it had died millions of years ago. These soft tissue fossils provide a clearer picture of animals and fishes which dwelled in the murky depths of the ocean, millions of years ago. For better preservation, several soft tissue organisms have been replicated in calcium phosphate. Such methods often capture even the sub cellular details of the marine organism. The sub cellular details include the cell nuclei, the mitochondria as well as the cryptic anatomy of the ancient sea creatures. Soft bodied organisms are therefore considered to be the most prominent means of studying the overall structure of those sea creatures which dwelled millions of years ago (Philip, Keith, Kevin & Susan, 2008).
Conclusion
Imagine a scenario wherein you are living 2500 meters below the ocean’s surface. Here, the water is oscillating in between 3 degree to 43 degrees. What kind of genes would you hope to find here? The question has been answered by a recent investigation by a leading researcher named Kathleen Scott, who discovered the special adaptations which are ideally required by creatures who dwell deep in the ocean floor in order to survive the immense water pressure and harsh living conditions. The complete gene of Thiomicrospira crunogena XCL2 was first discovered in the year 1985. The discoveries were made from the East Pacific Rise and they clearly showcased the importance of these living organisms on the entire marine ecosystem. The plants which swell on the oceans flow make us of the suns energy to produce food. They achieve their goals through the process of photosynthesis (Bob, 2008).
Life at the bottom of the ocean has always fascinated researchers from across the globe. While many researchers have had the privilege of making use of the latest technological innovations which in turn aid in the findings, others had to make do with the prehistoric equipment in a bid to ascertain the secrets which lay hidden in the depths of the ocean floor. Regardless of the scenario, the outcome has been very fruitful and researchers have discovered rare fossils, plants as well as living organisms living in areas wherein the water pressure exceeds the pressure exerted by 54 jumbo jets. While this is phenomenal, it would certainly be a long while we manage to unearth all the secrets which lie hidden in the murky depths of the blue waters (Liza, 2006).
References
Bob, H. (2008). Animal reality as it’s never been seen before. New Scientist,197(2639),22.
Bush, G. W.(2009). Remarks on signing proclamations to establish the Marianas Trench marine national monument, Pacific remote Islands marine national monument, and the Rose Atoll marine national monument. Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents,45(1),8.
Liza, G.(2006). Genomic insights into (extreme) life at the bottom of the sea. PLoS Biology,4(12),2171.
Philip, W., Keith, D., Kevin.,& Susan, M.(2008). Preserving the unpreservable: a lost world rediscovered at Christian Malford, UK. Geology Today,24(3),95.
Roach, J.(2005). Life is found thriving at ocean’s deepest point.
The ocean is among the most important natural resources bestowed upon mankind. It has extensive benefits to human life and it provides a wonderful ecosystem in which other organisms live. The following are some examples of the benefits that the ocean has on human life (2). The ocean is extensively used for transportation of bulky goods over long distances. It is also a very valuable source of a number of minerals and crude oil. Most of these minerals are found in deep sea.
Examples of these oceanic minerals include cobalt, salt, iron, copper, manganese etc. The ocean is also a valuable recreation site for human beings. It provides a serene environment that acts as an attraction to people on holidays seeking relaxation. The ocean is also a source of organisms with useful medical value. It also regulates the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by taking atmospheric carbon dioxide and giving out oxygen.
This is a very important input in the efforts towards reduction of the levels of global warming. Lastly, the ocean is a very important source of biodiversity (1). It provides organisms that have great value to human life. The most commendable among the benefits of marine life to human life are the fact that marine life can act as food and the fact that some oceanic organisms have medicinal value.
Living resources of the ocean
The marine habitat harbors a large percentage of the earth’s cumulative population of plants and animals. Over one million animal species and plant species have already been discovered and scientists have estimated that an extra nine million species are still living in the marine biome without human discovery.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Wadsworth Publishing.
Resenick, John. Marine Biology. Reston Publishing Company
This means that, of all plant and animal population living in the ocean we only know 10%. Thus if the scientists are right, there is a lot of plant and animal species in the oceans that could have more value than just medicines and food. Let us explore the marine animals that have already been discovered.
Fish
The ocean has been the leading source of fish for ages. Humans have used the ocean for a very long time as their source of fish for food. The fact that the ocean is full of a myriad species of fish is thus obvious. Specific examples of marine fish and their adaptations include the black swallower which is able to triple the size of its stomach in order to prey on other fish that are bigger that it is.
Another example is the tripod fish which derives its name from its exceptionally long caudal and pelvic fins. Fish also have other adaptations for marine life. Virtually all fish have streamlined bodies for ease of locomotion (1). All fish have their blood pumped from the heart to the gills from where it is supplied to other body parts.
Thus fish are, in this way adapted to survive in deep water by taking in oxygen from the water through their gills. Fish have also been able to survive in oceans due to the constant availability of their chief food: the planktons. These are small fish that are preyed upon by virtually every marine organism. Thus marine fish can never be starved. A discussion about the types of marine fish would be incomplete without the mention of sharks.
Sharks are widely known for their huge bodies. They feed on other animals and thus they are carnivores. Their common diets include lobsters, crabs, bony fishes, worms and mollusks. The choice of what to eat is normally determined by the availability of the latter. Thus pelagic sharks normally feed on squid. Sharks will therefore eat dead fish at the ocean floor.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Wadsworth Publishing.
Tiger sharks are believed to be able to eat anything. Most sharks spend almost all their time swimming in order to allow respiration to freely take place. However, other sharks are normally found in ocean floors where they carry out their respiration normally (1).
Marine Mammals
Marine life is also composed of a number of mammals. Just like other marine life forms, mammals are adapted to cope with the harsh living conditions that are characteristic of marine life. For example, they normally have a thick layer of fat under their skins to help them insulate their bodies from excessive heat loss. This is because some regions of the experience extremely cold temperatures.
Contrarily, sea otters, an example of ocean mammals, have dense fur instead of blubber that serves the purpose of insulating them from the extremely cold temperatures of the ocean.
These adaptations against heat loss are necessitated by the fact that marine mammals are similar to terrestrial mammals in terms of their warm bloodedness. They are thus forced to develop these adaptations in a bid to keep their temperatures above ocean temperatures. Other examples of marine mammals include seals, whales, sea cows, dugongs and manatees.
Other adaptations of mammals to heat insulation include a large internal volume and reduced surface area. Their blood is also controlled to ensure that only a negligible amount comes close to cold water. They also have other adaptations to marine life apart from heat insulation mechanisms. Such adaptations include ability to expel air from lungs as they dive deep in the ocean (Garrison 1). This enables them to avoid excess intake of nitrogen.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Wadsworth Publishing.
They also have slower heartbeats, high amount of hemoglobin in blood and strategic blood flow.
Both fish and marine mammals have streamlined bodies but while marine mammals are capable of swimming both horizontally and vertically, most fish are only able to swim horizontally. This is due to difference in the adaptation of their tails. Mammals are horizontal while those of a majority of fish have horizontal orientation.
Fish and most mammals have streamlined bodies which enhances their mobility in water. The few mammals which do not have streamlined bodies have other special adaptations that enable them to survive in the ocean. These special adaptations include camouflage or body armors that protect them from sea carnivores (1).
Benthic life forms
Benthic is a term used to describe the area of the ocean that lies below the pelagic zone. It is not the last zone in terms of depth but in spite of this fact, it is normally referred to as the sea bed. The deepest zone of the ocean is known as the abyssal zone. The benthic zone is characterized by extremely cold water since sunlight does not penetrate such depths.
Organisms that live in the benthic zone are mainly fungi, bacteria, fish, worms and sponges. These benthic forms survive in the harsh conditions of this zone because they normally have adaptations for resisting cold temperatures and also because the benthic zone is rich in nutrients. Also evident among benthic life forms are sea stars which are normally carnivorous (1).
Other marine life forms
Other marine life forms include animals that have impenetrable shells that protect them from being preyed by other animals in the ocean.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Wadsworth Publishing.
An example of such animals is the chitons which live exclusively in the ocean. The feature that distinctively identifies them is the overlapping plates at the back of the animal
. The plates are eight in number and they enhance the physical morphology of the animal for protection. Such organisms normally have underdeveloped organs for compatibility of their bodies with their shells (4). Their adaptations to marine life have made them thrive in this carnivorous environment for many years. This is in spite of the fact that they are preyed by sharks.
Preservation of marine biome
A lot needs to be done to reduce the rate of extinction of marine life. Human activities like fishing, industrialization (pollution), reconstruction, experimentation, transportation etc. have had a persistent negative effect on marine life.
A considerably large number of fish die every year due to the pollution caused by the disposal of industrial effluents in to the ocean. In other areas people have overfished the oceans, catching juvenile fish and thus limiting the growth of fish population. Fishermen have also continually used wrong fishing methods that continue to be a threat to the growth of biodiversity (3).
For example, some fishermen may utilize fishing methods which make them catch unwanted species of fish and thus contributing to the inability of certain species of fish to multiply. It is our responsibility to strive to conserve marine life. For instance, when planning reconstruction of intertidal oceanic zones, we should first of all analyze the effect that our projects are likely to have on marine life and carry out the necessary steps to reduce them.
Littler, Mark and Littler, Diane. “The Evolution of Thallus Form and Survival
Strategies in Benthic Marine Microalgae
For instance, before reconstruction, artificial waters could be made in the ocean shores to preserve corals and fish so that they can be protected from the effects of the reconstruction process. Organizations should ensure that they practice Corporate Social Responsibility by contributing philanthropically to projects involving conservation of marine habitat.
Governments should also ensure that regulations are laid down that support the fight against extinction of marine life forms (1). They should thus discourage industrial pollution by all means and ensure that other factors that negatively affect marine life are controlled.
Conclusion
Marine life was once thought to be so dynamic that it was under no threat of extinction. Contemporary research has shown that marine population is drastically reducing due to uncontrolled exploitation (1). The worrying bit is that the recovery rate of marine life after exploitation is very slow as compared to the growth rates before exploitation. Marine mammals are particularly endangered. This is because they must surface in order to breathe before going back underwater.
This makes them easy targets for human capturing. With these worrying trends in the population of marine life, we are obliged to take preventive measures to ensure that our negative effects on marine life are minimized. We owe our future generations the responsibility of preserving biodiversity for them and thus we should do our best in ensuring that the best measures towards preserving biodiversity are implemented.
Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Wadsworth Publishing.
Works Cited
Berta, Annalisa. Marine Mammals. U.K. McMillan Publishing. Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. U.S. Wadsworth Publishing.
Littler, Mark and Littler, Diane. “The Evolution of Thallus Form and Survival Strategies in Benthic Marine Microalgae.” 1979. Web.
The Atlantic Ocean has remained a victim of imperfect political allegiances that arise from different activities such as fisheries, tourism, agriculture, and shipping that take place in the massive waters. The Atlantic community boasts of the ocean’s deep-sea basins, especially at the North Atlantic section. Such distinctive sea basins promote the existence of biodiversity.
These characteristics have led countries to raise significant interests in the Atlantic Ocean. Political imbalance that has arisen amongst the regular users of the Atlantic waters has posed diverse impacts on the condition of the ocean.
Practices such as overfishing and ocean pollution that result from marine human activities have posed a great threat to biodiversity in the Atlantic Ocean. As a result, many governments have attempted to set coast-to-coast designations and intercontinental laws that govern the use of the Atlantic Ocean. This paper provides an overview of the political problems that face the Atlantic Ocean by reviewing the existing laws that govern the use of the Atlantic Ocean.
Political Instruments
Marine activities such as fishing, shipping, and tourism have drawn numerous political interests from global nations that have access to the Atlantic waters. However, these human activities have posed a menace to the ocean’s life, a situation that has led to the development of international ocean policies that include laws, guidelines, and conventional practices to enhance the life of the ocean’s biodiversity. The shared ecosystem has prompted governments to devise frameworks for effective ocean management in an attempt to promote sustainable ocean activities in the Atlantic region (Boon 13).
However, different political forces have impinged the attempts to conform to certain regulatory frameworks that governments have set to manage the Atlantic Ocean effectively. For instance, the establishment of environmental advocacy organizations has influenced the management of the Atlantics waters. The Conservation Law Foundation (CLF) is one of the leading organizations that address overfishing, industrial development, pollution, and climate change issues in the Atlantic Ocean. The organization plays a critical role to promote sustainable marine activities to save the biodiversity of the Atlantic.
However, Sesini (12) reveals that the organization faces various political controversies that impinge its operations on the England’s Atlantic coast. Opponents of the organization have challenged the developments of the organization on the Atlantic. They claim that the design of the project has unsound and obsolete conservational framework. In addition, Jacques and Smith (47) reveal the establishment of the Mid-Atlantic Regional Ocean Planning Framework that pinpoints the various issues that can be resolved under ‘Regional Ocean’ planning. The authors emphasize the need for governmental agencies to collaborate in an effort to ensure effective management of the Atlantic Ocean’s resources by establishing strong governance.
Atlantic Ocean Pollution
Despite the various efforts by governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to curb ocean contamination, there has been increased pollution in the Atlantic Ocean. Careless disposal of industrial effluents, plastics, and other foreign solid wastes has contributed to the contamination of the Atlantic Ocean (Jacques & Smith, 45).
The authors unveil the existence of uncontrolled landfills sited on the ocean inlet channels together with industrial dumping and littering. These practices have increased the rate of ocean pollution in the last five years. Sesini (14) emphasizes that overusing of these landfills has led to general poor management of the ocean’s coast, a situation that has significantly contributed to the amount of marine debris that enters the ocean through the inlet rivers.
There is increased garbage patch that mainly consists of plastic materials and industrial trash that enter the ocean through ocean activities such as fisheries, tourism, agriculture, and shipping. In an attempt to alleviate ocean pollution, the government and non-governmental organizations have carried out an evaluation of the various effects of ocean pollution on the Atlantics biodiversity. Boon reveals a research carried out by the Wood Hole Oceanographic Institution to investigate the extent of the impact of pollution on sea life (6).
The research indicated a decrease in biodiversity due to poisoning effects. Furthermore, ocean accidents that occur due to shipping activities sometimes lead to oil spills that have harmful effects on ocean life. The vulnerability of marine life to oil threatens its existence in the oceans. Marine life researchers have concluded that oil spills lead to migration, reduced reproduction, and death of marine animals.
Fisheries Disputes and Overfishing
Overfishing is a marine activity that has led to unending political debates that touch on various regulations and biodiversity management practices. Overfishing befalls when fishing exceeds the reproduction rate of the fish in the ocean. Undoubtedly, there is an ever-increasing demand for seafood around the globe. In the modern world, with the emerging lifestyle diseases, the community uses fish for food and medicinal purposes. As a result, there is evident overfishing in the Atlantic Ocean. Boon reveals the decline of the Atlantic Bluefin tuna species, which is one of the superior predators in the Atlantic waters.
The author unveils that the species is likely to vanish in a period of three years if political debates that revolve around the fisheries industry continue for a similar period. Statistical findings show that the overall percentage of the Bluefin tuna reduced from 4.4 percent in 1965 to 1.3 percent in 2000. Thereafter, up-to-date, there has been feared extinction of the fish species, as its percentage has dropped below 1 percent. A fall in fish population has severe implications on the fisheries industry.
Jenssen reveals that many countries depend on the fisheries industry for the generation of a considerable amount of revenue (198). In addition, the industry employs very many human populations from around the globe. A falling fish population will not only mean decreased revenue for dependent countries but also loss of jobs for fishers. Nevertheless, political vagueness in the Atlantic Ocean has led to difficulties in the implementation of ocean management strategies. Different governments have proposed contradicting ocean regulations that do not match the international conventions for ocean management (Boon 11).
Ocean Management Policies and Non-Governmental Organizations
Global political forces and domestic policies have had a significant influence on the implementation of conventional ocean management laws in the Atlantic Ocean. Despite the socio-economic, ecological, and scientific interest that different countries have in the Atlantic waters, researchers have suggested the need to agree on common ocean management laws to preserve the ocean’s flora and fauna. The management of the Atlantic’s fisheries resources should be a mandate of every nation that participates in the Atlantic’s marine activities.
International organizations have attempted to merge their conventions with domestic policies to establish comprehensive ocean pacts pertaining to environmental conservation and management of fisheries. Jacques and Smith reveal that the Atlantic Fisheries Policy Review (AFPR), a policy framework for the management of fisheries on Canadian Atlantic Coast, has established effective control of fisheries in the Atlantic Ocean (18). Non-governmental organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have been on the frontline to preserve biodiversity and maintain sustainable fishing activities in not only the Atlantic Ocean but also other oceans, seas, and waters of the world.
Jenssen reveals that the WWF is the largest and active non-governmental organization that commits its efforts to the protection of sea life by managing ocean pollution and fisheries (198). The NGO’s objective in the Atlantic Ocean is to improve the numbers of the endangered Bluefin tuna fish species. Another organization that works together with the WWF is the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF). These organizations implement sustainable marine practices that encompass broad aspects such as fish harvesting techniques and ecosystem sustainability.
Conclusion
Competition for ocean resources without proper marine management practices is a devastating approach to the benefits of the ocean. Unsound ocean management leads to diminishing resources due to uncontrolled human activities that affect every sphere of the ocean. Fisheries, shipping, and tourism activities in the Atlantic Ocean together with relentless political misalignments, have had noteworthy effects on the ocean’s biodiversity.
Despite the attempts made by various environmental organizations around the globe to ensure effective ocean management, governments have to work closely with these organizations to simplify the implementation of sound marine practices in the Atlantic Ocean.
The prevalence of special political groups threatens the workability of organizational sound management systems due to identified socio-economic, ecological, and scientific interests in the Atlantic, especially the deep-sea sections. For sustainable marine activities, governments, environmental organizations, and ocean teams in the Atlantic and other parts of the world need to campaign tirelessly for sound ocean management practices.
Works Cited
Boon, Kristen. “Overfishing Of Bluefin Tuna: Incentivizing Inclusive Solutions.” University Of Louisville Law Review 52.1(2013): 1-38. Print.
Jacques, Peter, and Zachary Smith. Ocean politics and policy: A Reference Handbook. United States of America. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2003. Print.
Jenssen, Bjørn. “Marine pollution: the future challenge is to link human and wildlife studies.” Environ Health Perspect 111.4(2003): 198–199. Print.
Sesini, Marzia. The Garbage Patch In The Oceans: The Problem And Possible Solutions, 2011. Web.