Ocean Archives - Page 3 of 6

Essay on Space Exploration Vs Ocean Exploration

Posted on December 15, 2024 | by Laureen

Over the years, only less than twenty percent of the ocean of the Earth was explored. According to many scientists, humans know more about space than the oceans. For years they have been equipped with knowledge about what is beyond the atmosphere, what the stars look like, what is it made of, what the color of the moon and many more things that involve outer space. Contrasting under the sea, you never know what is down there. Deep-sea exploration is a captivating thing that everyone talks about, but the government pays no attention to it, unlike the exploration of outer space. With the use of deep-sea exploration, they just might discover life underneath the glaciers which is accommodating also for space exploration, particularly for those celestial bodies with a similar form of glacier ice, and might get the chance to find the missing piece on the puzzle on how we existed and the answer to life. Not only that but further creatures might exist deep down there or maybe some plants can be helpful to the industry, or maybe the lost city of Atlantis is true. Everybody’s maybe can be answered if they discover more of what lies beneath the ocean like how they explore outer space.

According to Schubel (2016), Deep-Sea Exploration is just as important as Space Exploration. However, people are more in favor of space exploration, nonetheless what lies beneath the ocean depths is still uncertain. The study beyond is lacking compared to the information about outer space. The search engines, since 2004, show that the number of searches of space exploration has been four times greater than ocean exploration. “Space is more exciting and more visible.” (Virmani,2017) People simply need to look up at the sky and wonder about the thousands of possibilities that can happen beyond it. The main reason why people pay more consideration to outer space is because it easily gets the attention of the people by just seeing the skies at night with the constellations, stars, and the formation of clouds.

There has been a massive difference between the funding of space exploration and ocean exploration. In fiscal year 2018, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) received funding with the highest total since 2009 which is $20.7 billion. While the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) only received $5.77 billion. NASA received four times more than NOAA. This budget comparison shows why there is also a great difference as to why the exploration of space is more widely accessible than the exploration of the ocean.

Considering this, it does not generally come to the heart of the current matter: their insight into the sea – when contrasted with another insight into the space, they can know and can investigate – is amazingly thin. Think about that scientist who has sent twelve individuals to the moon since the year 1969 over a bunch of missions; just three individuals have plummeted to the most profound piece of the sea in the Marianas Trench (Thar). This only concludes that they only have a slight knowledge about the deep sea; as indicated by the National Maritime and Environmental Organization, ninety-five percent of the sea stays unexplored up until today, which is inconceivable given the amount they depend on it — truth be told, the sea influences everything from sustenance and travel to wellbeing and atmosphere (Lockheart).

The whole sea depths have been mapped, however, just a goal of five kilometers (three miles) implies that they can perceive any highlights bigger than five kilometers. It does not mean that they have investigated or even observed the whole floor, even with instruments; the activity is finished by utilizing radar to gauge the ocean’s surface, giving them a thought of where the knocks and plunges in the sea depths lie. It is quite a cool accomplishment, yet the maps of the sea floor still aren’t as nitty gritty as the maps of the planets around them. If they think about the amount of the sea depths they truly observed and can provide details regarding, they are talking 0.05 percent of the sea, mapped with the most elevated goals of sonar (Copley).

It begs the question: Why does space seem to be a bigger target for exploration than the ocean? Part of the answer comes down to ease of exploration. Sure, it is hard to get a spaceship, or even a probe, into space, but it is also not an afternoon lap swim to get a person to the bottom of the ocean, where the pressure of fifty jumbo jets rests on you (Stillman). Remember, in space, they can see things, whereas in the deep sea, it is dark, and it is very hard to make a light that can glow far enough to see anything is not easy.

It is hard to imagine the pitch-dark, icy-cold environment of deep oceans. Many discoveries are yet to be discovered but are lacking support and resources. Japan, started drilling the ocean floor to learn about the earth’s history and structure in 2005. It can drill up to 23,000 feet or 7,000 meters it is the only ship in the world that can drill into earthquake zones and hoping that it will be the first ship that can drill through the earth’s mantle. For the past few years, deep sea explorations have become more accessible these days thanks to the technology that will always improve for inventing and creating underwater vehicles that can be used for diving to study and explore the deep sea and to give people more insights and information about what is happening beneath the deep sea more than what people know.

According to Carol Smith (2014) in the Deep Sea Crucial to Our Lives, Study Shows that the hydrothermal vents and other deep-sea environments host life forms that are sources of new antibiotics and anti-cancer chemicals. The key here is the nutrient regeneration provided by the faunas that live beneath the sea, which creates elements necessary for fueling the surface of the sea. This serves as new potential health benefits that can help change the world for the way humans live their lives.

The information about deep sea exploration given to the public is very broad. People only hear the reasons like discovering new species and measuring the depth of oceans. That is the reason why people’s state of knowledge remains constrained and that must be changed as soon as possible because time constantly moves they do not want to be left out. Furthermore, there is more than just discovering and measuring, deep-sea exploration has a wide variety of benefits to humankind. Through the conjoined effort of explorers and scientists, it will help connect nations by sharing data, experience, and intellect, and help resolve global problems in pollution, biodiversity, and fisheries. Not only it will help in marine life but also be a helpful factor in boosting the economy of one’s country. Given the importance of exploring the ocean in providing food, health benefits, and worldwide product exchange, man still gives more attention to space exploration and only has insufficient knowledge about the ocean and the life it supports. To acquire more information about the deep ocean, man must associate with researchers and educators of deep-sea exploration. Through these people will see the essentiality of what lies beneath the Earth’s waters.

Curiosity is the fuel of discovery; the more people get curious they conduct research. Scientists should be researching how the deepest part of the oceans could show a new part of the world. Maybe deep down the ocean, is a place left undiscovered.

Essay on Space Exploration Vs Ocean Exploration

Posted on December 5, 2024 | by Laureen

The Ocean Shipping Security Concerns

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

The United States government has been extremely cautious about the security of citizens since September 11, 2001. An attack that happened that day has changed the perspective on the terrorism, and it is now acknowledged as a global threat. The government has become aware that the security of all kinds of transportation may be breached, and it could be dangerous for the overall safety of U.S. citizens. The government has been taking necessary measures to prevent these types of attacks from happening such as The Patriot Act that is effective since October 26th, 2001.

Ocean shipping was one of the least protected areas and it such weakness could be used by terrorist organizations to transport personnel and weapons. The fact that cruise ships can be an object of attack is also an area of concern. The U.S. government has put a lot of effort into increasing the overall safety of this method of transportation.

The way ship and port operations are performed was been changed. Numerous government agencies are able to monitor this area to prevent any possible incidents. The analysis of information about shipments is performed by The United States Customs and Border Protection agency. However, it used to be unable to inspect all the containers and container ships were extremely vulnerable. The former United States President George W. Bush has signed the Maritime Transportation Security Act of 2002 to address the issues of port security. The government still makes changes to the law to increase the safety of the citizens. Howard Coble Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2014 was signed to increase the Federal powers of The United States Coast Guard. Alexander and Richardson (2009) state that after the attacks “America and its international partners have developed a container security initiative for ports – an initiative to establish pre-loading container inspection procedures and protocols” (p. 306). This means that other countries are ready for cooperation when it comes to prevention of terrorism.

These terrorist attacks have had an enormous impact on the overall economic situation in the country and enterprises have started making changes to their strategies. The first reaction of insurers was to reduce the coverage because private companies are not capable of managing such large risks. The overall cost of premium coverage was also dramatically increased. Most of the businesses have suffered huge losses following this catastrophe, and they were unable to set correct prices of such coverage and decided to exclude support for these kinds of risks. The Terrorism Risk Insurance Act was signed in 2002 as a way for public to gain compensations in case of terrorist attacks. This was the most helpful for shipping companies that were not able to get insurance against such incidents. Many insurance providers have seen it as a way to gain profit and nowadays there are numerous businesses that offer ship security coverage.

In conclusion, the terrorist attack that happened on September 11, 2001, has impacted the whole world. The United States government and international partners were able to develop a set of measures that would significantly reduce the risks of such incidents happening again. The safety of all kinds of transportation has been dramatically increased, especially of ocean shipping because it used to be highly vulnerable to terrorist attacks. Insurance providers have adapted and made changes to their services as a response to the catastrophe to prevent possible losses. Overall, this incident has had a huge impact on ocean shipping.

References

Alexander, Y., & Richardson, T. B. (2009). Terror on the high seas. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger Security International.

Ocean and U.S. Naval Transportation

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
History of Ocean Transpiration
Modern Ocean Transpiration in the USA
International Policies
Local Situation
Future Perspectives
Works Cited

Introduction

Today, the US ocean and naval transportation represent one of the most important industries with millions of annual profits and strong commercial relations with all parts of the world. Today,.concepts of maritime strategy are about the ability and policies of a country to use the sea for its own economic, political, strategic, and military advantage. It is clear therefore that institutions, legal regimes, and arrangements for oceans governance should have vital input into maritime strategic thinking, although perhaps some of the intellectual links and processes here are not as well developed as they might be (Attard, 92(). The two concepts of oceans governance and maritime strategy are inked together representing and reflecting a national vision and understanding of the ocean and naval transportation sphere. The US ocean and naval transportation are based on century-old traditions and principles, values, and ethics which guide the industry and stipulate its main functions and legal principles. Today, the US ocean and naval transportation is a fast-growing industry regulated by international laws and national security principles. This is in response to the jurisdictional revolution in the law of the sea, the expansion of economic activities at sea, increased concern for the health of the world’s oceans, and awareness of the importance of ecologically sustainable development.

History of Ocean Transpiration

From Columbus to 1900

The history of ocean and navel transpiration foes back to the colonization period and is closely connected with the first colonists. The first businessmen in America were the agents of colonial promoters resident in England. The function of these agents was to import into the infant settlements the food supplies and the tools and building materials so desperately needed by the pioneers of the early seventeenth century and to dispatch to England the paltry amounts of furs, skins, and staple products collected in payment (Chapin 54). As the controls of the English promoters weakened because of heavy financial losses, interlopers made their way into the colonial trade. At the outset, these were ship captains, whole or part owners of their vessels and cargoes, but sometimes agents of English mercantile houses. Forefathers of the tramp traders of a later period, these peddlers of the sea visited the coastal towns of Massachusetts and the settlements ringing the Chesapeake Bay, exchanging supplies, manufactured goods, and in some cases slaves and servants, for whatever the local people had to offer (Adede 44).

After the Constitution was adopted and a stronger government was set in operation, the first legislative proposals included measures to aid and promote shipping. In 1789, Congress adopted a law, later to cause much controversy, to the effect that only ships built in the United States and belonging to citizens thereof could be privileged to register under the American flag (Ademuni, 12). During the 18^th century, the growth and development of river transpiration had a great impact on ocean transpiration means. Work on steam engines had been in progress in England since the early eighteenth century, and experiments with steamboats were undertaken in the United States by Oliver Evans, James Rumsey, John Fitch, and John Stevens, among others. Fitch was the first to get a practical steamboat in operation. The development of ocean transpiration was influenced by economic growth and international trade: cotton, timber, and tobacco industry development. Work on steam engines had been in progress in England since the early eighteenth century, and experiments with steamboats were undertaken in the United States by Oliver Evans, James Rumsey, John Fitch, and John Stevens, among others (McDowell 72). Fitch was the first to get a practical steamboat in operation. An itinerant clock repairer with a suspicious, contentious nature but extraordinary mechanical ingenuity, After receiving the reports of the cruisers and if necessary buying land or stumpage (i.e., the timber on the land), mill owners arranged to send logging crews to the area selected for operations. Sometimes the crews were employees of the mill owners; more often they were independent outfits working under contract. But the building and operation of steamships required the resources and organization of big business, and–at the early stage of development–government assistance. In a few short years, therefore, both here and in Europe ocean steamship lines became the large government-sponsored enterprises, few in number and heavily freighted with the national interest, which they remain today (Soares et al 82),

The entire period from 1815 to the clipper ship era in the ‘Fifties was marked by a steady growth of the merchant marine both during the period when discriminating duties were in force and during the period when reciprocity had superseded the earlier policy. This growth, it should be noted, was at a considerably slower pace than that maintained during the Napoleonic wars, and shipping never again achieved the same relative importance that it had during that period. The Civil War led to the decay of the merchant marine. The South succeeded, with its armed cruisers, in striking terror into the hearts of the northern shipowners. The need for naval protection was demonstrated once again. Many owners sold their ships to foreigners at panic prices and others laid up the vessels in port and hesitated to operate them. A total of 750,000 tons of shipping, about one-third of the fleet engaged in the foreign trade, was sold (Mears 81).

1900-1950

The results of its deliberations were the Hanna-Payne, and, at a somewhat later date, the Frye bills. The former was in the form of a bounty, compensation being granted on the basis of gross tonnage, mileage, and speed. The Hanna-Payne bill did not come to a vote but in the expectation of the passage of this or a similar bill, a number of steamers were constructed (Radius 33). The bill provided to all American ships in the foreign trade a general bounty of both outward and inward voyages. This decline in the price of steel in the United States led to the formation of the steel trust and by 1902 American steel was again at a price substantially higher than British steel. The conclusion of the Democrats and other opponents of the subsidy was, that if steel were sold to the shipbuilders at a reasonable price, they would have so great an advantage over English builders that no subsidy would be necessary (Mance 101).

An emergency measure enacted in August 1914 was the ship registry law. This act was passed at the request of American capitalists who owned ships operating under British and other foreign flags. These ship-owners had refused to take advantage of the American registry provisions of the Panama Canal Act, but now that their ships were in danger of capture or destruction by the enemy they were eager to seek the protection of a neutral flag. The ship registry act extended this protection in a most liberal form. On April 14, 1917, Philip Manson, president of the Pacific and Eastern Steamship Company, submitted a plan for constructing the proposed Shipping Board fleet in small Government shipyards (Mance 82). The “scientific subsidy law” of 1936 marked the first acceptance of subsidy legislation by the Democratic party which previously had been a consistent opponent of this type of special privilege legislation (Soares 43).

The sponsorship of subsidy legislation by President Roosevelt contributed to the reversal of policy, but of somewhat greater importance was the universally recognized necessity of ending the evils of the mail contract system. Congress was unwilling to abandon completely the principle of private ownership in the foreign shipping business. Having convinced itself that the foreign trade merchant fleet was an important national interest, the commission proceeded to investigate the reasons for the failure of the American fleet to keep pace with the fleets of other nations. This failure was found to be the result of three causes: the higher cost of building American ships, the higher cost of operating the same ships, and the foreign subsidies which, it was claimed, gave foreign shipping an undue advantage (Marx 33).

Before World War I, foreign ships were allowed, however, to call at any American port as long as they did not take on cargo for discharge at another domestic harbor. At the time of the passage of the original coastal monopoly act, the United States had no seacoast on the Pacific and only a limited seacoast on the Gulf of Mexico. With the acquisition of additional territory, the law became increasingly significant; its provisions were extended to cover trade between the Atlantic and the Pacific coast and, later, commerce with Alaska (Dilger, 19). A second means of extending indirect aid to the merchant marine was the readoption of a policy of discriminating duties. These imposts had been in effect during the early years of the Republic which were also years of great prosperity in the shipping industry. Under these conditions of panic, American exporters sought desperately to secure shipping to carry their cargoes abroad (Soares 23). For a time this was almost impossible since the United States had practically no foreign trade fleet and since the ships of the belligerent powers were tied up in the ports because their owners feared they would be captured. To make the situation even more difficult, the marine insurance companies hesitated to write insurance for cargoes on ships sailing into European waters. Their rates soared to exorbitant heights. The prediction by shipping lobbyists of a shipping crisis in the event of a European war had materialized (Gravson 55).

1950-Present

The main changes in ocean and naval transportation took place between the 1950s 1990s influenced by international politics and a new world order system. During the Cold War, US seapower dominated the seas of the world while the Soviet Union also tried to develop a formidable navy to challenge American governance of the world’s oceans. However, the Soviet challenge was effectively met by US seapower, and the safety of sea lanes was guaranteed. Most of the countries belonging to the maritime global alliance led by the US were trading states whose national security and economic prosperity were heavily dependent upon the safety of the sea lanes. Without effective seapower of their own, these countries felt secure under the umbrella of US seapower (Rose 41; U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001). The US provided security of the sea lanes as the common good for all its allies. The American alliance with the East Asian states also had maritime characteristics. The US established bilateral alliances with Korea and Japan in the early 1950s and also formed the ANZUS treaty in 1951. These alliances were made possible only through the connecting highways running across both the northern and southern Pacific Ocean (Soares 25).

During the Cold War, the US devised various tactics and strategies for winning the war. Among many American strategies, the entangling military alliance with countries in Western Europe and East Asia was most important (Rose 62). The US thus successfully contained the Soviet expansionist threat through its superior naval forces. Strong American naval power also guaranteed the safety of the sea lanes of communication (SLOG) of all five oceans of the world. Therefore, US allies, most of which are also capitalist maritime states, were provided with SLOG security without the need to build up their own naval forces. SLOG security was a common good provided by the US during the Cold War era. The United States Navy (USN) reached its peak during the early 1980s when President Reagan’s arms build-up plan was launched. The 600–ship navy was the motto of the Reagan years and the Reagan plan was the underlying factor of the collapse of the Soviet Union (Rose 65; US. Department of Transportation. 1990).

During the 1970s-1990s, the classical maritime strategists were able to view the ocean as a great international ‘common’, a highway of trade and commerce, and the vital means by which the imperial powers were able to exercise their strategic domination and extend their influence around the world. Through a proliferation of international treaties dealing with marine issues, particularly the preservation and protection of the marine environment, there has been a great codification recently of the rights and obligations of countries to use the oceans (Whitnah, 4). The result is n increasingly complex array of rules and guidelines dealing with what countries can do in ocean areas, where they can do it, how they exercise their rights and duties at sea, and what the ships and fishing vessels flying their national flags can and cannot do. First and foremost with these international treaties, we have the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (or LOSC or UNCLOS, as it is variously known). It codifies a universal and balanced set of rights and responsibilities for the users of the world’s oceans. It provides the foundation for subsequent international treaties and ‘soft law’ instruments dealing with the oceans and activities at sea (Whitnah, 15).

Modern Ocean Transpiration in the USA

There are profound changes that have occurred in recent decades in the operating environment of navies. The naval operating environment is now much more regulated by new regimes of oceans governance than it was previously. It is incumbent upon navies to identify the implications of these new regimes for naval operations, including the role that navies will have in the enforcement of the regimes. In the past, navies have tended to see these non-war-fighting missions as detracting from their ‘core business but it is not a ‘zero-sum’ game and navies may have to accept new roles, particularly in high seas enforcement, without any reduced emphasis on their primary war-fighting missions. These new roles could lead to new types of a naval vessels, such as long-range, high-endurance, capable, patrol vessels, possibly operated cooperatively by two or more countries or on a regional basis (U.S. General Accounting Office 2000).

At the beginning of the 21st century, the US has one of the best and innovative transportation means. Despite recent developments with oceans governance, including the introduction (but not necessarily implementation) of international conventions, fundamental tensions remain between different uses of the sea and the extent of the sovereignty or sovereign rights an individual country can exercise at sea. Recent incidents, including disputes over ownership of the Spratly and Senkaku Islands in Asia, arrests by Royal Australian Navy vessels of illegal fishing vessels off Heard Island, and the dispute between Australia and Japan over southern bluefin tuna all demonstrate how problems over marine sovereignty and resources can arise (Rose 76).

International Policies

Marine Protected Area (MPA) is the first global instrument to establish a framework procedure allowing non-flag states to board and inspect fishing vessels of another state on the oceans Parties to MPA agree to have their vessels subject to inspection by another party on the high seas even if they are not a party to regional measures. By becoming parties to MPA a state would be bound to respect the conservation measures for straddling stocks and highly migratory species which two or more states may adopt for any region of the world, as far as such measures are consistent with the rules of international law as reflected in the MPA. Another Important document is the UN Implementing Agreement (Rose 79). To date, it has received 18 ratifications and has been signed by 59 states. Japan and Korea have signed it and the US has ratified. Australia signed The UN Implementing Agreement on 4 December 1995 and is currently determining what the full legal implications of ratification are (Rose 80).

Local Situation

In spite of great changes in legislation and international policies, in the US direct shipment may have the disadvantages of poorer services and higher costs, but the use of air freight and the reduction in inventory costs may make direct shipments more economical (Rose 69). The feasibility of making direct shipments depends on such factors as unit value and perishability of the product, the size of the customer’s order, the geographic location of customers, the required speed of delivery, service, transportation alternatives, and above all, the impact on sales. For the lowest possible physical distribution costs can also have the adverse effect of causing a more than proportionate reduction on profits. Rather than ship direct to customers, it may be more economical to make shipments in bulk to regional warehouses and fill customer orders from these stocks (Rose 76). Manufacturers who use regional distribution centers have the option of owning warehouses or leasing warehouse space. Leasing is a more flexible option and requires lower capital outlays. Leasing costs are roughly proportionate to volume since warehousing space can be expanded or reduced to meet needs. In determining whether to have regional warehouses, companies must balance the benefits of better delivery and services and reduced freight costs against the costs of operating such centers. Large national and international companies often own their own warehouses. They have the volume and stability of demand to support them. Conditions in smaller companies usually favor leasing or a combination of owning and leasing. Large companies usually have several plants and several distribution centers. They must then decide what quantities to ship from each factory to each warehouse, or from each warehouse to each customer, so as to minimize distribution costs. Linear programming has been used to reach the optimal solutions for such questions. The more complex problem of future distribution-center locations to minimize distribution costs, or at least realize savings, has been approached successfully by simulation (Rose 84).

Future Perspectives

It is possible to assume that doing the next decades the US government will upgrade its ocean transpiration and invest heavily in new shipyards and innovative technologies. The new regimes of oceans governance at the global and regional levels, as well as oceans policy at a national level, are important inputs to maritime strategy. Oceans policy sets out a strategy for maximizing economic, social, and political benefits from the oceans and is the basis of both oceans governance and maritime strategy. If one eschews a purely military concept of maritime strategy then in many ways a comprehensive oceans policy, establishing a development and management regime for national maritime interests, constitutes a large element of maritime strategy. Two main implications for navies flow out of consideration of the challenge of oceans governance. The first is the role of navies in contributing to more effective oceans governance and promoting maritime cooperation, and the second is the greater priority now to be attached to the protection of offshore areas and resources both in national areas of maritime jurisdiction and possibly on the high seas. This protection is an integral component of national security. The international community and individual nations are paying increased attention to the needs of oceans governance. Historical facts suggest that ocean and navel transportation is influenced greatly by the historical development of the nation and its global political position. These issues determine the scope of authority and international laws, principles and procedures of marine control.

Works Cited

Adede, A. O. The System for Settlement of Disputes under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Drafting History and a Commentary. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987.

Ademuni, Odeke. Protectionism and the Future of International Shipping. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff; London: Graham & Trotman, 1984.

Attard, David Joseph. The Exclusive Economic Zone in International Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Chapin, R. The Old Merchant Marine: A Chronicle of American Ships and Sailors. IndyPublish.com, 2003.

Conlan, Timothy J. and David B. Walker. 1983. “Reagan’s New Federalism: Design, Debate, and Discord.” Intergovernmental Perspective 8:4:6-23.

Dilger, Robert Jay. 1982. 1989. National Intergovernmental Programs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gravson, S. American Marine Engines: 1885-1950. Devereux Books, 2008.

Marx Daniel Jr. Interational Shipping Cartels: A Study of Self-Regulation by Shipping Conferences. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953.

Mance Osborne [assisted by] J. E. Wheeler. International Sea Transport. London: Oxford University Press, 1945.

McDowell Carl E., and Helen M. Gibbs. Ocean Transportation. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1954.

Mears E. G. Maritime Trade of the Western United States. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1935.

Radius Walter A. United States Shipping in Transpacific Trade, 1922-1938. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1944.

Rose, F. Marine Insurance: Law and Practice. LLP Professional Publishing, 2003.

Savas, E.S. 2000. Privatization and Public-Private Partnerships. New York: Chatham House.

Soares, C. G., garbatov, Y., Fonseca, N. Maritime Transportation and Exploitation of Ocean and Coastal Resources. Taylor & Francis; 1 edition, 2005.

Whitnah, D. R. U.S. Department of Transportation: A Reference History. Greenwood Press, 1998.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2001. Government Finances, 1998-99. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Transportation. 1990. Moving America: New Directions, New Opportunities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation.

U.S. General Accounting Office. 2000. U.S. Infrastructure: Funding Trends and Opportunities to Improve Investment Decisions. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.

The Viability of Continuing Investment on Tourism in the Great Ocean Road Region

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Tourism in the Great ocean Road region

Tourism is a very critical sector of the economy and it entails provision of various services to tourists who visit tourism attraction sites which in most cases are natural features.

Provision of tourism services involves use of considerable resources and the issue has been faced with a lot of controversy on whether or not it is worth investing in tourism in some attraction site (Cooper and Hall 2007). The Great ocean Road region is a tourism area that has a lot to offer in terms of variety.

The Great ocean Road region is a well known tourist attraction site that was constructed between 1918 and 1932 as a reminder of the people who died during the 1^st world war. It is located in Australia, in the south western part of Victoria. It has however developed too much since then, making it to be a notable tourism region.

It is composed of a diversity of tourism elements for instance the Apollo bay, the Otway National Park, London Bridge, the 12 Apostles, the Loch Ard Gorge and the inland volcanic plain among others. Other unique attributes of the Great ocean Road region include waterfalls, volcanic lakes, beaches, rich maritime, restaurants and an attractive culture and heritage collection.

Tourism in the Great ocean Road region has been practiced to a great extent currently with most of the tourism sites attracting a significant number of tourists. With the implementation of strategies aimed at making the situation better, tourism activities and practices are likely to improve in future.

Tourists have had a great contribution to the economy of the region through their expenditure on the various services for instance accommodation, food and drinks as well as other services charges (Anonymous 2004).

The great road region attraction sites

Attraction site	Description
Apostle whey cheese	Located in Port Campbell. Established in 2002. Very attractive.
Barwon park	Located in Winchelsea. An attractive two storied bluestone mansion.
Bay of islands	Located in Port Campbell. A collection of islands of different sizes and shapes.
Blowhole	Located in Portland. Resulted from erosion.
Burswood homestead	Located in Portland. A superb building that offer home for the Portland founding family.
Southern right whales	Located in Warrnambool. A large pool of mammals
Port fairy information center	Located in Port fairy. Holds rich information.
Port Campbell national park	Located in Warrnambool. A scenic coastline with a lot of attractive features.
Otway ranges	Located in Colac. Very attractive and offering passes and roads to the coast.
Mt. Richmond national park	Located in Portland. Provides great views of Victoria shore regions.
Mt. Noorat	Located in Terang. The largest city in Australia.
Memorial square	Located in Colac. 2 hectare size in the town center. Surrounded by attractive thickly wooded botanic gardens.
Hopkins falls/ Warrnambool mini Niagara	Located in Warrnambool. Very attractive especially in summer.
Griffith island	Located in Port fairy. Holds Mutton bird sanctuary
Erskine falls	Located in Lorne at the lush Erskine river valley.
Flagstaff hill maritime village	Located in Warrnambool. Wide range of maritime attraction
Childers cove	Located in port Campbell. Offers attractive picnic and fishing base.

Natural advantages and disadvantages impacting on the ability to supply tourism services

Tourism in the Great Ocean Road region is attributed to a variety of benefits as well as challenges. Some of the natural advantages that impact on the ability of the Great Ocean Road region to supply tourism services are; the excellent road network that makes transport easy, availability diverse tourism elements and activities, air access, townscape improvements, national trust, attractive image, exciting cultural and heritage experiences among others.

The challenges that affect proper provision of tourism services in the Great Ocean Road region include increased pressure on the available resources for example land and transport among other services.

Climatic change and seasonality, poor public transport access, inefficient accommodation, poor community participation, loss of natural character and unmanaged infrastructure are other threats associated with the Great Ocean Road region.

These has led to the development of the Great ocean Road region strategy whose main goals are to protect land and ensure that the environment is cared for effectively, manage the growth of the urban centers, enhance the transport sector and most importantly promote sustainable tourism and effective utilization of resources.

This has in a way led to reduction of the challenges and the situation is better now (Everist 2009).

Past and current social impacts of tourism

Tourism in the Great ocean Road region has both positive and negative social impacts. Some of the positive social impacts of tourism in the region include improvement of the general life of the local community. This has been made possible through exposure to various social facilities such as recreational services.

Employment has also been a key contribution of tourism in the region where people have been able to secure job opportunities in various sections of the tourism industry in various ranks depending on their education backgrounds and other qualifications.

It has also resulted to recovery and conservation of cultural values. Tourism in this region has also played a significant role in avoiding migration of the local population hence enhancing the socio-cultural level of the local community, an element that is very essential for social development.

Some of the negative social impact of tourism in the region includes development of social differences between the local community and the tourists. This is so because the locals tend to see as if the tourists are highly valued, as compared to them, because they enjoy what is in their surrounding more than they do.

Tourism in the great ocean road region has also contributed to the rise of prostitution and other criminal activities such as drug abuse among others. This has been through imitation of the behaviors exhibited by the tourists.

It has also influenced the local culture in the area due to the introduction of various new aspects that lead to dissolution of traditional culture in one way or the other. People find themselves adopting new attributes associated with the tourists to an extent of forgetting the traditions.

Tourism in the region threatens important lifestyles and cultural products and attributes. This is a negative effect as it makes it difficult for future generations to get acquainted with their culture.

Although tourism in the region has led to increased employment levels, it also restrains the local individuals from performing traditional tasks and participating in other significant activities such as community-based and social activities (Tribe and Airey 2007).

Past and current environmental impacts of tourism

Tourism in the Great Ocean Road region has had some considerable environmental impacts. It has for instance led to increased pressure on the available natural resources such as land because the population around the region keeps on increasing day by day. It has also led to destruction of the ecosystem, pollution of soils, air and water, noise, extinction of various species among other factors.

It has led to depletion of the natural resources, soil erosion, loss of natural habitats, and increased pressures on various species especially the endangered ones as well as augmented vulnerability of the region to forest fires.

Engagement in environmentally unfriendly operations has resulted to deterioration of the environment for instance deforestation making the region not only unattractive but also susceptible to adverse weather. The great ocean road region has also suffered from solid waste and littering, an aspect that is not good for the environment.

This has been due to high concentration of tourists which results to spoiling of the natural environment in the region for example the rivers, the roadsides as well as other scenic areas. Tourism in this region has also contributed greatly to negative climatic change for instance existence of acid rain and the destruction of the ozone layer due to various emissions of carbon dioxide and other dangerous gases.

This is linked to transportation of the tourists either by air or road. Various sustainability projects like the Great Ocean Road region strategy have however shed light and people are now appreciating and protecting the environment since they have the knowledge of how significant it is to them and the future generations.

Although tourism has in most cases been associated with negative effects in regard to the environment, it has proved to be very essential in conserving unutilized landscape in the great ocean road region, that would other wise be destroyed through aspects like industrial development, globalization and other technological changes (Hall and Boyd 2005).

Recommendations

It is evident that the Great Ocean Road region is a peculiar tourism attraction site having a lot to offer for tourists around the world. Although there have been challenges and negative social and environmental impacts associated with the Great Ocean Road region, continued investment on tourism in the Great Ocean Road region is still justifiable and viable.

This is because the returns on investment in terms of the benefits achieved surpass the drawbacks therein to a great extent and with the implementation of the strategies and recommendations below, the Great Ocean Road region has the ability to achieve even much.

Most of the social and economic costs associated with tourism in the region can be dealt with effectively to reduce the negative effects and make the place a better investment all together.

To ensure that the Great Ocean Road region remains to be a viable tourism site in terms of the costs incurred and the benefits achieved, it is advisable that strategies to maintain sustainable tourism services are established and implemented under all circumstances.

This could be achieved through combined efforts of the people involved in the different ventures in the Great Ocean Road region. There should also be educational campaigns on sustainability, undertaken by all the stakeholders involved in an effort to ensure that people engage in environmental friendly operations.

This will result in unity of the tourists and the locals in their fight towards attaining sustainability in the entire region. When this is achieved, it will add on to the viability of investing in tourism in the Great Ocean Road region currently as well as in the future (Murphy and Murphy 2004).

Reference List

Anonymous., 2004. Great ocean Road region. Travel Victoria. Web.

Cooper, C., & Hall, M.C., 2007, Contemporary Tourism: An International Approach. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Everist, R.R., 2009, The Complete Guide to the Great Ocean Road: Walks, Beaches, Heritage, Ecology, Towns and Sustainable Tourism Through Southwest Victoria. New York: BestShot.

Hall, M.C., & Boyd, W. S., 2005, Nature-Based Tourism in Peripheral Areas: Development or Disaster? London: Channel View Publications.

Murphy, E.P., & Murphy, E. A., 2004, Strategic Management for Tourism Communities: Bridging the Gaps. New York: Channel View Publications.

Tribe, J., & Airey, D., 2007, Developments in Tourism Research, Volume 7. New York: Elsevier.

Ocean Acidification Impact on the Sea Urchin Larval Growth

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion
References

Introduction

Ocean acidification is a process that is arrived at when an approximated 79 million carbon dioxide tons are released on a daily basis into the atmosphere (National Research Council, 2010). This release is not caused by the burning of fossil fuel only, but also as a result of deforestation and cement production. Since the industrial revolution started, about a third of the carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere as a result of human activities has found its way into the world oceans, the main moderators of climate change (Garrison, 2009). By oceans moderating the changes in climate, the atmospheric carbon dioxide is reduced as well as the global warming consequences. Though the ocean acidification impacts are still not well known, the process is known to cause slow organism growth with the formation of skeletons or shells that are calcareous, like the mollusks and corals (Doney et al, 2008).

Discussion

Carbon, like other elements, circulates in chemical forms that are different and between the well known different parts that encompass the earths system. These different parts constitute the oceans, biosphere, and the atmosphere. The carbon cycle constitutes the inorganic carbon fluxes, like carbon dioxide, and the organic form, like the complex carbohydrates and sugar found in the biosphere (Fabry et al, 2008).

Human activities, in a time span that tends to be very short, use the fossil fuels, or rather an old carbon reservoir, which accumulated for millions of years, enabling the creation of a carbon dioxide that is massive and new. The oceans can assist in moderating global warming through mitigation of the carbon dioxide flux that is additional, but this has its own consequences. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it either gets used through physiological processes, or through photosynthesis, or it can remain free in the various forms it gets itself dissolved in water (Garrison, 2009).

Ocean acidification takes a chemical process through a constant exchange that occurs between the atmosphere and the oceans’ upper layers (National Research Council, 2010). Because nature strives to achieve equilibrium, the carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and in the ocean have to be equal. Thus, in order to be equal, the atmospheric carbon dioxide suspends in the surface waters of the oceans. There is a dramatic change that is generated in the chemistry of sea water when carbon dioxide gets dissolved in the ocean (Fabry et al, 2008). Once in water, it reacts with the molecules of water (H2O), thus forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is a weak acid.

When this acid is formed, most of it dissociates into two forms: hydrogen ions (H+) and HCO3- (bicarbonate ions). When the H+ ions increase in the ocean, the PH, which is the acidity measure, is reduced. This makes the ocean to become more acidic, since it has a PH that is more than neutral (Garrison, 2009).

Due to the carbon dioxide increase in the atmosphere, acidity in the oceans is increasing++ and a fast increase of change rate is experienced. The ocean acidification causes physiological, evolutionary, and ecological consequences in the many marine biodiversity organizational levels (Doney et al, 2008). Though studies to show the impact of carbon dioxide and ocean acidification on marine species are scarce, there is no doubt that the food web is disturbed.

One of the marine species expected to experience change is the sea urchin. This is because it is one of the calcifying species, and due to ocean acidification, it is likely to find difficulty in skeleton production. Sea urchins give reproduction through egg and sperm release into the seawater, directly. When the water is acidified, there is the tendency of sperms swimming slowly. This reduces the chances of egg fertilization, which is formed into an embryo and then developed into larvae. More acidic conditions are expected to lead to reduction of sperm release (National Research Council, 2010).

Ocean acidification is known to lessen the saturation of calcium carbonate, and metabolism is censored by the hypercapnia that comes along with it. Experiments show that when acidity is added to higher levels and the saturation of carbonate mineral is reduced to low levels, the larval growth is affected by reducing drastically, leading to a decreased length of skeleton (Fabry et al, 2008). Given the importance of larva stage in the sea urchins, it is paramount for the experiment to dwell on the echinoplutei, as it plays a crucial role in producing calcite rods that are vital in supporting the body as it feeds and swims. Feeding of larva is highly influenced by the length of the arm, which facilitates the growth of calcite rod. The plaktonic period shortening is influenced by temperature, hence decreasing the predation pressure (Brennand et al, 2010).

When temperatures are amplified (+3°c), development is encouraged, leading to a drastic creation of larger larvae across all conducts of PH up to a verge of a thermal (+6°c). An increase in the level of acidity reduces the level of calcification and arogite saturation significantly, and this creates a possibility for the formation of minor larvae (Brennand et al, 2010). The test, however, shows that hypercapnia and acidification depressing effects can be withdrawn by a warming of +3°c (Garrison, 2009).

Conclusion

The above research shows that ocean acidification is whereby atmospheric carbon dioxide melts into the ocean, thus increasing the amount of acid in the ocean. Human activities like deforestation, fossil fuel burning, and cement production have been discovered as some of the activities that lead to ocean acidification. The process has been discovered as one that leads to change in the marine ecosystem. It tends to reduce the marine population through many ways, one of them being the disruption of the food web. Sea urchin, which is one of the marine species, is expected to be one of the victims, with the ability of skeleton production being reduced. In order to avoid ocean acidification, it is advisable for individuals to avoid human activities that will create more harm than good in future.

References

Brennand, H. S., Soars, N., Dworjanyn, S.A., Davis, A.R., & Byrne, M. (2010). Impact of Ocean Warming and Ocean Acidification on Larval Development and Calcification in the Sea Urchin Tripneustes gratilla. PLoS ONE, 5(6). Web.

Doney, S.C., Fabry, V.J., Feely, R.A., & Kleypas, J.A. (2008). Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem. Annual Review of Marine Science, 1: 169-192. Web.

Fabry, V.J., Seibel, B.A., Feely, R.A., & Orr, J.C. (2008). Impacts of Ocean Acidification on marine fauna and ecosystem processes. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 414-432. Web.

Garrison, T. (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5^th ed). Brooks/ Cole Publishing: Harrogate, North Yorkshire. Web.

National Research Council. (2010). Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean. National Academies Press: Washington, DC. Web.

Pacific Ocean: Essentials of Oceanography

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Pacific Ocean covers about a third of the Earth’s surface with an area of 155. 557 million km²(Pidwirny, 2010). It is even larger than the Earth’s total landmass which is approximately 148.94 million km². It extends approximately 15,500 km from Bering Sea found in the Arctic region to the northern part of the Circumpolar Ocean at latitude 60⁰S (Bardach, Cotter & Morgan, 2006). It stretches west-east at approximately 19,800 km in the region of 5⁰N latitude from Colombian and Peruvian Coast to Indonesia (Pidwirny, 2010). Its width is about five times the diameter of the Moon.

The depth of the ocean varies although it has an average depth of about 4028-4188 m (Pidwirny, 2010). Its lowest point on Earth is found at Mariana Trench and is about 10,911 m (Pidwirny, 2010). It is presently shrinking as a result of plate tectonics.

Andesite Line is the most distinctive feature of the Pacific Ocean. The line separates the Central Pacific Basin from the partly Submerged Continental (Garrison, 2009).

The ocean has about 25,000 islands which are in excess of the entire number islands in all the oceans across the world (Garrison, 2009). Most of these islands are located in the south of the equator; some of them are partially submerged. However, the ocean is never always peaceful. It experiences lots of tropical storms which destroy the islands. Besides, the lands which border the Pacific Rim have volcanoes which make it prone to earthquakes. It experiences tsunamis which result from underwater earthquakes, and these have sometimes destroyed many islands.

The biggest landmass within this ocean is the Island of New Guinea. New Guinea was part of Australia but broke away in the last glacial period. Most of the ocean’s islands lie in 30⁰ N-30⁰ S, beginning Southeast Asia up to Easter Island. On the other hand, other areas of the Pacific Basin is nearly entirely submerged (Garrison, 2009).

Hotspot volcanism has formed numerous long Seamount Chains in the ocean. According to Garrison (2009) Seamount Chains are series of mountains which have submerged from the Pacific Ocean’s floor. The Pacific Ring of Fire located outside the Andesite Line is the major region of explosive volcanism throughout the world. These mountain chains are formed around hundreds of active volcanoes which lie above several subduction zones. It is only the ocean which is nearly completely enclosed by subduction zones. Inside the ring of Andesite Line, there are submerged volcanic mountains, and these characterize the Pacific Basin (International Hydrographic Organization, 1953).

Deep troughs also form within this ring. Within this region, basaltic lava smoothly flows out of rifts building vast dome-shaped volcanic mountains. Erosion on the summits of the volcanic mountains transforms them into island arcs, clusters, as well as, chains.

The volume of water in the ocean is about 622 million km³(Garrison, 2009). However, the water-temperature in this ocean varies by latitude. The water freezes polewards but the temperature increases towards the equator up to about 30⁰C (Garrison, 2009). In addition, salinity of the ocean also varies with latitude. The water is more saline around the mid-latitudes and less saline around the equatorial region. This is majorly attributed to the high precipitation which normally occurs in the equatorial region throughout the year. Salinity is also low in the temperate latitudes especially towards the poles since these areas experience less evaporation.

Reference List

Bardach, J. E., Cotter, C, H., & Morgan, J. R., 2006, Pacific Ocean. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Web.

Garrison, T., 2009, Essentials of oceanography, 5^th Edition. Cole Publishing. Web.

International Hydrographic Organization, 1953, Limits of oceans and seas, 3rd edition. Monte Carlo, Monaco: International Hydrographic Organization. Web.

Pidwirny, M., 2010, The encyclopedia of the Earth. Web.

The Ocean’s Rarest Mammal Vaquita – An Endangered Species

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Social and Reproductive Life
Reasons for its Decline
Reduction of the flow of Colorado River
Conservation Efforts
Conclusion
Reference List

Introduction

The vaquita is a small naval creature found in the Gulf of California and is in danger of extinction. Very few people have gotten the opportunity to see this species and many people may not be able to see it now that its existence is threatened. The vaquita looks like a curved stocky porpoise, and it is the smallest of all the porpoises in the world.

It survives in shallow waters. It is even believed to survive in lagoons where the water can hardly cover its back. Most Vaquitas are found on the northern part of the Gulf of California within Colorado River delta. This paper will give more information about the vaquita, explain some of the reasons that are causing its decline, and highlight some of the steps taken by the Mexican government to conserve this rare species.

A newborn Vaquita weighs about seventeen pounds and is approximately 30 inches long. Adults are 150 centimeters which is equivalent to 4.92 feet, and weigh not more than 50 kilograms, making then the smallest cetaceans in existence. Most parts of its body are grey in color and it has a smaller skull compared to other porpoises. Calves are usually a dark shade of grey and as they grow older, they are actually tri-colored having a whitish belly, light grey sides and remaining dark grey on their back.

Although they are commonly compared and closely related to dolphins, they vary in many ways. They have spade shaped teeth, rounded beaks and are stouter than dolphins who also have no beaks. Their triangular shaped fins are surprisingly larger and higher than most porpoise species. From far away, Vaquitas look like bottlenose dolphins but their behavior clearly distinguishes them from other cetaceans.

The Vaquita are more agile and less social than dolphins. They appear to be comfortable porpoises that like swimming and are sometimes found relaxing leisurely along the shoreline, but normally they barely come into contact with the sea surface and disappear for long periods, remaining inconspicuous.

They are also afraid of boats of all kinds. If a boat appears near them, they either hide under water or move to a different position. Vaquitas rise to the surface of the water to take in fresh air and then go under water for a long period of time. They like feeding on fish species, especially the smaller ones although they are known to be nonselective feeders and can feed on almost anything that crosses its path.

Being that they limit their living area, they tend to eat squid, grunts, benthic fishes and crustaceans. They have a loud shout indistinct blow. They have their own high frequency click they use to communicate with other vaquitas while plotting their course through waters. Vaquitas give birth to calves during spring, and gestation normally takes about ten to eleven months. Three to six years is believed to be the Vaquitas maturity age. Vaquitas are believed to have a life span of about 21 years (Jefferson, et al 2008).

Reasons for its Decline

It is hard to find a person hunting Vaquitas because many people do not know much about them. Actually their existence was realized in 1958, after a survey was carried out by dedicated scientists. Since then, other scholars have developed an interest on this rare species and are carrying out research to understand more about them and how their survival can be enhanced.

Their existence is being threatened since they are normally trapped in gillnets that are used for fishing the totoaba which is also found in the Gulf of California. It is important to note that this species reproduces very slowly because they are very few in number. Therefore, if one female Vaquita is trapped in gillnets, it poses a very great threat to their survival (Leatherwood, et al. 1988).

The population of the Vaquitas has declined at a very high rate (15% every year). Their existence is mainly threatened by commercial fishing, which takes place within Colorado River delta. However, other species are being fished and this threatens the survival of the Vaquita. It is estimated that the population of the vaquita may be declining at a rate of about eighty percent for the next 20 to 30 years, which may render the species extinct.

Commercial fishing still stands as the greatest threat to the survival of the vaquitas, although there are other threats such as habitat degradation, pollution, and inbreeding, given that they population is very low. A lot of non-environmental friendly waste is being damped in Colorado River which is a threat to the security of the vaquita.

Many vaquitas have died from suffocation (given that they stay underwater for a longer period than they stay on the surface) and they are still facing the threat of environmental pollution. Agricultural farming has also increased around the area with many farmers using water from Colorado River for irrigation (Reeves, et al. 2002).

This has resulted in a decrease in the volume of water in the river thereby interfering with the habitat of the vaquitas. Apart from the use of water, the use of fertilizers and pesticides is on the increase and most of these chemicals find their way into the river. This does not only cause death to the Vaquitas, but to all other aquatic animals.

Inbreeding is also a major reason for the decline of the vaquitas. As seen earlier, a single calf takes about six years to mature and be able to reproduce. Also a female vaquita can only give birth to a single calf and this takes place annually especially during spring. Let’s assume there are about 100 female vaquitas out of the total population, this means that fewer than 100 calves will be born each year because the gestation takes almost one year and not all this vaquitas may be able to survive throughout the year.

If 70 calves are born each year, after six years we will have about 420 new vaquitas (holding all other factors constant). However, it is estimated that, the rate of death can go up to 84 individuals meaning that, all the calves may die before they are able to reproduce. The number of females may also decline.

Reduction of the flow of Colorado River

Other risk factors for the decline of the vaquita species include but not limited to;
Increased rate of incidental mortality in fisheries
Indirect effects of fishing whereby the vaquitas are trapped in fishing nets
Use of hydrocarbon pesticides and fertilizers for agricultural purposes mostly in the Mexican basin
Reduced flow of the Colorado River which interferes with the vaquitas habitat
Reduction of the flow of Colorado river has not yet had negative effects on the current productivity but poses great threat on the survival of the vaquitas 9 (Lavín & Sánchez 1999)

If the flow of the river continues to decrease, the inbreeding of the vaquitas will be affected which in turn will affect the population growth. Northern Gulf ecosystem has been affected by the reduced flow of the Colorado River and has been experiencing large-scale stresses also caused by intensive shrimp trawling.

There is no cause to suppose that these stresses have enhanced habitat environment for the vaquita. On the other hand, it must also be recognized that there is no proof to propose that food shortages are distressing the reproductive victory or escalating the mortality of vaquitas. Bycaught and trapped specimens observed recently have shown no signs of emaciation, and mothers with healthy calves are frequently experimented during studies, signifying that reproduction is taking place in the population

Reduced flow of the Colorado River seems not to be an immediate threat, that is, it is not affecting the present population of the vaquita. This finding is based on three factors:

Nutrient levels and rates of prime productivity apparently are high in the northern Gulf of California.
Vaquitas have a somewhat varied diet and do not appear to rely entirely on one or a few prey species.
Out of all the vaquita species that have been examined this far, none of them has shown signs of malnourishment or poor nutritional status.

However, in the long term, changes in the vaquita’s environment due to the reduced flow of the Colorado River may lead to a decline in the levels of nutrient concentration. This is a matter of concern and ought to be investigated if the survival of the vaquitas is to be guaranteed.

Other less well-characterized and longer-term risk factors include the possibility of interruption by trawling to influence vaquita behavior, and the tentative effects of dam construction on the Colorado River and the ensuing loss of freshwater input to the upper Gulf. Environmental change from reduced freshwater flow of the

Colorado River was cited as a ‘major cause’ of the declines. Thus, by the mid-1990s, two distinct and contradictory views concerning the root causes of the vaquita’s current shortage had been expressed, one is by-catch in large-mesh gill nets and the other is damming and abstraction of water from the Colorado River drainage system in the United States was the chief culprit (Lavín & Sánchez 1999).

Conservation Efforts

Traditionally, the position of the institute and of the Federal Government had been that no evidence was present to verify that the vaquita was endangered. Furthermore, the institute’s position had been that even if the species was in danger, the main cause was the lack of freshwater input to the Gulf as a result of the damming of the Colorado River.

Today, the number of Vaquitas estimated to be alive varies from one hundred to three hundred. In 2000, research was conducted by the Vaquita recovery committee which discovered that about 40 to 80 Vaquitas die every year in the hands of commercial fishermen (Shirihai & Jarrett 2006). A reserve was created on the northern side of the Gulf of California by the government of Mexico to prevent the extermination of the vaquitas.

Trawlers were banned from fishing in the reserved area and with this ban the number of Vaquita killed each year has reduced. However, most conservationists are still concerned about the survival of the vaquita especially now that the use of pesticides along the shoreline has increased and the flow of water from Colorado River has reduced mostly due to increased irrigation around the area.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), believe that the Vaquita is the most endangered species of all the marine animals. An international committee formed by the Mexican government has established many steps that are aimed and conserving this rare species.

Other international bodies such as the United States, and Canada joined hands with Mexico and established a strategy that was aimed at supporting Mexico in its effort to protect the vaquitas (The Cousteau Society 2010). Vaquitas are considered the most endangered acquired mammal all over the world.

Conclusion

Vaquita is most endangered species of all the marine species. Its existence was recognized in 1958 and since then, most scientists have been interested in the study of the species. The survival of the species is threatened mostly because of the reduction of the flow of water in Colorado River.

Another risk factor includes the use of hydrocarbon pesticides and fertilizer along Colorado River and the use of fishing grills which trap the vaquita. It is therefore clear that urgent conservation measures have to be taken if the population of the vaquitas is to be maintained.

Reference List

Jefferson, T. A, et al (2008). Marine Mammals of the World, a Comprehensive Guide to their Identification. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Lavín, M.F. & Sánchez, S. (1999). On how the Colorado River affected the hydrography of the Upper Gulf of California. Continental Shelf Research, 19, 1545–1560.

Leatherwood, S., R. et al. (1988). Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the Eastern North Pacific and Adjacent Arctic Waters: A Guide to Their Identification. New York: Dover Publications.

Reeves, R. R., et al. (2002). Guide to Marine Mammals of the World. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Shirihai, H. & Jarrett, B. (2006). Whales, Dolphins and Other Marine Mammals of the World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

The Cousteau Society (2010). Vaquita Conservation in Mexico. Web.

How the Ocean Current Affect Animals’ Life in the Sea

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Table of Contents

Introduction
Ocean Currents and Marine Turtles
Nekton’s (Fishes)
Sea urchins
Conclusion
Works Cited

Introduction

An ocean current refers to a continuous water flow in the ocean following a defined path. This occurs either at the surface of the ocean or below the surface, it also may be parallel or vertical to the surface. These currents are either caused by wind or changes in density (Thermohaline currents). Ocean currents affect the climate, temperatures, and biotic systems especially the fisheries but also those plants and animals on the seashore (Gray et al. 1).

Ocean currents affect marine life in different ways some of these include; as water flows along a given path, there are many sea animals along the same path. Depending on the strength of the ocean current, sea animals along the path are flown along with the water, and the animals are moved to new regions that are sometimes thousands of kilometers away causing redistribution of marine life. During the flow, nutrients are also moved from the bottom of the sea and exposed to sunlight in the process called upwelling. This increases marine nutrients leading to the increased nutrient provision to marine life.

Ocean currents sometimes cause the movement of warmer water to colder regions or cold water to water regions. This interferes with the temperature of the water and may affect sensitive marine life in the region like it may end up freezing some marine animals to death. This paper discusses how the ocean currents affect marine animals with particular reference to turtles, sea urchins, and Nektones

Ocean Currents and Marine Turtles

Marine turtles rely entirely on ocean currents for their movements. Young marine turtles especially are moved to their pelagic nurseries by ocean currents and these serve as their habitats. The hatching of turtle eggs relies on oceanic tides and more especially on the frontal tides. This reduces the risk of exposing these eggs to predators. The fertilization of the turtle eggs also depends on ocean waves that transport the larvae to allow for fertilization to occur.

During the development of these turtles, their movement is still aided by ocean currents like in the case of searching for food they flow along with the currents to newer regions that could have food to keep them alive. The turtles are cauterized by two major directional movements where one is usually to the feeding area and the other to the nesting area; both two movements are aided by oceanic currents (Luschi, HAys, and Papi 294).

Nekton’s (Fishes)

These are families of sea animals that are strong swimmers and large enough to have the strength to propel against ocean currents. Their bodies are streamlined such that they move swiftly. These include fishes, whales, and Dolphins. Ocean currents have such effects on these sea animals as they bring food to them from the shores and other places so the animals can feed on it. Besides the food, they cause the animals to move about and this allows the animals to be away from predators for their survival. During winter, ocean currents cause oceans waters to swirl around which causes a warming effect on the water and this allows the animals to survive the cold weather.

During summers, cold water from the Polar Regions is flown causing a cooling effect in the warmer regions. The currents also allow the animals to migrate or relocate to more accommodating weather conditions. Animals play in water and ocean current give the animals the whirling effect that gives the sea animals especially the large sea animals like Dolphins to whirl out and enjoy the changing weather.

Sea urchins

Sea urchins and the starfish are greatly affected by ocean currents just like the other sea animals. Their larvae are transported over long distances to allow for fertilization to occur anywhere in the sea. These currents also aid the movement of these sea urchins. This allows them to have easy access to food, to redistribute to regions that are unoccupied and maybe unexploited. However, it should be noted that sometimes very strong oceanic currents can cause the death of sea urchins (Gray et al. 7)

Conclusion

Ocean currents are water movements in large volumes along a given path in the oceans, seas, or any large water bodies. These movements are usually caused by wind or the upwelling movement in the water bodies. It is important for the sea animals as it causes their movement to food-rich areas or brings feed to the animals. Food is the most essential part of the survival of any creature including those in large water bodies. Ocean currents are therefore inevitable to the survival of sea animals as they cause the flow of food nutrients within the sea.

Works Cited

Gray Eileen, Alexander Ann, Darling Tina, and Sharkey Nelda. “Moving water-Ocean currents and winds.” Drifters, 1998. Web.

Luschi Paolo, HAys Graeme, and Papi Florian. A review of long-distance movement by marine turtles and possible role of ocean currents. Cesenatico: Oikos, 2003.

Ocean-Plate Tectonics and Geology

Posted on December 4, 2024 | by Laureen

Relationship between the feature of the bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonic

Bathymetry of the ocean seafloor refers to the measurement of how deep the sea is in relation to the sea level. This measurement may be used to determine the depth of the ocean. The measurements can show the underlying complexity of the sea and the ocean (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002). Additionally, Plate tectonic is a geological feature that describes the movement relative to the movement of the ocean lithosphere. The substantial density of the lithosphere in correlation to the asthenosphere makes tectonic plates move at ease toward the seduction zone (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006). There has been a geological argument by the scientist of the underlying relationship between bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonic. The Plate tectonic theory argues that the earth’s surface is subdivided into plates commonly known as shifting slabs. The shifting slabs move in relation to each other on the surfaces above the hottest zones at an average speed per unit of measurement (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002). The platonic theory further suggests that there is a correlation between the spreading of the sea and intercontinental drifts. This is substantiated by the evidence of the seafloor spreading and continental drift movements, whereby there is a similar manner of movements between the continent drifts and bathymetry of the seafloor spreading (Garrison, 2010).

Additionally, geologist holds that initially, the world was one continent, but through continental drift theory, several continents emerged, and hence, these continents have been moving continuously away from each other. Despite the underlying evidence of the continental drift theory, the theory has been facing criticism. Critiques argued that the theory does not provide substantial grounds for people to believe how continents moved away from each other. However, the emergence of new technology and seafloor exploration has provided substantial evidence for people to believe that initially, the earth was one continent. This argument also substantiates the underlying relationship between the Bathymetry of the seafloor spreading and plate tectonic. Additionally, geologists suggested that there had been seafloor spreading, which can be explained by the movement of the magma toward the deep-sea trenches (Garrison, 2012). The herein movement of magma on the seafloor spreading has been supported plate tectonic theory on the earth surface, which formed the basis of conceptualization of the forces that cause earthquakes. The morphological structure of the sea also portrays a significant correlation between the Bathymetry of the seafloor spreading and plate tectonic (Kearey, Klepeis & Vine, 2009).

Happenings on either side of the transform fault

There are several movements, which happen on either side of a transformation fault. Transformation faults are a horizontal movement that occurs on either side of sinisterly and dextral locations. These faults are more prevalent in deep seas and oceans whereby, transform faults are created via Mind Ocean ridges (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006). Transform faults movements on either side may be distinguished from strike-slip faults in the manner of their movements occurs in horizontal directions where plates slide against each other in an opposite horizontal direction. On the contrary, the movements of the strike-slip fault occur in the horizontal and vertical directions. Additionally, transform faults have a junction at the end of the plate boundary, which helps to support its movement in a horizontal direction. In the middle of the ocean ridges, transform faults remain fixed in one location, unlike the ocean seafloor, which may be pushed away from the ridges (Davidson, Reed & Davis, 2002).

There are different types of transform faults, which help to identify the happenings on either side of the faults. Among them include growing length faults, Constant length faults, and decreasing length faults. Growing length faults is whereby the growth of transform faults is as a result of linkage between the upper block of seduction zone and transform faults. On the contrary, constant length faults are those whose length does not reduce or exceed in any way whatsoever. This may be attributed to the movement of plates parallel to each other. On the other hand, decreasing length faults are those whose length shrinks as a result of decreasing in the length of the plate’s seduction. This act continuously occurs until transformation faults disappear entirely (Monroe, Wicander & Hazlett, 2006).

The meaning of Charles Darwin’s statement that the geology of the Galapagos Islands was sinking

This statement means that the Galapagos Islands, which provided habitat for the wild life, was undergoing some geological changes. These changes made the species of the Galapagos Islands change to cope with the new geological changes which were happening on the Island (Darwin & Glick, 1996). The changes were witnessed by Darwin during his voyage to Galapagos Islands. Whereby, Darwin was fascinated by the underlying discrepancies’ in species of Galapagos Islands and species of other Islands, which he used to visit. The evolutionary changes in species in order to cope with geological changes as a result of volcanic eruptions led to the emergence of the statement Galapagos Islands were sinking.

References

Davidson, J. P., Reed, W. E., & Davis, P. M. (2002). Exploring earth: An introduction to physical geology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Darwin, C., & Glick, T. F. (1996). On evolution: The development of the theory of natural selection. Indianapolis, Ind. [u.a.: Hackett.

Garrison, T. (2010). Oceanography: An invitation to marine science. Australia: Books/Cole

Garrison, T. (2012). Essentials of oceanography. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Kearey, P., Klepeis, K. A., & Vine, F. J. (2009). Global tectonics. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

Monroe, J. S., Wicander, R., & Hazlett, R. (2006). Physical geology: Exploring the earth; [the wrath of Hurricane Katrina; could you survive a Tsunami?; catastrophic earthquakes; global warming]. Belmont [u.a.: Thomson.

References

Introduction

History of Ocean Transpiration

From Columbus to 1900

1900-1950

1950-Present

Modern Ocean Transpiration in the USA

International Policies

Local Situation

Future Perspectives

Works Cited

Tourism in the Great ocean Road region

The great road region attraction sites

Natural advantages and disadvantages impacting on the ability to supply tourism services

Past and current social impacts of tourism

Past and current environmental impacts of tourism

Recommendations

Reference List

Introduction

Discussion

Conclusion

References

Reference List

Introduction

Social and Reproductive Life

Reasons for its Decline

Reduction of the flow of Colorado River

Conservation Efforts

Conclusion

Reference List

Introduction

Ocean Currents and Marine Turtles

Nekton’s (Fishes)

Sea urchins

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relationship between the feature of the bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonic

Happenings on either side of the transform fault

The meaning of Charles Darwin’s statement that the geology of the Galapagos Islands was sinking

References