The book of Acts 1 revealed the instructions given by Jesus Christ to his disciples. He made a promise to send the Holy Spirit to the disciples. Prior to his ascension, he gave them an order not to leave Jerusalem but tarry for some days until they are baptized with the Holy Spirit. One striking phrase from the verse is you will be my witness in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth (Coogan, 375). Jesus provided us with a path and gave us the liberty to choose our direction. The way of the Lord leads to eternal life. As witnesses, we are ambassadors of the kingdom and sons of God.
The only pathway to divine knowledge is through the Holy Spirit. When Jesus ascended into heaven he left us with the power to receive and the ability to understand the deep things of God. When we study the life of Jesus, we will understand that every miracle came to those who believed. We are custodians of the exemplary power of Jesus Christ. The Holy Spirit will teach us the deep things of God. The Holy Spirit will guide us as we witness to all ends of the earth. The verse revealed the nature of Gods prophecy. John the Baptist fulfilled his part, and the Holy Spirit was sent to us as custodians of the deep things of God. We must believe by faith, by which men shall see God. The faith we have in the word of God will determine our path to success. The disciples gathered themselves and waited upon the lord. At the appointed hour, the disciples spoke in diverse tongues; a confirmation of the promise of Jesus Christ.
Works Cited
Coogan, Michael. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard Version, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.
The Bible is separated into numerous books; however, the main classification refers to the Old and New Testaments. Despite being the parts of a single entity, the Testaments, in many ways, differ from one another, reflecting the way Christian people lived during different ages. Consequently, the application of the compare and contrast method will allow identifying these differences in the lives of contemporary Christians.
In order to make the subject as transparent as possible, there is a need first to identify what is meant by compare, contrast, and contemporary. Sopiah defines the compare and contrast method as a tool to elaborate on ways in which subjects can be similar or different (20). In this context, to compare represents a generalized approach aimed at the identification of specific features of the given subjects. It involves assessing them in terms of certain criteria and summarizing the findings. Then, to contrast would mean analyzing the findings and determining the similarities and differences. It is essential to not only focus on how the subjects are similar or different but support the conclusions with meaningful arguments regarding the subjects as well.
In the framework of the Old and New Testaments and Christian life, contemporary plays a crucial distinguishing role. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, contemporary can be understood dually. Its first meaning implies something marked by characteristics of the present period (Merriam-Webster 1.1). Thus, it would require comparison and contrast to what is present at the moment in Christian society. In turn, the second meaning implies something happening, existing, living, or coming into being during the same period of time (1.2). Therefore, it emphasizes the Christian life at the time of the Testaments creation.
The Old Testament is considered the basis of the present-day Judeo-Christian faith. Apart from various real-life stories, it talks about the worlds creation history, the Israelites exodus, and the Ten Commandments (Stuhlmacher). In addition, several books of the Old Testament foretell the arrival of the Messiah and the worlds end. The function of this text was to teach people through peoples experiences throughout history (Stuhlmacher). Overall, the grandiosity and epic of contained stories manifest Gods power and showcase how small and insignificant a single person can be. In many ways, the Old Testament resembles the God-fearing nature of people of that time who attempted to understand the world around them but lacked the tools and knowledge, thus seeking guidance from above.
In turn, the New Testament is rather grounded it focuses on the Christian church and the life and teachings of Jesus. Its stories are narrated through gospels, emphasizing the importance of Jesuss sacrifice (Stuhlmacher). Due to it being written in Greek, the Christians could carry Jesuss message beyond the Jewish world, making a huge impact on human history and society. Compared to the Old Testament, the New one contains revolutionary inclusivity concerning race, class, gender, and sexuality (Stuhlmacher). Other differences in terms of less-demanding rituals, such as baptism instead of circumcision and repentance instead of lamb sacrifice, indicate the civilized changes in Christian lives. Ultimately, the function of the New Testament was to inspire people to follow Jesuss example more closely.
The trends mentioned in the New Testament continue to influence Christian society even today. Tolerance and forgiveness are the key virtues that are greatly valued in contemporary Christian practice. Moreover, the rituals, gospels, and parables presented in the New Testament are still preserved as well. However, modern society would not allow any violence depicted in many stories of both Testaments, making a substantial distinction between contemporary and past Christian lives.
The comparison of the three instances of contemporary Christian societies yielded significant differences. People contemporary to the Old Testament were the most God-fearing and were more concerned with the world outside human society. Contemporaries of the New Testament shifted their focus inward, accentuating the example of Jesus in everyday lives. This tendency and values continued to influence Christian society and manifested in the modern state of inclusivity, tolerance, forgiveness, and non-violence.
Works Cited
Contemporary. Merriam-Webster. Web.
Stuhlmacher, Peter. Biblical theology of the New Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2018.
A canon refers to a standard or a rule. Concerning New Testament in the Christian bible, canon refers to books accepted as making up the New Testament. The canon consists of twenty-seven authoritative books (Ehrman). The canon implies that no other book can find a place in the New Testament and no book should miss from the New Testament (Ehrman).
The New Testament as currently composed is a product of a historical process involving various individuals and religious groups. Before the year 140AD, there was growing awareness that various individuals were writing scriptures (Ehrman).
Three concepts prove that there was such awareness (Ehrman 34). The first concept, apostle, manifests in the New Testament referring to Christ’s representatives entrusted with spreading the Gospel. They validly attested to salvation and later took a new concept of witnessing (Ehrman).
They witnessed through both oral and recorded documents and such documents make up the New Testament. The third concept, tradition, is very authoritative and refers to what passes from one generation to another in an authoritative way. As such, authority refers to authoritative spreading of the gospel granted to apostles by Christ himself (Ehrman 41).
Despite various opposition and debates on the canonicity of the New Testament from individuals and groups, the New Testament in its current composition came into being in the year 220 during which time the following books received acceptance as inspired and authoritative books (Ehrman).
The four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, the Acts of Apostles, thirteen Pauline epistles, letter of John, Hebrews, James, Jude, letters of Peter and the Revelation of John. Luke authored the Acts of the Apostles (Ehrman 56). Various books never made it to the New Testament canon. Such books include the letters of Clement of Rome, The Gospel of Thomas, The Gospel of Peter, and the Gospel of Judas among others (Ehrman).
Oral Traditions
Oral traditions refer to passing of information from one group or generation to another by word of mouth (Seraphim). The New Testament contains evidence of oral traditions and the testament is itself ninety percent oral tradition and ten percent written tradition (Seraphim).
There are various evidences of oral tradition even in the New Testament and an exhortation to Christians to uphold oral tradition. The protestant Christians have held to scriptures alone but the Catholic Church has incorporated traditions in its teachings (Seraphim).
Long before literary forms of the Gospel appeared, preaching of the Gospel took place through oral traditions (Seraphim). St Paul, in his letter to Thessalonians continuously thanks God, because converts received the word spread through the mouth by Paul and his companions as true and authoritative.
Paul did not use any written documents to preach to believers but used what he heard from other Apostles and passed it to believers (Seraphim). The author of the letter to the Hebrews asserts that oral traditions were necessary for the spreading of the salvation message. The message of salvation got to people through word of mouth long before it appeared in written form.
Communication of God’s redemption through oral traditions is an old tradition and has passed from one generation to the next as St Paul writes in his letter to Philippians, “The things which you learned and received and heard and saw in me, practice these things; and the God of peace shall be with you (Seraphim).”
The Synoptic Problem
The synoptic problem refers to attempts to explain the cause of various differences and similarities arising from reading the first three Gospels namely Matthew, Mark and Luke (Theopedia). The three synoptic gospels have a unique relationship as much as they have glaring disparities.
For instance, the Gospel of Matthew has around 90 percent of Mark’s content while the Gospel of Luke has around 50 percent of Mark’s content (Theopedia). Synoptic problem defines the task of trying to figure out why such features present themselves to scholars (Theopedia). Various theories explain the origin of the synoptic problem.
The first theory, two-source theory, proposes that it is likely that Matthew and Luke adopted Mark’s narrative setting and later on added materials from oral traditions and sayings (Theopedia). The second theory, Farrer theory, implies that Mark’s Gospel is the earliest and that Matthew copied from it and then Luke copied from both Mark and Matthew (Theopedia).
The Griesbach theory posits that Luke copied from the Gospel of Matthew and that Mark used the two Gospels to author his own version of the Gospel. This theory holds that Matthew is the earliest of the synoptic Gospels.
The fourth theory, Augustinian theory, asserts that Matthew is the earliest Gospel, followed by Mark and Luke in that order (Theopedia). Mark depended on what Matthew had written while Luke depended on what Mark wrote. A closer opinion to this theory suggests that Mark and Luke copied from Matthew and that the Gospel of Matthew was originally in Aramaic before the Greek translation surfaced (Theopedia).
Works Cited
Ehrman, B.D. A Brief Introduction to the New Testament. London: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.
One of the main differences between human beings and animals is the ability of people to have a sense of belief in the existence of a super natural being that controls all the activities and events in the universe. Human beings have developed a very complicated belief in the existence and work of these super natural forces that has led to the establishment of different religions in the world.
Some of these religions include Christianity which is practiced world wide in various forms. Christianity is derived from the word Christ which refers to Jesus Christ and is therefore used to mean behavior that is similar to that of Jesus Christ that is emulated by those who follow the Bible’s teachings.
This term paper is aimed at outlining the background and interpretation of the resurrection in the New Testament as is evident in Christian’s lives.
Definition of Resurrection
Resurrection refers to the process where a dead body comes back to life. It is a very unique and shocking occurrence that medical scientists and contemporary philosophers have failed to understand or explain. This is due to the fact that death marks the end of human life and therefore breaks the association between an individual and the rest of the community.
Death is a phenomenon that has no empirical formulae of studying or analyzing and it is only through religious intuitions that human beings try to unravel the mysteries behind the occurrence and aftermath of death and the life after.
Background of the Resurrection
The history of the resurrection is dated back to the beginning and life of Jesus Christ and is marked by a sequence of various events that hinted on the coming of Jesus Christ. Since life begun on earth people had always been born and lived for very many years before their death occurred (Keener 201).
There were no strange occurrences of deaths as most of them involved the very old people who had reached their life expectancy limit and in fact gone beyond their time on earth. However, with time things and events changed and prophets came and went until the coming of Jesus Christ that was foretold by many prophets including Elijah and John the Baptist.
Even though the cases of resurrection were unknown before the coming of Jesus Christ very few of them were actually recorded like the dry bones in the ‘Valley of Death’ that were prophesized by Prophet Elijah and they got muscles and became live human beings.
With the coming of Jesus Christ that is heavily documented in the New Testament very many cases of resurrection were experienced and they were climaxed by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Jesus performed many miracles regarding the resurrection of the dead and some of those people include Lazarus who had died, was buried and his body had stayed on the tomb for several days until he had begun to decompose and smell awfully.
These events of resurrections taught many Christian believers many lessons and this led to the many interpretations of resurrection that are discussed in the following stages.
Sacrifice for Human Beings
The resurrection of Jesus Christ is interpreted by all Christians as being a great act of sacrifice for the deliverance and forgiveness of sins committed by human beings through the various generations. When God created Adam and Eve and placed them in the Garden of Eden, He expected them to be very loyal to him and follow all His words to the latter.
The worst sin that Adam and Eve committed while in the Garden of Eden was disobeying God’s command of not touching or eating the fruits from the tree in the middle of the garden.
Their disobedience was triggered by the serpent that cheated them of the value of the fruits and this led to their excommunication from the Garden of Eden marking the beginning of sin and suffering in the generations that followed.
However, due to the love that God had for his people He was not pleased to see them suffer and continue sinning and therefore, he sent his son Jesus Christ to come and die for the sake of human beings (Licona 2010). This act shows a lot of sacrifice by God and Jesus Christ who endured very painful experiences which led to his death.
Christians interpret the suffering, crucifixion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ as a great sacrifice for their sake and continue to celebrate this through Easter holidays in their calendars. It is not easy for someone to lay down his life and suffer for the sake of another human being, but Jesus Christ proved his love for human beings by sacrificing his life for them.
Proof of Power over Death
Every human being is always confronted by a hard fact that one day they will die and leave this world regardless of their wealth or fame. Very many people spend countless nights thinking about their future and the inevitable occurrence of death that has made them think that death is so powerful and strong that no one can overcome it.
However, with the death and resurrection of Jesus that is widely documented in the New Testament people are made to believe that death is not supreme over Christians.
They believe that Jesus conquered death through resurrecting other people like Lazarus and through his resurrection (Beale 2011).
They interpret all these resurrections as manifestations of the Christian power over death and that they should never be worried about dying since it is just a transitional stage that they have to pass through in order to attain the higher glory of the Kingdom of Heaven.
Proof of Life after Death
Many people have always known death as a mark of the end of life and therefore when one dies it becomes the end of the person’s story of existence, accomplishments and failures in life. When a person dies the family, relatives and friends are usually filled with sorrow and mourn for days on end due to the loss of their loved ones.
However, Christians believe that death marks the beginning of a happier and everlasting life and so people should never be worried and mourn whenever it occurs to their loved ones but instead be happy and pray very hard for them to go to heaven when their time comes.
Christians believe that the resurrection of the dead marks the beginning of such life that will be celebrated throughout their life in heaven (Ivy 2010). The resurrection of Jesus proved to the millions of believers that death is not the final stage of their living but just a transitional stage to Heaven.
Therefore, Christians interpret his resurrection as a clear indication that when those who believe in him die, they will resurrect and join him later in life. This gives them more hope to continue believing and worshipping him as they wait for their death that will connect them with their Heavenly Father and Jesus Christ.
Foundation of Hope and Christian Faith
People usually have very many questions regarding what will happen when and after their life on earth ends. This has led people to various beliefs and practices that aim at giving them the assurance of good life after death. Christians believe that the suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus were as a result of their sins and so they affirm their faith to having life after death through the resurrection of Jesus.
It is upon these grounds that people get saved and declare Jesus as their savior since he died for the sake of their sins. This continues to attract thousands of people to the Christian faith as the resurrection of the dead provides solace and promise of life after death to them.
This also enables them to continue reading the bible, attend churches and Christian crusades to know more about the Kingdom of God that awaits them after death.
Challenge to Christian Declarations
The suffering, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus serve as a great challenge to the Christian faith with regard to their declarations and affirmations of their faith in God.
It acts as a guide to the behavior and conduct of all Christians with regard to their faith and beliefs (Carson 2012). Christians usually have personal declarations, obligations and commitments to God and are always obliged to follow and adhere to them all the days of their lives.
In addition, the Ten Commandments that were offered to Moses on Mount Sinai act as a vey important tool for every Christian to follow and respect. This together with the resurrection of Jesus helps many Christians and in the process of assessing their faith and stand in Christianity.
Companionship
All human beings are social creatures by nature and require each other for companionship and socialization. It should be noted that people need each other to provide emotional support to each other with regard to the experiences that human beings encounter in the daily association with their friends and environment.
The resurrection of Jesus Christ and his ascension is interpreted by Christians as a connection between him and them although in the spiritual realm. Christians believe that Jesus is constantly and always with them throughout their lives as they too await their death (Carson 2012).
It should be noted that Christian faith is largely penned on the fact that Jesus Christ suffered, died, was buried and resurrected to be with them for eternal life and those who trust and obey the Christian rules will be rewarded by eternal life.
Christians are thus comforted that even though Jesus died he resurrected and is with them together with the Holy Spirit that was sent to watch over and be companions to all who believe in Christ.
Future Assurance
All human beings are always guided by a desire to achieve the set goals with regard to all their commitments, efforts and dedications. People who believe in the resurrection of Jesus Christ are guided by the assurances that the bible and other Christian publications offer them with regard to the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
The main assurance of the resurrection of Jesus Christ is the fact that all who believe in him will enter the kingdom of heaven. When Jesus resurrected he ascended to heaven to prepare a place for all those people who will affirm their faith in him and continue to proclaim his work through their lives.
This means that they are expecting better and good things to come after they have died and resurrected. First, they are guided by high hopes of resurrecting just like Jesus did. Secondly, they are expecting to enter the Kingdom of Heaven where Jesus is seated at the right hand of God awaiting their arrival.
Thirdly, they are expecting a good life without pain or suffering but one filled with praises, worships and celebrations of lives well lived.
The Christian faith strongly advocates for its followers to ignore their present sufferings and temptations as they are stepping stones towards achieving their dreams. They are guided by the fact that the death of Jesus Christ paved way for their deliverance and all those who believe and follow the teachings of this faith will enter the Kingdom of God after death (Licona 20110).
This assurance pushes all Christians to prepare to meet their creator and enjoy all that the Bible promises all those who will keep the Christian torch burning in them until when their death occurs.
Conclusion
The Christian faith is largely attributed to the life and times of Jesus Christ as many Christians try to emulate his behavior. The resurrection of Jesus Christ serves as a turning point for many Christians who were destined for eternal punishment due to their sins while on earth.
It should be noted that Christian faith is very much affirmed on the belief that just like Jesus Christ they will die and resurrect and join the many prophets and people who died for the sake of preaching the gospel and those who never allowed suffering or persecution to deter their quest for the word of God.
References
Beale, G. K. (2011). New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New Testament. New York: Baker Academic Publishers.
Carson, D. A. (2012). The Intolerance of Tolerance. New York: W. M. B. Erdmann’s Publishers.
Ivy, J. (2010). The Resurrection of Jesus Christ: A Biblicist’s View of the Resurrection. New York: Noiz Inc. Publishers.
Keener, C. (2011). Miracles: The Credibility of the New Testament Accounts. New York: Baker Academic Publishers.
Licona, M. (2010). The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiography Approach. Oxford: I.V.P. Academic Publishers.
The New Testament is considered to be one of the most important parts of the Bible that depicts the true nature of human duties, demands, and desires, that teaches everyone the truths which have to be followed, and that explains what has to be appreciated in this life.
This work consists of numerous gospels, apostles, and epistles which are worthy of recognition and attention, however, right now, I would like to underline the Epistle of James, and to be more exact his ideas about the tongue and its nature. The tongue is one of the most difficult areas for people to control. Very often people just forget about the necessity to control their worlds and thoughts and suffer because of the tongue’s unpredictable power.
James represented a magnificent analysis of people’s words and actions and the outcomes of human mistakes. In spite of its size, tongue has a huge power to control and influence human lives. James as a devoted servant of God made a wonderful attempt to explain the essence and the power of human tongue, the necessity to control the tongue in order to please God, and human unbelievable desire to become teachers without being a perfect example in everything.
Discussion
James’ role in the New Testament
Before the analysis of the New Testament’s passage written by James, it is necessary to identify the role of James in the Bible and the peculiar features of his contribution to the history. He was “an older stepbrother of Jesus by a conjectural marriage of Joseph preceding his marriage to Mary” (Gundry 474). He became recognizable as the author who paid much attention to law, legalization of rights, and promotion of rightness among the society.
However, it is necessary to admit that for a long period of time, James and his works were under a considerable suspicion by many historians and writer. The point is that James was the only one who was not afraid to conflict with other writers of the New Testament. Due to certain divergences of Paul’s opinion, James views were disputed considerably by many people who regarded his works as something that was less important in comparison to other writing of the New Testament (Ward para. 1).
However, James captivating stories and examples from real life made many people to re-evaluate their attitude to his works, and within a short period of time, the Epistle of James become the brightest example of human revival and attention to the details which fulfilled this life.
General overview of the passage from the New Testament
The Epistle of James is an educative part of the New Testament that helps to analyze this life and our place in this world. It is not enough to know that each person is an integral part of something really important; it is more important to comprehend that people should do to become worthwhile of this world.
This passage evaluates the way of why people are under control of their tongues and why this fact has to be admitted and taken into consideration. The idea that “the tongue is a small part of the body, but it makes great boasts” (James 3: 5) proves that in this life, there are so many small things which have huge and important consequences on bigger things. This truth is impossible to avoid, neglect, or change the function of the tongue. And it is necessary to accept everything as it is and be very careful with words.
People as teachers
James writings were one of the firsts that criticize the role of teachers in this world and their false ideas and suggestions. He admitted that “not many of you should presume to be teachers, my brothers, because you know that we, who teach, will be judged more strictly” (James 3: 1).
People make mistakes, so that their actions cannot be right all the time. And only those who “never at fault” can become the best teachers. On the one hand, his suggestion is rather powerful and understandable: people have to consider their maturity and be sure about the correctness of their ideas before they make a decision to teach others.
It is very important to take this aspect into account to present really worthwhile education. On the other hand, these words demonstrate a kind of weakness of the author. “There were teachers who lived out nothing of the truth which they taught, whose lives were a contradiction of what they taught and who did nothing but bring dishonor on the faith they represented (Barclay 92).
It is noticeable that people are still afraid to become responsible for each their word. They cannot be sure about their correctness, and all they can do is to rely on God and his power. People have to be stronger and more powerful to enjoy this life and assist the other to do the same.
Tongue as human gift and curst
The Epistle of James focuses mostly on the role of the tongue in human world and its possible functions. The author underlines that “with the tongue we praise our Lord and Father” (James 3: 9), however, at the same time, he admits that “the tongue also is a fire, a world or evil among the parts of the body” (James 3: 6).
Is it possible to unite such a significant function of the tongue as the communication with God and the idea to promote sins by the same part of the body? Those who are devoted to religion may believe that they do not actually bridle their tongues, however, they deceive their hearts (Painter 257).
The use of such descriptive words like bits in mouths, small rudder, and animals being tamed by man proves that the author has a kind of negative attitude to such crucial function of the tongue and such miserable attitude of humans to this part. It is difficult to control this part of the body (Kamell 15), but still it is necessary to do it. Our life is incomplete without it, however, its influence of human actions and words can make this life incomplete as well.
Conclusion
In general, the passage under consideration has many positive aspects to deal with. People become so self-assured that they simply forget about the idea of being controlled by somebody or something. It is difficult to believe that some small part of the body may be more important than the body itself.
To enjoy this life, to be able to cope with challenges, to help other people, it is significant to appreciate each detail and every piece around. It is useless to try to teach and explain something if you are not sure about personal abilities to control your words and your thoughts. Gain control over words – this is the main message of the passage. However, these are still only words, and people have to use their actions to achieve the desirable success.
Works Cited
Barclay, William. The Letters of James and Peter. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.
Gundry, Robert, H. A Survey of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.
Philippians 2:1-11 is perhaps one of the greatest New Testament scriptures that espouse the full characteristics of Jesus. According to the NIV Version, this particular verses from 1 to 11 are titled “Imitating Christ’s Humility” (Philippians 2:1-11 The Holy Bible (NIV)1984). When Jesus came to earth His full purpose was to come and set examples for mankind to follow. Jesus being God had ready answers for one to lead and live a successful life. In verse 3 Paul is urging the followers of Christ to restrain themselves from selfish ambitions which are characteristic of man. He urges them “in humility to consider others better than themselves” (Philippians 2:3, The Holy Bible (NIV) 1984) and further instructs them to love each other. He further urges them to imitate Jesus’ humility; Jesus was God yet he made himself nothing to a point where he allowed himself to be crucified by mortal men he had created. Jesus had the power to defend himself yet because of his great love for mankind he had to be humiliated so that the blood he shed would cover over all sin(Matthew 26:28, The Holy Bible (NIV)1984).
Jesus, therefore, had a great love for others just as he demonstrated in his teachings. He was humble first because he was obedient to God. Many instances are when from the humanistic perspective humility is a sign or a display of weakness, yet Jesus demonstrated just as he taught in Matthew 20:26, that whoever wanted to be great should be the servant of all (Matthew 20:26, The Holy Bible (NIV) 1984). This example from Jesus is very useful for all Christians and humankind and helps us realize that for one to be great it’s not the arrogance or the money but the ability to serve others selflessly.
When Jesus was about to be crucified it was an agonizing moment for him to the extent he had requested God the father to take away the cup of suffering that was awaiting him. He suffered extensively at the hands of Pilate, the Pharisees, and the Roman soldiers. The humiliations that he had to go through were too much especially bearing in mind that he was innocent. But his eventual death on the cross was a culmination of the great restraint qualities that he possessed. Jesus demonstrated great love which he exhorted his followers to imitate. In the contemporary world, there is a great shortage of leaders, many leaders; political or otherwise lack the characters and of servants. Indeed leaders across the globe lord it over their subjects instead of serving the people they lead.
Many conflicts witnessed both in homes, churches, and nations arise from the fact selfishness and vain conceits are prevalent vices. These cause people to think highly of themselves thereby looking down on others. They, therefore, have no time to love and serve others. Paul is pleading with the Philippians to imitate Jesus and their lives would be more meaningful, a calling that needs to epitomize the Christian lives.
The teachings that would likely summarize this description can be found in Matthew 22:34-40, where when Jesus was asked which was the greatest commandment he answered:
‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself. All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.” (Matthew 22:34-40, The Holy Bible (NIV) 1984)
Indeed these two commandments were the guiding principles in Jesus’ life. His first allegiance was to God who he obeyed unequivocally no matter what, and his second duty was to mankind for which he had to lose his life for. Jesus lived a life that was centered on God and other people, not himself.
Reference
The Holy Bible (New International Version) (1984): The Bible Society in Australia Inc., Minto, Australia.
Seven Events that Shaped the New Testament World, is a book written by Warren Carter. The book has received many acknowledgements so far. Carter seeks to highlight economic, social and political situations that shaped the movement of Jesus and His disciples.
Carter selects seven events that took place between 323 BCE and 397 CE. The essay will analyze first five chapters of the book that represent real events, which Carter considers to be essential in process of shaping world of the New Testament. Analysis will be essential in comprehending scenarios before movement of Jesus that affected activities of His disciples.
Death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE)
Carter recognizes essence of Alexander the Great in shaping world of the New Testament. Alexander was a powerful political leader, who conquered territories during his reign. Carter is greatly referenced for presentation of relationship between a political leader and a spiritual redeemer. Carter highlighted role of Alexander in culture and social transformation, which impacted greatly on the early life of Christianity.
It should be noted that, reformations by Alexander were not intended for later life of Christianity, but centered on his personal gains. In this regard, Carter contrasts life of Alexander with that of Jesus towards end of the chapter. Alexander achieved great economic success, especially by taxing Asians and secured great support from other cultures (Carter, 2013 p. 23).
Alexander is included in history of New Testament, because of his contribution to spread of Greek culture, known as Hellenism. Carter highlighted that Alexander was powerful and had great achievements. He describes Jesus as being powerful, since He overwhelms the society with great acts just like Alexander the Great.
According to presentation by Paul, Jesus outshines Alexander by combining His power with humility. For instance, despite the fact that Jesus was powerful, He humbled Himself and surrendered His life for the sake of others. On the other hand, Alexander was powerful and remained a leader throughout his reign.
Alexander focused on glorifying himself and securing recognition from many communities. Jesus on the other hand, was powerful but reserved (Carter, 2013 p. 45).
Process of Translating Hebrew Scriptures into Greek (ca. BCE 250)
In the second chapter, Carter addresses effects of spread of Greek culture. Carter seems to build on the previous chapter. He highlights culture appreciation, since Israel embraces Hellenism and identifies with it. Jews embraced Greek culture and were willing to have sacred information written in Greek language.
The chapter is characterized by emergence of Greek version of Old Testament known as LLX and Aristae’s letter. It should be noted that, spread of Greek language was fast and vast. In this regard, LLX was important to Jews who grew up knowing Greek language.
Further, this could be a way of promoting knowledge about their God, to other communities that did not understand Hebrew. Moreover, the process could be interpreted as being cultural integrative, since Hebrew norms were linked with Greek culture (Carter, 2013 p. 58).
The letter of Aristae depicts that there was cooperation between Jews and Gentiles. As a matter of fact, Gentiles are seen to honor God of Jews. Focus was not to convert culture of Jews, but integrate it with that of Greek.
It should be noted that, LLX was essential in later scriptures known as the New Testament. New Testament was influenced by situations of LLX. In this regard, Jews represented their culture in the dominant Greek culture, thereby preserving their identity and developing sense of belonging (Carter, 2013 p. 66).
Rededication of the Jerusalem Temple (BCE 164)
In regard to comprehension of events that led to rededication of the temple, Carter presented books of Maccabeus and that of Daniel. Antiochus introduced rules that contradicted with values of Jews. As a matter of fact, he introduced idolatry by act of taking Zeus to Jerusalem temple.
Further, he offered pig as a sacrifice, an act that was described as being abominable by Jews. In this regard, Jews chose to rebel against reign of Antiochus and succeeded. According to 1st Maccabeus, rededication of the temple was inevitable, since Jews acquired victory by engaging in physical fights. 2nd Maccabeus states that, rededication of the temple was essential, because martyrs had called upon divine intervention.
The book of Daniel says that, rededication of the temple marked end of man’s wicked reign and beginning of God’s reign. In this regard, the temple had to be rededicated as a way of purification (Carter, 2013 p. 82).
Roman Occupation of Judea (63 BCE)
After Jews successfully rededicated the temple of Jerusalem, they enjoyed freedom that was cut short by Pompey’s annex over Israel. The chapter is divided into three subsections that discuss experiences and expectations of Jews. It should be noted that, Romans ruled over Judea from the time Pompey conquered it and even after death of Jesus.
The first section of the chapter details lamentations that Jews had after they lost their freedom. Lamentations were based on the fact that, Jews were maltreated because they were slaves. They however, kept on hoping that they would one day be redeemed and their freedom would be restored.
For instance, the book of Psalms highlights expectations of Jews about political reinstatement that would be brought to them by Messiah. Jews believed that Messiah would come to politically redeem them and make their enemies suffer. Towards the end of the chapter popular actions like death of Herod are highlighted.
The period was marked by resistance that greatly shaped world of the New Testament (Carter, 2013 p. 84). For instance, Jesus was crucified based on the fact that He attempted to resist Roman rule. His disciples were also maltreated, since their mission to spread the gospel compromised Roman norms.
Crucifixion of Jesus (ca. 30 CE)
Crucifixion of Jesus took place due to the interpretation that Romans had regarding Jesus. Just like Jews, Romans thought that Jesus was a political threat. It should be noted that, only criminals who were considered to rebel against Roman rule were crucified. The cross that Jesus was crucified on was written, “King of Jews”. Jesus was not seen as a spiritual redeemer but a political threat by Romans.
Jews on the other hand, viewed Jesus as a political redeemer. As a matter of fact, Jesus kept on referring to Kingdom of God, which was thought to be that of Romans.
It should be noted that, there were crowds that attempted to crown Jesus as the king, due to great acts of miracles. As a matter of fact, Jesus had to literally avoid such incidences, since He felt that people were mistaking Him for an earthy redeemer (Carter, 2013 p. 98).
Further, Jesus frequently attacked them and prophesied doom, like that of destruction of the temple. In this regard, Jesus was crucified because Romans feared that Jews would over power them.
It should be noted that, powerful deeds by Jesus astonished many people. In this regard, Jesus would not have been crucified if Romans knew that he was a spiritual redeemer and not a political threat.
Pilate assumed a weak role of begging people not to have Jesus crucified. Carter however highlights that this was one of Roman’s deductive strategy to measure significance of Jesus. Pilate wanted to understand the political approach that Jesus adopted, so as to perform great acts and miracles.
It should be noted that, Roman rulers had great authority and could not be easily influenced by crowds of people, like the crucifixion of Jesus appears to have been manipulated. In this regard, one gets to comprehend that Jesus was not crucified for praying and referencing God, but rather due to the fact that Roman rulers thought that He would be a political threat (Carter, 2013 p. 104).
Conclusion
Political and social situations prior and post Jesus movement are essential in comprehension of effects on Christianity. There are many situations that shaped world of the New Testament. Transition from Hellenism to Roman rule and emergence of Christianity, were influenced by political and social scenarios at that time. Carter uses a unique approach to link different occurrences before life of Jesus with those of early church.
Notably, crucifixion of Jesus was based on political interpretation and not spiritual perspective. He successfully brings forth role of Alexander the Great in later movement of Jesus.
The first four chapters form a basis for the last three. One gets to understand why the scriptures were translated to Greek. Further, there is a smooth link between embrace of Greek culture by Israel and negative effects that were witnessed later. LLX influences later scripting of New Testament.
Reference
Carter, W. (2013). Seven Events that Shaped the New Testament World. Toronto: Baker Academic.
It is imperative to mention that several ways in which passages can be interpreted are always present, and it is reasonable to examine the ideas of other scholars to get a better understanding of their stance. Scriptures by James are quite intriguing, and should to be analyzed. An article by Holly Hearon has been chosen because it was published in a reliable source, and she draws attention to several interesting topics. The passage suggests that one is not a true believer if he or she does not acknowledge the fact that religion should be reflected in actions, and the most attention should be devoted to supporting of people that are in need of help.
The idea that people may be hypocrites when it comes to particular religious issues is not new. It is stated that “but be doers of the word, and not merely hearers who deceive themselves” (Jas 1:22 NRSV). Hearon does not devote enough attention to this scripture. However, the author of the article believes that the whole passage was aimed at the poor, and she examined particle connections with other ones. Moreover, Hearon argues that James thought that wealthy people are not spiritual enough most of the time because their actions are questionable. Also, she suggests that he has criticized them quite often.1 In other words, the idea is that poor people should not compare themselves to others because their behavior is not reasonable, and they only pretend to be religious. Such interpretation may be quite controversial because it is believed that such ideas were targeted at everyone.
In other words, it may be suggested that individuals could be lying to themselves, and they are not believers in reality because the only thing they do is listen, and it is not sufficient from the perspective of religion. “For if any are hearers of the word and not doers, they are like those who look at themselves in a mirror; for they look at themselves and, on going away, immediately forget what they were like” is also worthy of a discussion (Jas 1:23–24). The statement is truly fascinating, and one could think that a mirror is a metaphor for something much deeper. Hearon suggests that it may be utilized as a tool of self-scrutiny.2 Differently put, physical appearance may play a crucial role in lives of people. Individuals frequently overlook several aspects that they view as not important, and it reflects in their treatment of others. For instance, one may not think about possible privileges, and it can be quite problematic. Moreover, the expressions that the people see affect the perception of their actions, and behavior of others. Hearon focuses on social status in this case, and it is noted that every individual has access to various amounts of resources. Therefore, differences between the ways in which they are used are also present. The application of such ideas may seem questionable in this case, but such claims have some merit, and the author of the article sounds quite comprehensive.
The next scripture suggests that “but those who look into the perfect law, the law of liberty, and persevere, being not hearers who forget but doers who act – they will be blessed in their doing” (Jas 1:25). The author’s approach is interesting because the ends the section with the interpretation of this line and one may think that she regards it as the most important one. Hearon claims that “he invites them to look into a mirror and to transform their internalized oppression into freedom, as they take on the reflection of the perfect law.”3 Differently put, this statement signifies that the passage is directed at people that are oppressed, and it is believed that one could become emotionally free if his or her actions reflect their beliefs. This approach is intriguing, and it is entirely possible that James was speaking about a particular group of people. Furthermore, it makes the process of interpretation much harder. On the other hand, the weakness of this argument is it is quite evident that this these words may be applied to anyone. It is possible to look at this statement from another perspective. It is likely that James meant that the religion is a particular path to liberty for any individual, and one may achieve it if he or she is persistent. It highlights the importance of the reward of such behavior, and the author of the article overlooks the importance of the blessing.
The last scripture also needs to be discussed, and it is noted that “religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father, is this: to care for orphans and widows in their distress, and to keep oneself unstained by the world” (Jas 1:27). The author believes that it is suggested that it is reasonable for individuals that are not wealthy to offer their support to people that are less protected than they are. Furthermore, she argues that such religion may be regarded as pure because an individual that is not wealthy is willing to help others even if he or she is struggling.4 It is hard to argue with the fact that such behavior is worth being respected and signifies the achievement of higher levels of spirituality. Another core aspect that should not be overlooked is that the author does not discuss the part related to stains. It is suggested that actions of an individual may be affected if he or she doubts at least one aspect of religion, and it leads to inappropriate behavior.
In conclusion, it is possible to state that the interpretation provided by the author is quite comprehensive and is quite similar to my personal understanding of these words. On the other hand, she applies the concepts of privilege and social status, and one could think that it is not reasonable in this situation. However, it enhances the level of understanding of the passage and supports the idea that it may have several meanings. Also, it is stated that the goal was not to undermine the ideas of James.5 Therefore, the focus on various aspects of the society makes this interpretation quite valuable, and it should be studied. One may disagree with the statements regarding the intended target audience of the scripture, but such ideas should not be dismissed, and must be analyzed. Overall, the approach utilized by Hearon is appropriate, but my interpretation is rather different. In my opinion, the purpose of the passage is to ensure that all individuals are aware of the importance of actions, and one may not be regarded a real believer if he or she is not willing to help people that are suffering.
Bibliography
Hearon, Holly E. ““But Be Doers of the Word”: Power and Privilege in James.” Encounter 72, no. 1 (2011): 81-90. Accessed April 21, 2016. ATLA Religion Database.
Footnotes
Holly E. Hearon, ““But Be Doers of the Word”: Power and Privilege in James,” Encounter 72, no. 1 (January 2011): 84, accessed April 21, 2016, ATLA Religion Database.
In the new testament of the holy Christian bible, there are two parables that describe a shepherd and his sheep. One of the parables is in the book of Matthew, in the eighteenth chapter (Matt. 18:12-14 Revised Standard Version)1, while the other account is in the book of Luke in the fifteenth chapter (Luke 15:4-7 Revised Standard Version)2.
The two parables are similar, and are given by the same person. Jesus of Nazareth gave the parables to his disciples as an example of his relationship with humans. However, the two parables are not entirely similar. There are some differences in the two accounts.
One of the similarities between the parables is that Jesus of Nazareth gave both parables to his disciples as an example of love between him and all humanity. In addition, he talks about a lost sheep in the two parables.
In the two parables, the shepherd goes out to look for the lost sheep and leaves his other flock unattended. When the shepherd finds the lost sheep, he brings it back to the rest of the flock and rejoices. Both parables were used to illustrate the importance of all people to god, including sinners.
In both parables, Jesus describes himself as the savior who has come to retrieve the lost sheep. The parables were some of the many others he had told his disciples at the same gatherings. Moreover, both parables were given at a time Jesus was narrating many other parables.
Although the parables are considered descriptions of the same event, there are differences in the manner they are presented. The parable of lost sheep in the book of Mathew was told in response to a query by Jesus’ disciples. They wanted Jesus to tell them who the greatest authority in heaven was.
On the other hand, the parable of the lost sheep in Luke was given to the Pharisees after they observed that Jesus dined with sinners and kept their company.
In the book of Mathew, Jesus talks of one sheep leaving the flock and going into the mountains, while in Luke, he is quoted saying that the sheep goes into a wilderness, which is not a precise description of any particular environment.
In the book of Matthew, the account of the shepherd and the lost sheep talks about a man who rejoices for the recovered sheep more than he does for the flock that did not go astray (Matt. 18:12-16 Revised Standard Version)3. In the book of Luke, the account described the shepherd’s actions.
He puts the recovered sheep on his shoulder and rejoices. One of the most explicit distinctions between the two parables is that the parable in Matthew talks of a man who just rejoices. The happy shepherd takes no further action.
However, in Luke, the shepherd takes the sheep home, calls his neighbors and his friends, and asks them to rejoice with him to celebrate the recovery of his sheep. At the end of the parable in the book of Mathew, Jesus tells his disciples that God would not wish to lose anyone of his people.
On the other hand, in the book of Luke, he tells his disciples that just as people come together and rejoice to celebrate retrieval of the sheep, there is a similar celebration in heaven for a sinner who repents.
In Mathew, the parable was given during the sermon on the mountain, while the parable in Luke was given during Sabbath after Jesus had dined with Pharisees. He had also questioned the traditional rules of Sabbath, which prohibited eating during Holy Sabbath (Luke. 15:4-6 Revised Standard Version)4.
It is evident that the two parables have a few but substantial similarities. On the other hand, there are many but less significant differences between the accounts of the two parables.
Bibliography
Holy Bible: Revised Standard Version. Chicago: Bible Translation Committee, 1988.
Despite describing the same events in the life of Jesus Christ, the Gospels of the New Testament often have visible differences in accounts by the apostles. Despite many Christians attempting to harmonize the various accounts, which some consider to be a wrong approach since literary and historic conventions of modern day did not apply at the time of their writing (Petersen). Differences may arise due to the human factor such as memory or perceptions of unique events as well as compositional devices and techniques. However, when compared and overlaid with each other, the Gospels can offer a full picture of events, often with little contradiction.
One of the differences in translation focuses on the story of a sinner woman anointing of Jesus. The key differences remain in the actions of the woman and her description. While Mark talks about the anointing of the head and does not directly identify the woman as a sinner, Luke talks about the anointing of the feet and the conversation openly suggests the woman sins significantly. For Mark, this story seemed as more of an indication of Jesus’ love for the poor and a prediction of His passing. Luke gave it much more significance, which not only condemned Simon’s judgmental attitude and a lack of response to His message, but the fact that the woman is forgiven because she loves since He meets her with acceptance and Jesus acknowledges and accepts that love with a declaration of forgiveness (Muddiman and Barton 154). Mark’s account focuses on recognition by the woman and valuing Jesus before in the context of his upcoming death. Meanwhile, Luke highlights that Jesus is inclusive of everyone, even those considered outsiders or sinful, having a chance at redemption through faith.
Another important passage that is different is when Jesus’ mother and brothers send for Him when he is preaching to a multitude of people. In Mark’s account, Jesus answers by asking “Who is My mother, or My brothers?” (Mark 3.33). In Luke’s account, he says “My mother and My brothers are these who hear the word of God and do it” (Luke 8.21). In Mark’s account, the relationship is excluded, while for Luke, it is extended. According to Muddiman and Barton, “translations of the saying that make Jesus claim that his natural relations are the ones who are already doing this [hear the word of God] depend upon a somewhat forced reading of the Greek (155). Luke’s Gospel is described as for the underprivileged, due to Jesus’ invitation and inclusion of neglected classes, including women, the poor and others – everyone following the faith and God’s will (257).
Each Gospel is different in the narrative shape, its depiction of Jesus and theological understandings of various events. For Mark, Jesus was a hidden and suffering Son of God, while for Luke, Jesus was a martyr prophet and a merciful innocent savior. While Jesus is only passively mentioned as a prophet by Mark, in Luke, there is a theme developing that He is called a prophet by others (Imperato 31). Mark focused strongly on discipleship of Jesus, embedded in servitude and respect, while Luke greatly explores aspects of forgiveness of and salvation, a path for human growth. Mark’s Gospel is considered to be the first one and the oldest. It is believed that Luke may have used Mark as a source, but also chose to edit it in some ways to create a clearer narrative. Furthermore, Luke may not only have had a different perspective on the events but chose to expand on them based on theological elements.
Works Cited
Imperato, Robert. Portraits of Jesus: A Reading Guide. University Press of America, 2008.
Muddiman, John, and John Barton, editors. The Gospels (Oxford Bible Commentary). Oxford University Press, 2010.