Cognitive Neuroscience: Methods and Studies

The desire to understand how the human brain functions work originated in scientists long ago. Since then, numerous studies have been carried out, and many methods have been used to study the brain. A summary of the history of cognitive neuroscience will allow to understand how the human brain’s work changed from research to research. Various techniques invented through time have allowed scientists to make important discoveries and significant progress in studying the human brain.

There are a lot of studies and methods that have changed cognitive neuroscience. Among them are lesion studies and imaging of the structure and function of the brain. Lesion studies are often used to determine the regions of the brain that could have caused the behavioral deficit. Thankfully to this method, it was revealed that specific areas in the brain correspond to specific task components. For example, if the part of the brain responsible for speech has been damaged, it can cause speech loss. Another method of studying the human brain is Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Active development of technologies allows to apply MRI methods and to create 3D models of the structure of neurons. It is essential to study the localization and lateralization of function in the history of cognitive neuroscience. Localization of function is the idea that circumscribed areas within each hemisphere control specific functions. Previously researchers assumed that all human brain functions were bilateral, but today they think they are anatomical. Lateralization is the understanding that the two hemispheres of the human brain work differently. In the past, it was thought that their functions were the same.

In conclusion, it is vital to highlight the essential role of cognitive neuroscience methods and discoveries in changing the understanding of human brain function. Methods such as lesion studies or Magnetic resonance imaging, along with functional localization and functional lateralization theories, have disrupted previous versions of cognitive neuroscience and opened a new chapter in the study of the human brain.

Neuroscience: Clinical Laboratory Science

Exercising the brain as always advertised in different media could be the basis of neural biology. A learning exercise experiment with rats showed generation of new neurons. These new neurons were presumably formed in a taxing situation of difficult learning exercises. The implication of this is that it is possible for those suffering from Alzheimer particularly when the condition is still at the early stages, have the ability of slowing it development by ensuring that they actively engage their brains. By the 1990s scientist showed that mature mammalian brain is capable of sprouting new neurons, refuting the fact that it was only reserved for the young developing minds. Elizabeth, then at Rockefeller University, demonstrated that new cells could arise from the hippocampus part of the brain, which is involved with learning and memory. This was supported in1998 when neural scientists in US and Sweden showed that neurogenesis also occurred in humans. This was carried out in rats by the application of BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine), which made it possible for the news cells to be pointed out. The new cells’ production could be influenced by several factors as follows: alcohol consumption, lack of exercise and eating blue berries goosed generation of new neurons. From the experiment on the rats, it seemed that the new neurons could be produced in a cognitive challenge, then fade away. Experiment was done to observe the effects and survival of newborn neurons. The scientist used an experiment called the trace eye blink condition likened to Pavlov’s dogs which salivated when there was a sound. At the beginning BrdU was used on the rats with more rats being included after a week. After some time, the experiment proved that learning was required to sustain new cells developed.

In addition, by exercising the rats in one day severally rescued the new neurons from death. This showed that task of rescuing the new cells does not involve thought. Another experiment involving a difficult task using the same rats but with the duration of the tone lengthened; this resulted into more new neurons rescued than previous one. Another experiment where rats were tested for several weeks with MAM, which stopped dividing of cells, and put in training with untreated and treated were found to be poor students. This is the same with the human brain where chemotherapy impairs the cell division but antidepressant was found to be modulators of neurogenesis. With the case of people with Alzheimer, new neurons produced do not survive to become fully mature and those in early stage of dementia are suggested to take aerobic exercises. This shows that engaging the brain in some hard tasks is actually healthy to the mind and consequently can keep some diseases off.

List of dislikes and likes and the way forward

Likes

  1. Learning new things could enhance generation of new neuron cells.
  2. Difficult learning can help the new formed cells to survive.
  3. Exercises could play a role in generation of neurons.
  4. Antidepressants play a role in modulation of neurogenesis.
  5. The mind robbing disease could be reduced in engaging in cognitive exercise.

Dislikes

  1. Though the Alzheimer’s disease and early stages of dementia could be controlled the rate of neurons production could not balance with the depreciating neurons.

Way forward

People should be informed of the cost of not engaging in brain exercises; there is a need to encourage people to engage in brain exercise as this is likely lead to many health benefits.

Cognitive Neuroscience: Unlearning Something Learnt

Introduction

The human brain is highly sophisticated, and cognitive neuroscientists have been struggling to understand how it functions. The mind has the ability to remember specific things, but forget others very quickly. It chooses what to remember and what to discard immediately it is registered in the brain. One learns through remembering new concepts in life. According to Siff (2010), learning can take two perspectives.

The first perspective will be the knowledge that is imparted in a person by someone (mostly a teacher) so that an individual may understand a given concept. For instance, for one to understand Pythagoras Theorem, it will be necessary to have a teacher who will explain the concepts of this theory and its relevance to society. The learner will have the knowledge about this theory if he or she can remember the concepts as taught by the teacher.

If this happens, then it will be right to say that one has learned. The second approach to learning is through experience. For instance, in case a child touches a naked flame it will be burnt. It will learn that naked fires cause pain. This will be registered in its memory, and it will grow up knowing that fire is dangerous. One question that cognitive neuroscientists always ask is whether one is able to ‘unlearn’ what has been learned.

In this study, the researcher holds that unlearning what has been learned depends on the nature of the item that was learned and the manner in which it was learned.

Research question

It is important to use a research question when conducting research. The question acts as a guide that defines the data that should be collected from the field. The following is the research question that will be used in this study.

Can one “unlearn” something after learning it?

Based on the above question, the researcher developed the hypothesis below.

Unlearning what has been learned depends on the nature of the item that was learned and the manner in which it was learned

In order to answer this question, the researcher will use the reports by Johnson (2005), Brown, and White (2002) who extensively discussed the science of the brain and how it works to learn and unlearn things based on their relevance to one’s life. These two pieces of literature will be the primary sources of information. The researcher will analyze their hypotheses, their methodologies, and reliability in addressing the issue under investigation. The researcher will also use eight other sources to back up the findings of these two primary sources.

The Sources used in this research were obtained from reliable online sources. The journals were retrieved from JStor and PubMed, while the books were available in the library. The researcher used the following key words “unlearn,”“learn,” and “cognitive neuroscience.”

Discussion

Unlearning what has been learned may be very easy, but at the same time, it may be almost impossible. According to Brown and White (2002), in order to understand the ability of one to unlearn what has been learned, it is important to first understand the learning process as explained in Cognitive paradigms. As mentioned above, learning can take two approaches, each having different impacts on one’s life.

The first approach is the teacher-learner process that in modern society takes place in a classroom setting. The second approach is the process of learning through one’s own experience. This involves gaining knowledge from a practical event in one’s life. These two approaches will be critically analyzed in order to determine whether it is possible to unlearn what one has learned.

Teacher-learner context of learning

The first approach to learning is the teacher-learner context. The report by Brown and White (2002) focuses on the learning process, specifically how one is able to grasp some concepts but forget others very quickly. These scholars say that the brain is the software that defines every activity that one does. The programs that run within one’s brain in the learning process are heavily reliant on the perception of a person towards something.

The scholars say that no one is too foolish to understand the concepts learned in class unless there is a neurological disorder within the brain. However, it is common to find one is at the top of the class and others at the bottom. This depends on the memory, which is actually the learning process. The brain will absorb what the mind tells it to, and reject what it is instructed to reject. This instruction, according to Johnson (2005), is given by one’s attitude or perception. The attitude or perception controls what gets into our memory. However, it is also important to note that another aspect of the brain is in control of attitude and perception.

Raman (2003) refers to this aspect of the brain as the conscience. It defines the ability of one to grasp a given concept and let it stick to the brain. In a teacher-learner context of learning, one would need to control the attitude in order to make the memory register that knowledge is given by the teacher. If the memory successfully registers the knowledge that the teacher is passing, then it will be right to say that learning has taken place

Unlearning what has been learned in this context will largely depend on the facts that are presented to an individual. For instance, in the past, society believed that the sun goes round the earth. This belief was particularly strong among the Christians as it was considered part of the creation theory in the bible. When Eratosthenes challenged this notion and claimed that the earth goes around the sun, he was widely condemned, and his new knowledge was dismissed.

People at this time could not believe that the earth is not flat. They had learned that the earth is flat not only through their religious teachings but also in their social lives and what they believed was experienced. Unlearning this knowledge was not easy.

However, Hawkins and Wilmot (2012) say that the problem was not with the memory but the perception. The perception towards this new knowledge was influenced by religion. This new fact to the Christians was a mockery of their beliefs. They shut down their brain and it became impossible to unlearn. However, unlearning something that was learned theoretically cannot be that complex. According to Hislop (2013), using Kurt Lewin’s change model may help in explaining the process.

When faced with new knowledge that challenges the already existing knowledge, then this model may be very important in unlearning what has been learned. In this model, the first step suggested is to unfreeze. In this case, unfreezing will involve asking relevant questions about the existing and the new knowledge. When using the example given above, one would need to ask for proof that confirms either of the two claims. Another example may be a wrong concept that was taught by someone in the past. During this first stage, one would need to determine the available facts that make the new knowledge right, and the old one wrong.

When it is clear that the new knowledge has the truth over the previously held notions, then the next step will be to change. At this moment, one would be debugging the system in the brain of the wrong concept, and in its place installing the new concept that has just been learned. Sometimes this may require will power in order to avoid getting confused in the entire process (Moskowitz, 2010). The final stage will be to freeze or refreeze. In this last stage, the learner will be condensing the new information in the mind like the knowledge that will guide one in the future.

This entire process of unlearning what has been learned demonstrates that it is important to have new knowledge that shall replace the unlearned knowledge. Challenging the notion that the sun goes around the earth would be easier if new knowledge is introduced to replace it. In this case, the new knowledge was that the earth actually goes around the sun.

Learning through experience

The second aspect of learning is through experiences that one gains in life. Fire is dangerous and unless it is used responsibly, it can cause serious harm to the body or destruction of property. Despite what we may learn about the fire from the theoretical perspective, what we know about it from the practical aspects will always be stronger. According to Gazzaniga and & Bizzi (2004), what is learned through experience always has a strong bearing on our memory. It may not matter whether or not the mind wants to hold it in the memory or not. It shall remain within the memory, and will always be retrieved through a reflect reaction.

A good example is a survivor of a tragic event, such as a bomb attack. The events of such a horrific incident shall always remain in the mind even if one desires to forget about the entire incident. Sometimes the psychological state of one’s mind may dictate how often one will be remembering such incidents. In other cases, one may not have control because of the reflective reaction that would take place in case something that reminds one of the incidents happens.

A survivor of a bomb attack will always have a shock, and may even scream when there is a loud bang such as a tire burst. This is so because the brain had learned that such blasts are associated with death. For this reason, every time there is a blast, the image of death starts haunting such a person, and this explains why he or she may involuntarily scream whenever there is a loud bang.

Unlearning what one has learned through experience may almost be impossible. According to Baars and Gage (2013, p. 78), “The truth is never altered, it can only be restructured.” One can never forget that he or she narrowly survived a serious bomb attack such as September 11, 2001, terrorists attack the World Trade Center.

It is likely that one would most probably go to the grave with the memories despite the desire to forget such events. Sometimes such knowledge may start haunting a person, directly affecting his lifestyle in negative ways. Someone may start suffering from nightmares or even a complete breakdown of the nervous system.

In such cases, there will be a strong desire to unlearn what was learned in order to restore a normal lifestyle on such a person. It is at such moments that cognitive neuroscientists will be needed to help such individuals. As stated earlier, it will not be possible to unlearn such experiences.

However, the psychologists will need to help the affected individual to learn how to live with this kind of memory. It will involve what Posner (2012) calls psychotherapy where the psychologist will introduce new knowledge to be part of the horrific knowledge. The new knowledge introduced will be expected to diffuse the horrific memories so that the affected individual can remember such terrible incidents without being horrified.

Conclusion and Implications

The two primary sources used in this study found out that unlearning what has been learned depends on what was learned and how one learned it. This confirms the hypothesis of this study. It is very easy to unlearn a misconception when presented with the facts. However, it may not be possible for one to unlearn the fact that one’s parents were murdered in cold blood if the person witnessed the murder as a child.

Through the primary and secondary data these two scholars collected, they found out that such horrific experiences are the information that forever remains in one’s life. Cognitive neuroscientists may only help such a person live with the painful facts without suffering from any form of emotional torture. The two findings closely relate to each other in their conclusion of the fact that unlearning something learned may depend on a number of factors.

The implication of this study to cognitive neuroscientists is that in order to help someone suffering from such horrific memories, it may be necessary to introduce new knowledge that acts as a therapy to manage the phobia associated with the memory of the event.

References

Baars, B. J., & Gage, N. M. (2013). Fundamentals of cognitive neuroscience: A beginner’s guide. Amsterdam: Academic Press.

Brown, S. & White, J. (2002). Learning. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 46 (39), 19-58.

Gazzaniga, M. S., & Bizzi, E. (2004). The cognitive neurosciences. Cambridge, MA [etc.: The MIT Press.

Hawkins, P. & Wilmot, J. (2012). Supervision in the helping professions. Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: Open University Press.

Hislop, D. (2013). Knowledge management in organizations: A critical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Johnson, C. (2005). Unlearning. British Medical Journal, 331(7518), 703-750.

Moskowitz, M. (2010). Reading minds: A guide to the cognitive neuroscience revolution. London: Karnac Books.

Posner, M. I. (2012). Cognitive neuroscience of attention. New York: Guilford Press.

Raman, A. T. (2003). Knowledge management: A resource book. New Delhi: Excel Books.

Siff, J. (2010). Unlearning Meditation: What to do when the instructions get in the way. Boston: Shambhala.

Neuroscience of Real-Life Stressors

Many individuals suffer from stress in today’s developed world, filled with many events and thoughts that make one feel frustrated, nervous, and angry. Many still have little or no control over the outcomes of the situations (Klawohn 127). The module article has helped evaluate how the mind and body interact to influence an individual’s physical and psychological health. This essay briefly reflects on the module article on stressors in life and neuroscience.

First and foremost, I like the article because it is constructively aligned, interprets and compares stress factors, and acknowledges the variabilities and uncertainties. The article makes sense and has brought light to my knowledge as it describes the fundamental principles, concepts, theories, and basic physiological terminologies to define stress. It also highlights some major historical events, theoretical perspectives, and their links to trends in contemporary societies. Before I came across the module, I had little knowledge about stress. I believe that the stress level is the same regardless of the cause or factor surrounding a person. However, thanks to the module article, I have learned that stress is not created equally. There are different types of stress, including short-lived, episodic, and those that pound the body until it surrenders (Klawohn 128). I agree with Sapolsky, one of the theorists, who purports that the social hierarchies in which we live largely contribute to our potential for elevated stress. This is because, in this modern life, we are constantly connected. Though online life makes us feel connected, online life is terrible for our health. This is because of the unarchivable lifestyle, never-ending solicitations from friends and work, and unachievable beauty standards (Klawohn 128). As a student, I have experienced stress. The social pressure, new routines, test anticipations, and arguments with fellow students have caused physical, psychological, and emotional strains in my body. However, thanks to neuroscience, I am learning some stress management techniques to help me cope. This new field applies the principle of neuroscience in conjunction with specific theories to understand the process, behavior, and how our brains are involved in stress.

Generally, the module article is enjoyable because it uncovers what I find enjoyable about the process, content, and outcomes of stress.

Work Cited

Klawohn, Julia. “.” Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, vol. 7, no. 2, 2022, pp. 127–28, Web.

The Stroop Test and Its Impact on Neuroscience

The Stroop test demonstrates an exceptional reaction of the brain, enabling for assessing the neuropsychological functions. The assessment confirms the Stroop effect, where “the processing of a specific stimulus feature impedes the simultaneous processing of a second stimulus attribute” (Scarpina & Tagini, 2017). Responses to the examination allow to evaluate the ability to inhibit cognitive interference. The following essay will elaborate on the psychological implication of the Stroop test and its impact on neuroscience, as well as explore its influence on behavioral patterns.

Definitions

Behaviorism – is a psychological approach that is based on objective facts rather than subjective processes, such as emotions and feelings (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.-a).

Cognitive psychology – the branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory, mainly through inferences from behavior (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.-b).

Neuroscience – is a science about the human nervous system and its psychological science applications (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.-c).

How do the Stroop Results Challenge the Assumptions of Behaviorism and Support the Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology?

The results of the Stroop test vividly demonstrate the ability of the brain to quickly process the displayed information. It is an excellent tool for confirming behaviorism as the assessment confirms multiple neuroscientific theories such as the selective attention or automaticity theories, which prove that reading is a more automated process and ensure the behaviorism theory. However, from the psychological perspective, the Stroop test illustrates how a person processes the information, their ability to overcome the instincts and be in control.

How can the Stroop Results Benefit Neuroscience?

The Stroop test results significantly help neuroscience study human brains’ responses and their ability to take control over the instincts. The Stroop effect immensely benefited the research and confirmation of many scientific theories, one of them being selective attention. Most importantly, the Stroop test facilitates in analyzing people with certain cognitive and nervous system diseases. It helps effectively identify brain injury and plays a significant role in studies on neuroscience.

Are Errors Made When Taking the Stroop Test due to Problems in Mind Or the Brain?

The Stroop test can be predisposed to errors due to the development of certain brain reactions. It takes advantage of the more developed ability to read than to identify colors, therefore showcasing the inability to effectively multitask. Our fast thinking cannot always correctly react to the portrayed content; therefore, absolute results of the Stroop test can display the level of a person’s ability of controlled thinking, selective attention, and cognitive processes. Certain consequences of the examination may reveal ADHD, other mental problems, and traumatic brain injury.

Could Anything Help Someone do better (Or Worse) on this Assessment?

Training the response to the Stroop test has proven to benefit various groups of people. The research discovered that practicing the reaction to the test has a more significant influence on the cognitive response among older adults; thus, shows the enhancement in the cognitive abilities across all age groups (Burger et al., 2019). Additionally, the person’s eventual increase in intellectual abilities plays a beneficial effect on the assessment outcomes. On the other hand, the development of mental illnesses and acquisition of brain injuries significantly worsen the cognitive responses and negatively influence the performance on the test.

The Stroop effect plays a vital role in psychology and neuroscience, helping identify the responses of the cognitive system. The Stroop test is of critical significance to science, revealing how the brain of a person functions through a simple interactive assessment. It proves that the brain faces difficulties between the different interference of words and colors, showcasing how responsive is the mind. The speed of response may be trained through multiple means; however, it can also worsen due to the development of certain diseases.

References

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.-a). Behaviorism. American Psychological Association. Web.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.-b). Cognitive psychology. American Psychological Association. Web.

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.-c). Neuroscience. American Psychological Association. Web.

Burger, L., Fay, S., Angel, L., Borella, E., Noiret, N., Plusquellec, P., & Taconnat, L. (2019). Benefit of practice of the Stroop Test in young and older adults: Pattern of gain and impact of educational level. Experimental Aging Research, 46(1), 52–67. Web.

Scarpina, F., & Tagini, S. (2017). Frontiers in Psychology, 8. Web.

Neurology Studies: Sensory Perceptions

Reasons for believing in the accuracy or inaccuracy of sensory information

Senses help people to comprehend and respond to the changes in the environment in which they are placed. Sensory perceptions entail the identification and synthesis of sensory information. This often results in a given response depending on the kind of information that is sensed by an individual. Perception is an active concept.

It entails the processing of information from the human senses about the stimuli (Bernstein, 2011). This paper explores how sensory perceptions work. The paper brings out examples of how the sensory data are processed, as well as the impact of nurture and nature about the complete synthesis of sensory data.

According to Bernstein (2011), the accuracy or inaccuracy of the sensory information is dependent on the functionality of the human senses. People believe in the accuracy of sensory information by using several sense organs. Several examples have been given on why there is a belief in sensory information. The first reason is the utilization of the sense of sight, where accurate information about the world is presented.

It is easy to see people during the day doing something; it is easy to identify them and what they are doing. The other reason to believe in sensory information is that people respond rapidly to certain forms of stimuli. For instance, touching a hot object elicits a rapid response from a person because the information is sent to the brain via the nerves.

Therefore, a person will quickly remove the hand from the hot object. The accuracy of sensory information is trusted by people; for example, smelling smoke denotes the presence of a fire and causes a person to panic (Kirby & Goodpaster, 1995).

On the other hand, several reasons have been brought forward to back the inaccuracy of sensory information. A human mind tends to store past information that is later re-synthesized according to what a person is experiencing. This means that experience can make a person interpret a given situation in the wrong way.

Environmental influences result in the distortion of data interpretation by the body organs, resulting in inaccurate assumptions. For example, a person may look around and see nobody. This may make the person engage in a socially unacceptable act. However, there could be someone watching from a distant. Human beings do not often interpret sensory information in the correct way, irrespective of the sensory organ involved. This implies that people ought not to always rely on sensory data (Weissman, 2007).

Factors contributing to the accuracy of sensory data

Several factors have been brought forward to aid in justifying the accuracy of sensory data. Constancy and experience in a critical factor in explaining the accuracy of sensory information. The experience of a person plays a substantive role in determining the level of accuracy of sensory data. The continued instilling of certain skills in a person, for instance, a person who has grown up being taught how to perceive and interpret sounds often becomes an expert in that task (Kirby & Goodpaster, 1995).

Sensory perception is enhanced by experience, which raises the level of accuracy of sensory information. In line with the experience is the age of a person. An adult has more developed senses than a young person or an infant. From biological research, it is argued that brain cells determine sensory perceptions. When sensory cells in the brain are more developed as with the adults, there is a higher propensity to rightly interpret and perceive the changes in the environment. This results in accurate sensory data.

The other thing that enhances the accuracy of sensory information is the longevity of exposure to a given stimulus. If a person perceives stimuli for a longer period, he or she is more likely to correctly perceive the sensory information. The longer a person gets exposed to a given stimulus, the more the sensory receptors of a person are positively inclined towards the stimuli. The receptors become more accurate in terms or receiving and interpreting the stimuli (Bernstein, 2011).

The roles of “nature” and “nurture” about the interpretation and evaluation of sensory data

There has been an extensive debate on the role of nurture and nature in the synthesis and evaluation of sensory information. Both scientists and psychologists agree that all stimuli that are synthesized into sensory information emanate from nature. Therefore, the nature that a person has been raised in determines how the sensory data is processed and evaluated. For instance, a person who has been raised in an industrial setting adapts to the industrial noise to the extent that the sensory nerves of that person ignore the noise.

These works are the opposite of a person who is newly introduced in the industrial setting. For such a person, the sensory nerves are highly responsive to the noise and will perceive and evaluate the noise; that is, the stimuli. Both people and animals shape the way they receive, perceive, and interpret the changes in their environment.

People perceive stimuli differently through the act of nurturance. The expectations and beliefs that have been nurtured in a person affect the way the sensory receptors adopt and interpret stimuli, thereby affecting the resulting data (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010).

References

Bernstein, W. M. (2011). A basic theory of neuropsychoanalysis. London: Karnac.

Kirby, G. R., & Goodpaster, J. R. (1995). Thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Weissman, D. (2007). Styles of thought: Interpretation, inquiry, and imagination. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Quantitative Research Design: Neuroscience Studies

Research topics can be analyzed using different methods which can be separated into two major categories – qualitative and quantitative. Studies that use a quantitative approach rely on calculations to prove or disprove a proposed hypothesis. Thus, the choice to apply this methodology for a topic has to be founded on the necessity to show specific numbers and their correlation. On the other hand, if the chosen approach does not fit the study, some adverse outcomes may follow. The discussed studies investigate the topic of anxiety in children. The first article deals with concentrations of plasma oxytocin and cerebrospinal fluid and their connection to children’s anxiety levels. The second one explores the correlation among attention, behavioral inhibition, and social anxiety. Both studies employ a specific quantitative methodology. The appropriateness of these strategies and ramifications that may occur if a wrong design is chosen are discussed further.

Studies’ Description and Design

The first study by Carson et al. (2015) is called “Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma Oxytocin Concentrations Are Positively Correlated and Negatively Predict Anxiety in Children.” The authors investigate multiple correlations between these fluids and children’s anxiety. They also attempt to show that concentration levels can predict whether a child will develop anxiety in the future. This study uses a correlational design because it explores a connection between two variables. Moreover, as the scholars aim to foresee possible effects that one variable can have on another, the research can be considered a predictive correlational study. The measurements were taken on one occasion, making the design cross-sectional.

The second article by Thai, Taber-Thomas, and Pérez-Edgar (2016) is called “Neural Correlates of Attention Biases, Behavioral Inhibition, and Social Anxiety in Children: An ERP Study.” In it, Thai et al. (2016) explore the link between attention biases, BI (behavioral inhibition), and children’s development of social anxiety. They use an approach similar to the previous authors, collecting measures on a single occasion, comparing variables, and searching for a connection among multiple factors. Therefore, this is a cross-sectional predictive correlational study as well.

Design Appropriateness

The two studies utilize the chosen design appropriately. First of all, they are both interested in finding a specific correlation between identified variables. The nature of their research asks for a quantitative approach to visualize the relationship. Moreover, the variables chosen by the scholars are quantifiable. The concentration of plasma oxytocin and cerebrospinal fluid in the first study can be measured and connected to children’s anxiety. Similarly, behavioral inhibition can be assessed with the help of ERP (event-related potential) – a response measured by EEG (Thai et al., 2016). Therefore, the chosen method supports the validity of both researches, because all variables are not abstract but are proven to be quantifiable (Polit & Beck, 2017). An appropriate study design also excludes bias. Here, the taken measurements rely on actual data and children’s evaluation and not on obscure principles, making the studies unbiased and credible.

Choosing an Inappropriate Design

If scholars select a design that does not fit their research problem, they may encounter many issues. First of all, it can be hard for them to collect information that may be necessary for their investigation. Moreover, the calculations or the analysis of gathered data can be full of mistakes. Most importantly, such studies can come to an erroneous conclusion, show a biased perspective, or present an outcome that is impossible to recreate. Thus, such works can be deemed unreliable or invalid. A problem may also arise if one takes such studies as a foundation for further research.

Conclusion

Research has to have an appropriate design to be reliable, confirmable, and valid. The two presented quantitative studies have a correlational design, where authors attempt to find a connection between multiple variables. In both articles, scholars succeed in utilizing the chosen method, which results in useful findings. If they were to choose inappropriately, such articles could come to different conclusions that would be biased, baseless, and unreliable.

References

Carson, D. S., Berquist, S. W., Trujillo, T. H., Garner, J. P., Hannah, S. L., Hyde, S. A.,… Parker, K. J. (2015). Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma oxytocin concentrations are positively correlated and negatively predict anxiety in children. Molecular Psychiatry, 20(9), 1085-1090. Web.

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2017). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (10th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer.

Thai, N., Taber-Thomas, B. C., & Pérez-Edgar, K. E. (2016). Neural correlates of attention biases, behavioral inhibition, and social anxiety in children: An ERP study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 200-210. Web.

Electroencephalography in Behavioral Neuroscience

Abstract/executive summary

Electroencephalogy is carried out to determine the activity of the brain. It is carried out with eyes closed. However, if the experiment is carried out under different conditions results in changes. Furthermore, the experiment can be carried out to determine mental and physical problems such as the spinal cord, nervous system and brain. It can also be carried out to find out the brain status of a person in a coma, sleep disorders, diagnose epilepsy, check dementia and conscious problems and determine the recovery possibility of an unconscious person. However, the test should be carried out in a hospital by a medical technician and while lying on the back on either a bed or inclined chair.

Introduction

Behavioral neuroscience is the application of biological principles to genetic, developmental mechanisms and physiological study in both non-human and human animals. Generally, it investigates normal and abnormal behavior levels in non-human and human animals. On the other hand, physiological methods examine manners that are exhibited by users while responding to events or objects in a virtual environment. This is a lab report on the EEG experiment carried out. EEG can be used to effectively determine other health problems apart from brain activities. It highlights the methods used in the experiments, results obtained, a brief literature review and discussion with recommendations on improvements on future EEG experiments to be conducted to minimize problems faced while conducting the experiment.

An electroencephalogram is a test carried out to record the brain’s activity by electroencephalography. It can also be said to be an electroencephalography record of electric brain activity. It can also be used to estimate voltage fluctuations in the brain neurons. Medically, the test is carried out within 20 to 40 minutes on the brain scalp (Hillsdale nd). The test is carried out with the attachment of special sensors on the head and connected to a computer. The computer then records the activity of the respective brain on the computer or a paper but as wave lines. There are several conditions that can be seen during the test, for instance, seizures, which are visible with the normal changes in the pattern of the electrical activities of the brain (Martin 2003).

There are several reasons that necessitate the test. Basically, the reasons are medical and the test is mainly carried out in hospitals. It can be conducted to study sleep disorders, for example, narcolepsy. Secondly, the test can also be carried out to find out the brain state of a person in a coma. The test can either help determine whether the respective person’s brain is dead or alive (Carlson 2010). Furthermore, the test may help doctors determine whether an unconscious person can regain consciousness after examining his or her brain activities. It can also be used to check dementia or conscious-related problems. After a diagnosis of epilepsy, EGG may be used to confirm the diagnosis of epilepsy. It can also be used to watch activities of the brain during brain surgery while receiving general anesthesia. Moreover, the test can be used to determine whether a person has a mental problem or physical problem. There are several physical problems that can be determined via the test; they include the nervous system, brain and spinal cord (Andreassi 2006).

Methods

There were several experiments carried out with different participants under different conditions. There were experiments carried out with eyes closed while others with eyes open. Furthermore, experiments with eyes closed were further carried out under different conditions. However, experiments conducted with eyes open and closed were conducted with rhythms that are alpha, beta, delta and theta and with different channels. Moreover, the experiments were carried out in cycles and results obtained were compared and mean recorded. Finally, amplitude data for each experiment was conducted.

Generally, the test was carried out by an EEG technician in a hospital office. Participants were asked to lie on their backs on an inclined chair. Thereafter, the technician placed flat metal disks between 16 and 25 electrodes on the scalp but at different places. The disks were held with sticky pastes on the respective points on the scalp. The electrodes were later connected by wires to a recording machine via an amplifier. The results were obtained from a computer disk for analysis. Participants were expected to close their eyes during the experiments because any change of movement could change results. However, either participants were asked to breathe deeply or fast or look at flashlights brightly generated (Martin 2003).

Results

There are different results that were obtained from the experiments that were carried out. On rhythm, alpha, there were 40 participants which represented 0.13 of those who closed their eyes, 0.18 of those who opened their eyes, 0.17 of those who closed their eyes on the second attempt of the experiment. Secondly, on beta there were 41channels recording 0.26 eyes closed, 0.30 eyes open and 0.30 eyes closed on the second attempt. Third, on delta there were 42 channels representing 0.37 eyes closed, 0.44 y open and 0.49 eyes closed on the second attempt.

Furthermore, a controlled data experiment with eyes closed recorded different results on each attempt. However, theta, delta, alpha and beta rhythms were still used in the experiment. During cycle one, alpha recorded 10, beta 25, theta 5.41, and delta 4.17. In cycle two, alpha recorded 11.79, beta 22.22, delta 5.00 and theta 5.41. On the other hand, cycle three recorded 9.52 on alpha, 28.57on beta, 2.41 on delta and 6.99 on theta. Generally, alpha rhythm recorded the highest mean at 10.43 followed by beta at 25.26, delta at 3.86, and the lowest mean was theta at 5.91.

Moreover, the amplitude for each data was also conducted and different results were recorded too. For example, an experiment conducted with eyes closed recorded 19.26 on EEG studded, 3.42 on alpha studded (ch40), 0.25 RMS means (ch41), but there was no alpha RMS summary and alpha RMS. Secondly, an experiment was carried out with mental arithmetic as the experimental condition, 2.56 EGG studded was recorded, 0.64 alpha studded (ch40) was recorded, 0.07 alpha RMS means was recorded and a smaller alpha RMS summary was made. Furthermore, an experiment with the condition after hypertension was conducted and different results were obtained. For instance, 2.03 as recorded on EEG studded, 0.79 alpha studded (ch40), 0.12 alpha RMS means (ch41) and alpha RMS summary was recorded as smaller. Finally, an experiment with eyes open was recorded and 299 EGG studded, 0.59 alpha studded (ch40), and 0.86 alpha RMS means (ch41) were recorded. However, the alpha RMS summary was longer as opposed to those other experiments carried with eyes closed that recorded an alpha RMS summary of smaller. However, the experiment conducted with closed eyes without any other condition recorded equal results.

Discussion

Activities of the brain vary with conditions. This has been portrayed from the results of the tests carried out. These results were obtained from a single but under different conditions hence varied results. It signifies that change of condition changes brain activity during the test. Moreover, rhythms also influence the activities of the brain. Finally, it’s true that reliable results of the tests can only be achieved when the eyes are closed and no other activities or conditions are in place.

Generally, electrical activities of the brain have a certain number of waves recorded per second. The waves are normal at different levels of consciousness, for instance, waves are high when someone is awake and slow when someone is asleep (Carlson 2010). On the other hand, abnormal results may be due to several reasons mainly affecting health status. Abnormal results may be caused by abnormal bleeding, alcohol or drug abuse, head injury, abnormal brain structure, attention problems, death of tissues due to blood flow blockage. Moreover, it can also be due to migraines, brain swelling, sleep disorders, and seizure disorders (Andreassi 2006).

Though the test procedure is safe, it may lead to other health problems or unreliable results due to the flashing lights or fast breathing during the test. These may trigger seizures among patients with seizure disorders. Moreover, removal of the paste may take some time too. Therefore, ways of avoiding seizure attacks during the test should be developed and the safe removal of the pastes.

Reference list

Andreassi, J.L. 2006, Psychophysiology: human behavior and physiological response.

Carlson, N.R. 2010, Foundations of Behavioural Neuroscience. (8th Edition), MA: Allyn& Bacon. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fifth edition.

Martin, G.N. 2003, Essential Biological Psychology. London: Hodder Arnold.

Reward in Neuroscience

In neurobiology, reward is a positive effect produced on a user by an object or a condition. Reward is associated with a tendency to repeat an action that leads to the reward. The most important center of the reward system is the mesolimbocortical dopamine system. The mesolimbic system projects from dopamine (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens (Garrett & Hough, 2018). The mesocortical system projects from DA neurons in the VTA to the frontal cortex. Rewards are associated with increased dopamine levels after stimulation of the reward system.

Addictive substances or behaviors have a significant impact on the mesolimbocortical dopamine system. First, the dopamine activity in the brain decreases, which causes a reduced response to normal rewards, such as food, sexual contact, or warmth (Garrett & Hough, 2018). At the same time, drugs and behaviors cause an increased reaction from the dopamine system (Garrett & Hough, 2018). Second, addictions often cause hypofrontality, which is a reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex (Garrett & Hough, 2018). Finally, the long-lasting effect is caused by learning, which is promoted by glutamate that remodels synapses (Garrett & Hough, 2018). Therefore, additions are not just inappropriate habits, but neurological conditions that lead to lifelong changes in the brain. For instance, cocaine administration causes a short-term rise in the dopamine level, which causes a sense of euphoria, loss of control, and compulsive responses (Nestler, 2005). Cocaine affects the nucleus accumbens by producing enormous amounts of dopamine, which causes a powerful feeling of pleasure (Nestler, 2005). The memories of such pleasures are imprinted in the hippocampus and amygdala, causing learning and lifelong changes (Nestler, 2005). According to Garrett & Hough (2018), chronic administration of cocaine also increases dendrite length and synaptic complexity in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex.

Cocaine addiction is treated using various methods, including medications and therapies. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is known to have tremendous success in treating cocaine addiction. In particular, McHugh, Hearon, and Otto (2010) report that the CBT has over 60% success rate according to screening 52 weeks after the intervention. At the same time, disulfiram can be used as a medication to treat cocaine addiction. Even though different studies confirm the effectiveness of the drug, there are no medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to treat cocaine addiction (Carroll et al., 2016). The success rate of the pharmacological intervention, however, can be improved using CBT (Carroll et al., 2016). Therefore, it is recommended to use an optimal combination of medications and drugs for treating cocaine misuse.

References

Carroll, K. M., Nich, C., Petry, N. M., Eagan, D. A., Shi, J. M., & Ball, S. A. (2016). A randomized factorial trial of disulfiram and contingency management to enhance cognitive behavioral therapy for cocaine dependence. Drug and alcohol dependence, 160, 135-142.

Garrett, B., & Hough, G. (2018). Brain and behavior: An introduction to behavioral neuroscience (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

McHugh, R. K., Hearon, B. A., & Otto, M. W. (2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy for substance use disorders. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 33(3), 511–525.

Nestler E. J. (2005). The neurobiology of cocaine addiction. Science & Practice Perspectives, 3(1), 4–10.

Differential Diagnoses in Nephrology and Neurology

Psoriasis, unspecified

Pathophysiology

Immunological triggers provoke a discharge of a large number of leukocytes to the dermis and epidermis; the epidermis becomes infiltrated by activated T cells inducing the proliferation of keratinocytes, and then an unregulated inflammatory process occurs along with the ejection of various cytokines (Mahajan & Handa, 2013).

Symptoms and Signs

Psoriatic rashes on the skin, sudden occurrence of scaly areas of redness, pain, itching, joint pain without visible changes on the skin, rash developing after a recent pain in the joints.

Lab and Diagnostic Tests

As a rule, the diagnosis is established based on a typical clinical picture. To exclude a fungal infection, especially if the foot or hand is injured, microscopic examination of skin samples for the presence of fungal cells may be required (Mahajan & Handa, 2013).

Urolithiasis (N21.8)

Pathophysiology

The most common cause of urolithiasis in adult patients is an intravesical obstruction which can be caused by prostatic hyperplasia or prostate cancer in men, stricture of the urethra (after trauma, surgery, inflammation), etc.; whereas the mechanism of stone formation is associated with the impossibility of complete bladder emptying, stagnation, and concentration of residual urine leading to precipitation of salt crystals (Gould, VanMeter, & Hubert, 2014).

Symptoms and Signs

Impaired urination with frequent urges during movement, interruption of the urine stream or acute retention of the outflow, urinary incontinence due to a stone stuck in the narrow neck of the bladder.

Lab and Diagnostic Tests

Urine analysis allows identifying the microflora and its sensitivity to the selection of antibacterial therapy. Ultrasound of the bladder helps to see the stones as hyperechoic formations with an acoustic shadow.

Nephrolithiasis (N20.0)

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiological process is multifactorial and complex, yet important premises for the onset of the disease are the change in kidney function caused by a disorder in the regulation of blood circulation and impaired lymph flow; due to imbalance between colloids and crystalloid urine, the salts begin to precipitate and crystallize (Sakhaee, Maalouf, & Sinnott, 2012).

Symptoms and Signs

Blunt pain in the lumbar region, renal colic, severe sweating, as well as increased frequency of urination.

Lab and Diagnostic Tests

Ultrasound and roentgenology, general and biochemical analysis of blood and urine. In nephrolithiasis, micro-constrains (sand), depleted renal epithelial cells, and erythrocytes can be found in the patient’s urine (Sakhaee et al., 2012).

Urolithiasis (N20.1)

Pathophysiology

Calculus of the ureter usually develops on the background of chronic urethritis, prostatitis, prostate adenoma; fistulas, diverticula of the urethra, stricture of the urethra; urolithiasis; mineral metabolism disorders, inadequate diet, dehydration, urinary tract infections (Gould et al., 2014).

Symptoms and Signs

Severe pain, difficulty urinating, weakening of the urine stream, hematuria.

Lab and Diagnostic Tests

Palpation and the gynecological assessment are the major diagnostic methods. An ultrasound test of the bladder allows visualizing the hyperechoic formation of the urethra (through an acoustic shadow). A general urine test is also performed: macro- or microhematuria and the symptoms of inflammation can be determined (Gould et al., 2014).

Insomnia (G47.00)

Pathophysiology

Insomnia may be due to physiological predisposition, psychogenic disorders, diseases of the nervous system and internal organs; neuroses and neurosis-like conditions (psychosis, depression, panic disorders, etc.); somatic diseases that cause night pain, dyspnea, heart pain, respiratory disorders; organic lesions of the central nervous system (stroke, schizophrenia, brain tumors, etc.) (Dunphy, Winland-Brown, Porter, & Thomas, 2015).

Symptoms and Signs

Pre-somnological and post-somnological disorders; reduced daily activity, impaired memory, and attention; aggravation of chronic conditions.

Lab and Diagnostic Tests

Diagnosis is based on the patient’s complaints. Polysomnography is recommended if the disorder is followed by a respiratory impairment or if the medical treatment is ineffective.

References

Dunphy, L. M., Winland-Brown, J. E., Porter, B. O., & Thomas, D. J. (2015). Primary care: The art and science of advanced practice nursing. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company.

Gould, B. E., VanMeter, K. C., & Hubert, R. J. (2014). Pathophysiology for the health professions. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders.

Mahajan R., & Handa, S. (2013). Pathophysiology of psoriasis. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, 79, 1-9. doi:10.4103/0378-6323.115505

Sakhaee, K., Maalouf, N. M., & Sinnott, B. (2012). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 97(6), 1847–1860. Web.