Category: Nervous System

Introduction

The given paper revolves around the cockroach ventral nerve cords main parts, their peculiarities, and the most important characteristics that could be investigated to obtain the data needed to improve the understanding of the functioning of the nerve system. The paper provides detailed characteristics of the cockroach nervous system and the way it responds to numerous stimuli. The main sense organs are analyzed, and the initiation of the main processes that are responsible for the creation of one or another reaction is investigated.

Furthermore, the paper provides a detailed description of the experiment which is conducted to outline the main aspects of the functioning of the cockroach nervous system. Finally, there is a discussion that rests on the obtained data. At the end of the paper, the conclusion is provided. The given research work explores credible sources that contribute to its credibility significantly. Altogether, the paper provides important data needed to improve the comprehension of the given issue.

Main body

The investigation of the main aspects of the functioning of insects nervous system could be considered a common practice in science as it could provide a researcher with the important data that could help him/her to obtain credible results. In this regard, the cockroach nervous system is a good background for the given paper. It is decentralized and has several important characteristics. The central nervous system consists of the ventral nerve cord (VNC), which is linked to the spinal cord and several ganglia (Klowden, 2013).

Along the VNC there are three specific thoracic ganglia and six abdominal ganglia that contain cell bodies of neurons and interneurons (Nation, 2015). Besides, a cockroach has a number of sensory organs similar to those that could be found in humans. Neurons that could be determined in these organs are responsible for converting various stimuli and triggering numerous reactions. Yet, all excitable cells that comprise the nervous system have a certain difference across their cell membranes (Saifullah & Page, 2009).

The given differences predetermine the existence of a significant divergence in the way various cells respond to stimuli and guarantee the appearance of various reactions. Yet, an electrical current passing across a cell could demonstrate their action potential. At the same time, the neuronal cell membrane also contains voltage-gated ion channels that help these neurons to generate the above-mentioned action potential (Cockroach ventral nerve cord, n.d.). In other words, the possibility of the nervous systems cell to respond to various stimuli and generate action potential should be given a great attention as it could help to obtain the important data.

Besides, the way in which a cockroach nervous system responds to numerous stimuli is investigated with the help of the following experiment. The PowerLabs differential amplifier (Bio Amp) is used to record an important data related to the extracellular signals from the cockroach ventral nerve cord. A specially prepared cockroach is used as the object for the investigation.

The above-mentioned equipment will help to record and measure action potentials in the venture nerve cord. These potentials will be generated as the response to various stimuli applied to the sensory spines and hairs in the cerci. Having acquired the data, we compare the showings related to action potentials evoked by different stimuli (Cockroach ventral nerve cord, n.d.).

In the course of the experiment, the following data is obtained. First, cockroach responds to various stimuli in different ways. Yet, spontaneous stimulation has the greatest impact on the central nervous system and generates the most powerful action potential. A cockroach shows a strong reaction and responds in the clear and distinctive way. Additionally, touch could be considered another powerful driver that contributes to the appearance of a certain response. Finally, tap and puff have the almost similar effect on the nervous system. The given data shows that generation of the action potential depends on the kind of irritator and triggers the appearance of a certain reaction that helps a cockroach to survive or act in the appropriate way.

Resting on the above-mentioned data, it is possible to provide the following topics for the discussion. First, one could not deny the fact that spontaneous activity could be considered the strongest stimulus that affects the cockroach nervous system and guarantees generation of a great action potential. A cockroach demonstrates distinct reaction and equipment also admits significant oscillations in the work of neurons and cell membranes. The given pattern could be used to prove the idea that the whole nervous system is focused on the creation of the appropriate response to a certain driver that could be dangerous to a unit (Jabde, 2005). Yet, there are still numerous possibilities for the research as it provides the basis for the further assumptions.

In conclusion, investigation of the main aspects of the central nervous system of a cockroach provides numerous concerns for the discussion. It should be said that its structure and main peculiarities help an insect to provide appropriate responses and guarantee the survival of a unit (Wassmer & Page, 1993). Besides, investigation shows that spontaneous activity and touch should be considered the most powerful stimuli that trigger the appearance of certain reaction and generate action response. Besides, there are numerous opportunities for the further investigation of the given issue.

References

Cockroach ventral nerve cord. (n.d.).

Jabde, P. (2005). Text book of general physiology. New Delhi, India: Discovery Publishing House.

Klowden, M. (2013). Physiological systems in insects. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Nation, J. (2015). Insect physiology and biochemistry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Saifullah, A., & Page, T. (2009). Circadian regulation of olfactory receptor neurons in the cockroach antenna. Journal of biological rhythms, 24(2), 144-152. doi:10.1177/0748730408331166

Wassmer, G., & Page, T. (1993). Photoperiodic time measurement and a graded response in a cockroach. Journal of biological rhythms, 8(1), 47-56. doi:10.1177/074873049300800104

The paper represents a comparative analysis of somatic and autonomic nervous systems, which regulate the major body control systems. According to the medical theory, the somatic nervous control refers to all voluntary body movements while autonomic system regulates involuntary impulses of a human body. Specifically, an autonomic nervous system manages such divisions as connections between spinal, brain, and other organs. In contrast to it, the system of voluntary control concerns the connections between neurons and human muscles (The Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems par. 2).

Two systems play a critical role in regulating the major organism functions. For instance, autonomic nervous control relates to such processes as digestion, perspiration, the utilization of body energy as well as the management of sexual and temperature arousals. The system of involuntary impulses realizes its major functions through the revelation of two subdivisions such as parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous regulations. The first system refers to the smoothing of all body functions. Mainly, sympathetic regulation embraces the stimulation of normal blood circulation, the restriction or extension of bronchial size, delivering regulatory effects through digestion mediation as well as catalyzing the basic sexual arousal effects (Stroetmann and Bowald, 21).

The sympathetic system provides the opposite effect by delivering nervous stimulation (Sympathetic Nervous System par. 6). Mainly, the regulation is responsible for enhancing the flows of blood and leading them to the muscles, increasing heart rate and lungs diameter, constricting urinary sphincters, and stimulating orgasm reaction. In contrast to autonomic nervous system, the somatic regulatory mechanism embraces a different set of functions. Specifically, the system acts through the stimulation of nerve impulses, which concern the contraction of muscles and sending commands to different body areas (Westfall 23).

The optimal illustration of nervous systems functioning may be transmitted through the examples of their regulatory action. Thus, the bright picture of the somatic systems functioning is feeling cold or heat. Thus, when human skin comes in contact with the object, which differs in extreme temperature regime, the task of the somatic regulation is to transmit the impulse from the brain to the definite body area so that the organism could react on the impulse. The exemplification of autonomic systems reaction refers to blood circulation. Thus, a human does not notice blood coming through veins, which expresses involuntary regulation character (Autonomic Nervous System par. 4). The mentioned illustrations might serve as the optimal subjects for remembering systems action.

The perception of the nervous systems functioning is vital for every individual since the understanding of the organisms regulation work relates to the ability to manage ones own body. The specification of all-embracing nervous systems functioning stimulates the appearance of multiple studies on the issue. Specifically, in the last years, the investigators worked out the methodologies of cognitive decline prevention, which stems from the analysis of nervous brain connections. Moreover, the assistance of new medical technologies helps in the identification of the diseases, which might potentially arise in adulthood. Conclusively, one may claim that nervous systems investigations stimulate critical clinical improvements (Nervous System News and Research par. 5). The evidence reveals that the study of the nervous systems promotes both human awareness of their own organisms work as well as relates to the identification of diverse body reactions to the external impulses. The clinical research of somatic and automatic regulations elaboration offers the innovative solutions for medical disputes and controversies.

Works Cited

Autonomic Nervous System. 2013. Web.

Nervous System News and Research. 2016. Web.

Stroetmann, Brigitte and Staffan Bowald. Method and Apparatus for Cardiac Therapy by Stimulation of a Physiological Representative of the Parasympathetic Nervous System. The British Medical Journal 22. 1 (2005): 1-25. Print.

Sympathetic Nervous System. 2012. Web.

The Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems. 2015. Web.

Westfall, Thomas. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2014. Print.

The nervous system is a part of an organism that coordinates its activity and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. It works in coordination with the endocrine system, which is a chemical messenger system that comprises a number of glands that make hormones (Tortora & Derrickson, 2016). The nervous and endocrine systems work together to initiate and control movement, coordinate body functions, and react to changes in the internal and external environment.

The nervous system consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of nerves. Nerves transmit information to and from different organs, and the CNS integrates information and coordinates the activity of all parts of the body (Moini, 2019). The endocrine system consists of a number of glands, the major of which are the thyroid gland and the adrenal gland. Glands produce hormones, which are signaling molecules that regulate physiology and behavior (Tortora & Derrickson, 2016). The neural control center for all endocrine activity in the human body is the hypothalamus, which is a part of the brain that connects the nervous system with the endocrine system.

Nervous system problems are common and include several types of disorders: infections, vascular, structural, functional, and degenerative disorders. The most common neurological disorders are stroke, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinsons disease, and Alzheimers disease (Overview of nervous system disorders, n.d.). The diseases of the endocrine system are primarily caused by misregulated hormone release, inappropriate response to signaling, lack of a gland, or structural enlargement of a gland. They include diabetes, thyroid disorders, osteoporosis, and polycystic ovary syndrome.

References

Moini, J. (2019). Anatomy and physiology for health professionals. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Overview of nervous system disorders.(n.d.). Johns Hopkins Medicine. Web.

Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2016). Principles of anatomy and physiology (15^th ed.). J. Wiley.

Introduction

Any damage occur in the central or peripheral nervous system due to toxins or artificial poisons called neurotoxicity, these poisons can stop or delay the action of nerves system in transmitting signal to different nerves in different body organs. There are to many substances that affect the nervous system and cause problems like insecticides, pesticides, mercury, lead, phenol, formaldehyde, chlorine, although there is naturally toxins in brain that cause toxicity like oxygen radicals that cause disorders in movement, autonomic nervous sytem dysfunction and diseases like Alzheimer, these all neurotoxins and poisons affect the nervous system variously, some affect it immediately and others take long time to start its activity.

There are many factors that affect the effect of poison, like nature of poison and ability in metabolisation and excretion, the dose that affect the body, poisons and neuron toxins can cause many symptoms. Some of symptoms that noticed in the infected person is, loss of circulation, imbalance, depression, headache, vision loss, weakness and paralysis of limbs, loss of memory, change of behaviour and sexual problems, although there is some problem that can be noticed like extreme fatigue, asthma, hyperactivity disorders, autoimmune disorders and rheumatoid arthiritis.

There are some tests that take place for neurotoxicity and poisoning diagnosis, an example pupilography that is used for detection of brain damage, brain imaging with SPECT camera, and measurement of heart rate variability although neuropshycological tests are effective in these cases. The treatment plans in such cases of neurotoxicity and poisoning depend on delaying the action of the toxin or poison, the symptoms although needs therapy there is some type of treatment includes massage and exercise, although eating and drinking organic products.

The predictable results in that cases depend on the time of exposure to poison, and degree of damage to the nervous system, in that article we will discuss some poisons and its effect on nervous system.

Methyl mercury

It is the most toxic compound of mercury group, it enter the body through ingestion of food or water contaminated with it, it is foundd in air and being dissolved in fresh water sources then contamination of food and water occurs, it is found in air in inorganic form, but the organic form which is taken from eating fish is organic. The methyl mercury is a very poisonus matter that affect the body according to its form, the way it enter the body and the amount entered the body, an example if a pregnant woman has been exposed to methyl mercury, it results in abortion or babies that have deformaties or nervous sytem serious problems.

Mercury which is a metal has two forms, the organic form and the inorganic form, organic compounds are those which are formed from hydrogen and carbon, the organic mercury is calssified into two classifications, which are allylmercury and alkylmercury, allylmercury compounds are phenylacetate mercury and mercurochrome, while alkylmercury compounds are methylmercury and ethylmercury, the inorganic mercury came from different contaminants flows into seas, rivers, and streams, is converted to methylmercury by bacteria and plankton in water.

Methyl mercury is a very strong poison, by a little exposure to it very serious problems to nervous system occurred like, dysfunction of mitochondria, migration of cell in brain which is growing, transportation of amino acids, and other motor problems like tremors, ataxia and impaired vision. Although methyl mercury affect the fetal brains, pregnant woman who is exposed to methyl mercury may do not show any symptoms, but the infants show very serious nervous problems like paralysis and disorders in intelligence.

In japan it has been recorded poisoning with methyl mercury in Minamata, children has been exposed to high concentration of methyl mercury, it results in very serious nerves problem like mental retardation, cerebellar ataxia, physical growth disorder, dysarthria, and limb deformities. Althought it has been recorded in iraq at 1970, children was exposed to methyl mercury more than the percentage that is recorded in minamata by eating bread which the grain made of it is contaminated by it, the children shows dysesthesia, paralysis, cerebral palsy and mental disorder symptoms.

Lead poisoning

As we writing in our essay about the poisons that affect nervous system we will write about lead poisoning, firstly the individual is exposed to lead then it is strongly binds to protein in different organs had been exposed to it, it binds especially in the sulfhydrl group as it is a divalent cation. The most affected part is central nervous system, as the danger of lead summarized in competeing with calcium and binding to binding sites in cereberal phosphokinase C, although it destroys proteins and enzymes of different organs, it causes inhibition to the cellular respiration and insertion of calcium to cells, stopping energy metabolism and enter the mitochondria causing welling the distortion.

When lead affect the peripheral nervous system, it causes dangerous changes to axons as it cause axonal degeneration and demyelination of segments, drop in the wrist and ankle due to pathological changes in the extensor muscles, it has been found that lead toxicity cause changes in the function of peripheral nervous system. Lead poisoning causes slowing in the velocity of motor nerves, although changes of behaviour has been noticed in primates that had been exposed to lead, there is disability in learning and the alteration is delayed, in children it causes difficulty in reading and failure in graduation.

It has been found in some experiments on newly born children that have high lead percentage in blood some problems like attention span and reaction time is low and low rate of intelligence, although exposing to lead for long time causes neurologic and psychiatric problems, although it causes some disease like Parkinson disease, motoneuron disease and dementia. First step of management of lead toxicity is to reduce the exposure to lead, although chelatin therapy is good in that cases and reduce the percentage of lead in blood, although Calcium disodium edathamil and dimercaptosuccinic acid had been found to reduce the lead percentage in blood.

Although there have been plans to reduce the lead in environment to reduce lead toxicity, an 1973 lead has been removed from gasoline in industrial big factories and companies although in 1977 it was based that the percentage of lead in air is 1.5 µg/M3.

Pesticides

Pesticides are chemicals that has a function in killing pests including insects, insects and microbes that affect mammles, birds, fish and human, the can spread for long distances, and can take any animal as a vector, it competes with human in its food and water, pesticides although includes disinfectant, rodenticides, nematocides and fungicides. The organophosphate pesticides are the most common pesticides known, it is the most type of pesticide causing death due to pesticide ingesion, when ingesion of organophosphate pesticide occur, it inhibits acetylcholinestrase enzyme which hydrolise acetyl choline, ai affect both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve endings as acetyl choline is the neurotransmitter to that nerve endings.

The inhibition of acetylcholinestrase enzyme results in accumulation of acetyl choline at nerve endings and myoneural junctions of skeletal muscle, the released acetyl choline acts on the muscarinic receptors on the smooth muscles, The postsynaptic sites of preganglionic fibres and neuromuscular junctions have nicotinic receptors but the central neurons have both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Phosphorylation to the acetylcholinestrase enzyme takes place due to binding of organophosphorus to acetyl choline, this reaction is not reversible in easy way, reactivation of acetylcholine is slow in diethyl but fast in dimethyl organophosphorus.

Arsenic poisoning

It has been recorded in different health organizations the effect of exposure to arsenic in different pathways as contaminated water sources or coal, so let us talk about the ways of exposure to arsenic and its effect on different body organs especially nervous system. Ground water has high concentration of arsenic due to geological formations, although using of pesticides and fertilizers containing arsenic, industrial , mining activities and metal processing, all of these are sources of contamination of water with arsenic.

By long periods of drinking water contain arsenic – which is a carcinogenic matter – very serious problem occur as pigmentation of the skin, obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, anemia, fertility symptoms, developmental effects and neurological diseases. Accumulation of arsenic through years in body affect the behaviour, this effect increase if there is exposure to lead although due to synergetic effect, when experiments have been done on children exposed to arsenic, the show delayed alteration, disabilities in learning.

Although arsenic has been found to have dangerous effect on neurotransmittors, on an experiment done on rats exposed to arsenic, it has been found that there is increase in levels of dopamine, serotonin and its metabolites, although it has been noticed that there is a decrease in norepinephrine although as in pesticides toxicity there is a decrease in acetylcholinetrase enzyme which is responsible for metabolization of acetyl choline neurotransmitter. The hippocampus which is the part responsible for memory is effected by arsenic according to the dose exposed to, ultrastrucural and molecular changes occur to the hippocampal region as a result of exposure to a little dose of arsenic, it causes neurobehavioural changes including problems in learning as we discussed before.

It has been found that exposing to arsenic causes serious problems to brain cell, it induces apoptosis to astrocytes, reduced astrocyticexpression of glial fibrillary acidic protein, which is important to astrocytes for keeping its shape and strength, there is no treatment for arsenic poisoning, but using therapy like chelatin therapy reduces its symptoms, although it can stop the out comes like cancer.

Summarization

At the beginning of our article we wrote about the neurotoxicity and the matters responsible for that like mercury, pesticides, lead and arsenic, and the results of poisoning by these matters, like delaying of nervous system action of transmitting signals to different body organs. We firstly wrote about methyl mercury which poisoning by it happens due to ingestion of food or water contaminated with it, exposing to methyl mercury cause many problems to nervous system like , dysfunction of mitochondria, migration of cell in brain which is growing, transportation of amino acids, and other motor problems like tremors, ataxia and impaired vision.

And then we wrote about lead that causes very serious problems to nervous system by exposing to it, like degeneration and demyelination of segments in peripheral nervous system, although competeing with calcium and binding to binding sites in cereberal phosphokinase C in central nervous system. Although pesticides which enter the body like mercury by ingestion contaminated food and water, pesticedes affect nervous system especially neurotransmittors it causes inhibition to acetylcholinestrase enzyme which hydrolise acetyl choline, and then accumulation of acetyl choline and cause many problems at nerve endings.

And then we wrote about arsenic which exposure to arsenic happens through different pathways like drinking water contaminated by arsenic or workers in coal mines it is like pesticides causes problems to neurotransmittors, increase in levels of dopamine, serotonin and its metabolites, although it has been noticed that there is a decrease in norepinephrine, although it cause change in hippocampal region in brain causing problems in memory result in problems in learning.

References

1. Sally Robertson 16/9/2019, What is neurotoxicity ? on news medical life science Young-Seoub Hong, Yu-Mi Kim, and Kyung-Eun Lee, Published online 2012 Nov 29, Methylmercury Exposure and Health Effects.
2. Herbert Needleman Professor of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213; email: hlnlead@pitt.edu
3. PHILIP J. LANDRIGAN, MD, MSc, and ANDREW C. TODD, PhD, New York, New York
4. Lushchak VL, Matviishyn TM, Husak VV, Storey JM, Storey KB on 8/11/2018 Pesticide toxicity: a mechanistic approach.
5. ASHISH GOEL, PRAVEEN AGGARWAL, NO. 4, 2007, Pesticide poisoning
6. KAPAJ, S., PETERSON, H., LIBER, K., & BHATTACHARYA, P. (2006). Human Health Effects From Chronic Arsenic Poisoning–A Review. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 41(10), 2399–2428.doi:10.1080/10934520600873571
7. Molly Tolins, MD, Mathuros Ruchirawat, PhD, and Philip Landrigan, MD, MSc
8. ARTICLES AND REVIEWSThe Developmental Neurotoxicity of Arsenic:Cognitive and Behavioral Consequences of EarlyLife Exposure

The vast majority of molecules in the brain and nervous system are made from amino acids. Growth hormone from the pituitary gland, dopamine from the substantia nigra area of the brain, and the aforementioned neurotransmitters, serotonin, GABA, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and glutamate are all amino acid based. If there are amino acid deficiencies in the brain, as well as cofactor deficiencies of Vitamin B6 and magnesium, then there can’t be adequate production of these protein molecules. If you add in mold, environmental toxins, or infections such as Lyme, mycoplasma, and other bugs, the brain can’t operate normally—people can suffer from all sorts of maladies like anxiety and depression, balance issues and vertigo, and poor sleep. Contrary to popular belief, most of these conditions are medical or nutritional—they are not psychological.

That is why psychiatry has such dismal success: it assumes that everyone has a drug deficiency and does not take into account external emotional factors or physical illnesses. It offers one misguided solution, rather than addressing what is truly wrong. It’s important to understand that when people don’t “feel right,” their neurotransmitters are out of whack, and it’s most likely because their intestinal flora is out of balance, and they are deficient in key nutrients like essential amino acids. Instead of seeing a psychiatrist, they should get help from a nutritional practitioner who is knowledgeable in such matters. It’s true that many issues and situations in life feel like a downward spiral, but taking a drug to numb the symptoms is not the solution—you must find and treat the root cause of the problem. A combination of correct nutritional therapy and effective practical help can alleviate the condition or challenge that has put one into an emotional or spiritual upheaval.

WOMEN AND DEPRESSION

I observed a group of women some years ago who suffered from a triad of symptoms: depression, fatigue, and sleeplessness. Each of them had been on medication long term to block the production of stomach acid, like Nexium, Tagamet, Pepcid, Zantac, or others. I discovered that each woman’s blood level of the essential amino acid, tryptophan, was very low.

The usual medical approach to treat women who have this triad of fatigue, insomnia, and depression is to give them prescriptions for Ambien, Trazadone, or Xanax for sleep; Prozac or another SSRI for the depression; and Adderall or another amphetamine for fatigue. And of course, they are to continue taking the acid blocker that caused their problems in the first place.

THE TRAGEDY OF IATROGENIC ILLNESS

Ever wonder why the third leading cause of death in the U.S. is iatrogenic (doctor caused) illness? If you multiply the case examples in this book by the millions of therapies that cause a problem, and then overlay that with more drugs to handle the therapy-induced problems, the end result is two hundred-twenty-five to four hundredforty thousand iatrogenic deaths per year. This is evidence that medical practices are in need of a very thorough overhaul. These deaths are a tragedy of immense proportions, hiding behind the veil of “the best medicine in the world.”

The University of San Diego reports expenses resulting from medication failures and medication-related issues totaling $495 to $672 billion per year. In addition to this unnecessary expense, there are also an estimated 275,689 deaths per year,21 and Psychology Today reports that when doctors go on strike, patient death rates can actually decrease!

To further put this into perspective, imagine that these hundreds of thousands of deaths were the result of something else, like plane crashes. If three large aircrafts carrying two hundred-twenty-five people each crashed on a daily basis all year long, you probably wouldn’t be so quick to board an airplane. The risk is just as great when taking unnecessary prescription medications or submitting to questionable surgeries, yet most people don’t hesitate to put drugs in their bodies or go under the knife.

So, what exactly was going on with these women? Since you’re this far into the book, I’m sure you’ve got the sequence figured out:

1. Stomach acid-blocking medications blocked the digestion of dietary proteins and the absorption of minerals, like magnesium.
2. Dietary proteins are the source of tryptophan, but since digestion was compromised, tryptophan and other amino acids were not well absorbed. Therefore, their blood levels of tryptophan were low, leading to low levels in the cells.
3. Magnesium and vitamin B6 are needed to make tryptophan into proteins, but they also require stomach acid. Blocking the acid further compromised protein synthesis.
4. Tryptophan is the parent molecule for niacin. Inadequate tryptophan means inadequate niacin, so the cells couldn’t make energy. This led to the women having fatigue.
5. Tryptophan is also the parent molecule for melatonin. Since there was inadequate melatonin in their bodies, they couldn’t sleep well.
6. Tryptophan is also the parent molecule for serotonin. Low serotonin meant that the ladies were apt to suffer from depression and other mood problems.

These women were fatigued, sleepless, and depressed due to the long-term use of drugs that blocked stomach acid. This was not entirely their own doing—their doctors had dutifully renewed their prescriptions despite the warning in the Physician’s Desk Reference that these drugs were for short term use only. This observation led to a very simple solution: We gave them stomach acid supplements containing pancreatic enzymes so they could digest proteins, weaned them off their acid blockers, and gave them essential amino acids with extra tryptophan, B6, B complex, and magnesium. Their fatigue, depression, and sleeplessness all resolved within a few months time. Good detective work combined with nutritional medicine can solve health problems—it’s modern medicine at its best!

NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is a collection of nerves and specialized cells called neurons that transmit signals between different parts of the body. This system transmits information by nerve impulses conducted from one area of the body to another. The nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body including internal organs therefore controlling the ability to move, breathe, see and think and more.

The nervous system is made of two main parts

• i. Central nervous system which comprise of brain and spinal cord.
• ii. Peripherals nervous system made of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extends to all parts of the body.

Parts of the nervous system and the their functions

• Neurones. These are nerve cells which communicate within the body by transmitting signals
• Neuroglia. They act as helper cells of the nervous system. They surround the neurones and also feed, protect and insulate the neurones.
• Brain. This is a soft, wrinkled organ located inside the cranial cavity where bones of the skull surrounds and protect it. Brain contains billions of neurones of which forms the main control centre of the brain. It controls major mental functions such as consciousness, memory, planning, voluntary actions, and maintenance of respiration, heart rate, blood pressure and digestion.
• Spinal cord. This is cord of tissues that extends from the brain along the back in the spine. It is connected to the brain and lies within the vertebral canal from which the nerves emerge. It gives pairs of the spinal nerves, carries impulses to and from the brain and serves as a centre for initiating and coordinating many reflex acts.
• Nerves. These are bundles of nerve fibres surrounded by sheath that connect the nervous system to the brain and acts as highway to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and rest of the body.
• Meninges. These are the protective coverings, made of connective tissues, of the central nervous system.
• Cerebrospinal fluid. This is a clear, colourless body fluid that flows in and around the hollow spaces on the brain and spinal cord forming a mechanical barrier against shocks. The functions of this fluid include

1. It acts as a shock absorber between the brain and the skull and also between the spinal and the vertebrae.
2. It carries nutrients and chemical filters to the brain and removes waste products from the brain.
3. It allows floating of brain and spinal cord within it allowing blood vessels of the brain to

remain open and prevents nervous tissues from being crushed by the weight of brain and spinal cord.

Sensory organs

Sense organs include eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin which aid the body to see, hear, smell, taste and touch. They sense touch, temperature and pain and send information to the nervous system for action to take place.

How to maintain a healthy nervous system

• Spend some time in sunlight. Sunlight helps body to produce vitamin D which regulates nervous system. Basking on the sun for 10-15 minutes per day is a simple way to increase this vitamin in our body.
• Avoid drinking alcohol and other drugs This not only avoid the injuries the drugs could have caused on your body but also reduces likely to get involved in other risky behaviours that could harm your nervous system.
• Eating of healthy foods Minerals such as sodium, calcium and potassium and vitamins are important for a healthy nervous system. Your brain also needs healthy fats which improve memory and increase learning and intelligence.
• Drinking plenty of water Water is important in maintaining our nervous system healthy. Drinking plenty of water prevent dehydration which cause confusion and memory problems.
• Get plenty of rest and sleep Brain requires adequate rest to enable strengthening of circuits which help in memory. A good sleep also helps to keep your brain to function at its best.
• Practice safe behaviours to protect your nervous system.

We can adopt some behaviour to protect our nervous system from injuries. These include

• Wearing protective gadgets to protect our eyes, ears and brain at workplaces when handling hazards.
• Wearing safety belt every time you ride a motor vehicle.
• Avoid diving on shallow waters which could cause serious injuries to our brain and spinal cord.

FOODS WHICH NOURISH OUR NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Fish. This is one of best food that nourish your nervous system. Nerves are protected with myelin sheath which contains high levels of fatty acids therefore insufficient amount of fatty acids damages the nerves. Fish contain these fatty acids (Omega-3) which help in healing of the nerves and nervous system.
• Broccoli. Contain Vitamin which improves brainpower and cognitive skills. It also contain compound which slows down breakdown of the neurotransmitters which are needed by central nervous system to perform its functions properly keeping our brain and memory sharp.
• Dark chocolate. Contains flavonds which have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties these properties help to lower the blood pressure and improve blood flow to both brain and heart.
• Eggs. Eggs are rich in nutrients and vitamins. These nutrients help brain to make neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) which is important for memory and communication among the brain cells.
• Avocado. They are rich in Vitamin K and folate which prevent blood clots in the brain hence preventing stroke. They also improve memory and concentration.
• Salmon. Salmon is rich in fatty acids (Omega-3) which strengthen brainpower and memory
• Almonds. They have high levels of brain healthy fatty acids (Omega-3) and lots of brain-protecting vitamin E
• Pumpkin seeds. They contain powerful antioxidants that protect your body and brain from free radical damage. It also improves memory and also prevents neurological diseases.
• Nuts. They improve cognitive skills and prevent neurological disorders. Nuts also improve your memory They also contain nutrients such as fats, antioxidants and vitamin E which are good for our brain

FOODS WHICH DON’T NOURISH OUR NERVPOUS SYSTEM

• Alcohol. Excessive alcohol results in a reduction in brain volume, metabolic changes and disrupts chemicals which brain uses to communicate. It also damages our brain leading to memory loss, poor eyesight, confusion and unsteadiness. Alcohol consumption is associated with poor sleeping patterns which can lead to chronic sleep deprivation.
• Fish with high mercury. Most primary source of mercury in human body is from seas foods especially fish. These fish species include shark, swordfish, tuna, orange roughly, king mackerel and fieldfish. Accumulation of mercury is dangerous because it spreads in the body and concentrate in the brain, liver and kidneys. This affects the nervous system by stimulating neurotoxins which damage our brain. It can also affect developing foetus on pregnant women leading to giving birth to child with cerebral palsy and other developmental delays and deficiencies.
• Processed foods. These are foods such as chips, sweets, instant noodles, sausages and ready-made foods. They have high sugar, added fats and salts. They are also high in calories and low in other nutrients. Eating these foods in high amounts cause weight gain which has negative effect on our brain by increasing brain inflammation and impaired memory .
• Aspartame. This is a sweetener used to substitute sugar in foods and beverages. This sweetener has been linked with behaviour and cognitive problems. It also contains some compounds which can cross the blood-brain barrier which might disrupt the production of neurotransmitters. It also increases the risk of stroke attack and dementia.
• Foods high in unsaturated fats. These include animal products such as meat and milk, margarine, snack foods, cakes and cookies. Study has shown that people who consume high amounts of these foods are at risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease, poor memory, low brain volume and cognitive decline.
• Refined carbohydrates. These include sugars and highly processed grains such as white flour. These foods are easily digested by body causing a spike in blood sugar and insulin levels. Foods which raise our blood sugar also impair our brain functions
• Sugary drinks. These include beverages such as soda, energy drinks and fruit juice. These foods do not only add weight on our body but also increase risk of getting diabetes and heart diseases which have negative effect on our brain. They also increase risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and Dementia which are mental disorders.

DISEASES WHICH AFFECTS OUR NERVOUS SYSTEM

Alzheimer’s disease

This is a degenerative brain disorder that develops in late adulthood. This results in a progressive and irreversible decline in memory and deterioration of other cognitive abilities. It is characterized by destruction of nerve cells and neurones connection in celebral cortex of the brain and loss of brain mass.

Symptoms

• Agitation
• Memory loss
• Personality changes
• Severe mood swings
• Challenges in planning or solving problems
• Confusion with time or places
• Poor judgement

Cause

This condition is associated with combination of genetics, lifestyle and environmental factors that affects the brain with time.

Prevention and treatment

• Take healthy diets. Eating fish and leafy green vegetables (spinach, kales and lettuce) and cruciferous vegetables( broccoli and cauliflower) has positive effects in reducing the risks of Alzheimer’s disease. These vegetables also contain chemicals that help to protect brain cells from damage.
• Perform physical exercises and activities. A body exercise protects the brain and reduces mental illnesses with age.
• Exercise your brain. Mental exercises such as puzzles and brain-training games assist in slowing progress of cognitive disorder such as memory loss and thinking skills.
• Keep your heart healthy. This is through healthy eating, avoid smoking and maintain a healthy weight and normal blood sugar.
• Socializing. Social activities promote new connection between brain cells. People who socialize and share ideas with others have less memory problems.

Treatment

There is no cure for this condition but several medications are available which help to reduce symptoms. Some medications aim at improving brain functioning to slow down progression of symptoms and others aim at controlling moods and sleeping problems

STROKE

This is a sudden impairment of brain function as a result of substantial reduction in blood flowing to some parts of brain or as a result of bleeding in the brain. This leads to paralysis on one or both sides of the body, difficult in speaking or eating and loss of muscle coordination

Cause

Common cause of stroke is blood clot that has formed within the blood vessels in the brain. This reduces or stops the flow of blood in the brain cells.

Signs and symptoms

• Sudden trouble with speaking and understanding
• Numbness of the face arms and legs
• Trouble with seeing in one or both eyes
• Headaches
• Sudden trouble with walking

Remedies

• Lower your blood pressure. By reducing the amount of salts in your diet, avoiding high cholesterol foods, eating fresh fruits and vegetables every day, exercising and quitting smoking.
• Exercise your body. This contributes to lowering your weight and lowering blood pressure which reduce stroke. This can be achieved taking a walk in the morning and afternoon, using stairs instead of elevators
• Drink alcohol in moderate. Drinking alcohol responsibly may decrease risk of stroke. This can be achieved by not having more than one glass per day and making red wine your choice.
• Quit smoking. Smoking increase risk of blood clot formation by thickening your blood and increasing amount of plaque build-up in the arteries.

CELEBRAL PALSEY

This is a group of disorders characterized by paralysis which result from abnormal development of or damage to the brain either before birth or during the first years of life.

Cause

The cause of cerebral palsy is unknown but is linked to the following risk factors during brain development

• Gene mutation that can lead to abnormal development of the brain
• Maternal mutation that affect foetal development
• Bleeding of foetal brain inside the body
• Infant infection which can cause inflammation around the brain.
• Lack of oxygen supply to the brain related to difficulty labour or delivery.

Symptoms

• Involuntary movements
• Problems in swallowing
• Difficulty in breathing
• Walking problems
• Lack of balance and muscle coordination

PREVENTION

• Vaccination. Vaccination against diseases such as rubella before becoming pregnancy might prevent infection that could cause foetal brain damage.
• Starting prenatal clinics early. Regular visit to your doctor during pregnancy is one way of reducing health risks to your and the unborn child.
• Avoid alcohol, tobacco and other illegal drug. These have been linked to cerebral palsy

TREATMENT

The goal of treatment is to improve limitations and prevent complication. Drugs that aid in muscle relaxation can be used as first line of treatment. This can be done through assistive aid, medication and surgery. Assistive aid- eyeglasses, hearing aid, walking aid, body braves ans wheelchairs Drugs that aid in muscle relaxation can be used as first line of treatment. Surgery may be used to relieve pain and improve morbidity. Surgery may also be needed to release tight muscles or correct bone abnormalities.

EPILEPSY

This is a neurological disorder characterized by sudden or recurrent seizures caused by absence or excess of signals of nervous cells in the brain. These seizures may include convulsions, lapses of consciousness, strange movements in parts of the body and emotional disturbances.

Cause

Epilepsy results when brain is disrupted due to faulty electric activity which in many cases its unknown but linked to hereditary genes. Other risk factors include

• Head trauma in case of car crush
• Brain conditions such as stroke
• Infectious diseases
• Prenatal injury or brain damage

Symptoms

• · Convulsions with no fever
• · Confused memory
• · Intermittent fainting spells
• · Sudden bout of chewing
• · Panic attacks

Prevention

• Avoid smoking, use of illegal drugs and alcohol drinking
• Use protective equipment such as helmets to prevent brain injury at workplaces
• Unsure you get enough sleep every night
• Talk to your doctor if seizures aggravation starts after taking a prescribed medicine.
• Manage your stress

Treatment

Doctors begin by treating epilepsy with medication and if medication fails to manage the condition, surgery is proposed as another type of treatment. Medication aim at reducing the seizures and managing the symptoms

MENINGITIS

This is the inflammation of the membranes (meninges) which cover the brain and the spinal cord. The swelling of these meninges triggers symptoms such as headaches, fever and stiff neck. Meninges can be caused by various infectious agents viruses, fungi, protozoan but most producing chronic meningitis are bacteria.

Symptoms

• Stiff neck
• Sudden high fever
• Severe headache that seems different from normal
• Increased sensitivity to light
• Loss of appetite
• Confusion

Prevention

• Maintain hygiene. Careful handwashing helps in prevent the spread of infection after visiting toilet, after spending time in overcrowded areas and after coming in contact with pets
• Avoid sharing food, drinks, straws, lip balms truth brushes and other personal items.
• Stay healthy. Maintain your body healthy by getting enough sleep, exercising regularly, eating healthy diet with plenty fresh fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
• Avoid drinking alcohol and smoking
• Vaccination. Ensure your child is vaccinated against meningitis. This gives immunity against the infection.. Vaccination also reduces morbidity and prevent future outbreaks.

TREATMENT

Treatment depends on the type of meningitis you have. Bacterial meningitis must be treated immediately with intravenous antibiotics to reduce risks of complications such as brain swelling and seizures.

Our Nervous System

Our nervous system is our body’s electrical wiring. It consists of complex nerves and neurons which carry messages throughout the different parts of our body (Mandal MD, 2019).

What are the Parts of Your Nervous System?

Our nervous system consists of two parts. One is the central nervous system, which includes our brain and spinal cord. The other is the peripheral nervous system which includes our nerves that are connected to our central nervous system, our sensory neurons, and our ganglia, which are groups of neurons (Mandal MD, 2019).

What Does Your Nervous System Do and Why Is It Important?

Our nervous system has one of the most important functions in our body. It serves as our body’s control system. It directs our senses of smell, hearing, sight, taste, and feeling. It also controls our movement balance, and coordination. Most especially, it gives us the ability to reason and think. Without the nervous system, we will have no memories or thoughts, and we won’t learn languages (‘Nervous System Problems | Michigan Medicine’, 2019).

Common Diseases That Affect Your Nervous System

One of the most common nervous system disorder is Alzheimer’s disease. It is a disorder that affects a person’s memory, behavior, and brain functions. People with this disease lose their brain tissue very slowly. Proteins will then build up in their brain, forming structures that will eventually hinder the nerve cells to connect with each other. When this happens, these nerve cells will die. One of the earliest symptoms of this disease is having memory lapses, and as the disease progresses, they will experience changes in moods, issues with language, difficulty in making decisions, or even accomplishing simple tasks such as cooking (“What Happens When You Have Alzheimer’s Disease”).

Another one is Bell’s Palsy, which causes paralysis on one side of the face. Because of this condition, the other side of your face will droop or become stiff. This cause of this disease is a trauma or damage to the cranial or facial nerve. Bell’s Palsy is often temporary. According to researchers, this may be brought about by viral infections.

Patients who want to get checked for nervous system disorders should visit the neurology department and look for a neurologist. Depending on the diagnosis, they can get further procedures from other healthcare providers that specialize on different areas.

Patients with Alzheimer’s disease should visit several types of health care providers to treat different symptoms: a neurologist to check their brain and nervous system, a psychiatrist to check how their mind is working as well as their moods, and a psychologist to test their memory.(“Visiting Your Doctor, 2019).

Patients with Bells Palsy can visit the neurology department and look for a neurologist.

What Lab Tests Should You Undergo if You Suspect Having Nervous System Related Diseases?

Patients who are suspected to have Alzheimer’s disease go through different medical tests for proper diagnosis. They have to go through several specialists. Usually, they would undergo physical exams and laboratory tests such as urine and blood to come up with a diagnosis.

Bell’s Palsy patients on the other hand, are required to undergo electromyography or EMG to confirm and assess the severity of the nerve damage. Imaging scans such as MRI and CT scans may also be needed to check for tumors, skull fractures, and other sources of pressure that will affect the facial nerve (“Bell’s Palsy Diagnosis and Treatment, 2019”).

References

1. Bell’s palsy – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bells-palsy/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20370034
2. Mandal, MD, A. (2019). Nervous System: Facts, Function & Diseases. Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.html
3. Nervous system diseases. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/nervous-system-diseases
4. Nervous System Problems | Michigan Medicine. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/nersp
5. Overview of Diagnostic Tests for Nervous System Disorders in Children. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from http://www.columbianeurology.org/neurology/staywell/document.php?id=36856
6. Overview of Nervous System Disorders. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/overview-of-nervous-system-disorders
7. Visiting Your Doctor. (2019). Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/diagnosis/visiting-your-doctor
8. “What Happens When You Have Alzheimer’s Disease?” (2019) Woman and Home. Retrieved 2 December 2019, from https://www.womanandhome.com/health-and-wellbeing/what-happens-when-you-have-alzheimers-disease-91824/

The zebrafish is an essential and widely used vertebrate model organism in many scientific researches, for example in developmental biology. This paper is mainly talking about specification of the zebrafish nervous system by nonaxial signals. There are two different signals, neutralizing and posteriorizing, which are regulating in the neurectoderm of the amphibian gastrula. However, in zebrafish, that signals more likely come from tissues. Nonaxial or axial mesendoderm caused different results. Thus, the signals from the organizer and the germring to pattern the neural axis might help the specification of the zebrafish.

In neural fate map, there are three different progenitors in the forebrain, hindbrain and midbrain, which are located in the embryonic shield. Meanwhile, the progenitors in forebrain are far from the germling but oppositely in hindbrain. This neural fate map, it allowed us to detect the signals that might differentially pattern the neuraxins. To investigate if they have more posterior neural fates, they did some transplantation of progenitors. It showed that the signals that can help cells to adjust the hindbrain fate are normally active in vivo at 6 hours, and that signals for hindbrain may are not exclusive from the shield. Germring tissue may be a source of such a posteriorizing signal.

They also did some researches about the pattering by nonaxial germring tissue by transplanted the shield and the germring. If the germring were the source of a patterning signal, some of grafts might use forebrain cells to adopt more posterior fates. Then they used the fluorescent labels in the forebrain, which can show the morphological changes clearly. By this way, there is a drawback that it does not know the cell population such as somatic mesoderm, endoderm, or both is use for these transformations. To solved this problem, they also analyzed the expression of krox2o in the forebrain, krox20 can easily recognized the molecular changes in the forebrain after germring transplant. It showed that there is no any expression of Krox20 in the forebrain of most embryos with a shield graft, but only a few Krox20-positive cells near the graft.

They found basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) as candidate transformer signals in Xenopus that might are relative to zebrafish. These studies implied that the negative FGF receptor in the early cleavage stages zebrafish causes a loss of posterior structures, which means bFGF is a candidate transformer signal in zebrafish. To know if bFGF could be like the transforming effect of germring tissue transplants, they took bFGF beads into the gastrula and arranged it as two groups (Control and bFGF). In control group, the beads without bFGF showed no specific effect on forebrain morphology or gene expression, whereas the beads with bFGF causes severe brain deformation. Therefore, bFGF can involve in the germring activity with other factors.

Last but not least, there is a modified two-signal model in zebrafish, and two physically separated signals in the zebrafish gastrula might showed in neuronal fate map. The first one is an activator signal which induces neural tissue in anterior area in that map, and the second on is a transform signal that regulated neural tissue in axial area. Both of two signals might be either instructive or permissive. According to the observation, we knew that FGFs may not be only part in the neural transforming activity in vivo, there are also extra key factors might be responsible for the neural system.

This paper determined the importance of candidate transformer molecules in zebrafish nervous system by nonaxial signals, and given the advanced methods to investigate how these signals work by a spatial and temporal context. Furthermore, this paper took fluorescent labels, the expression analysis of krox20 as well as basic fibroblast growth factor to provide the evidences for transformer action in vivo. The manipulation showed in this paper can be used to further research and mechanisms in the zebrafish nervous system.

I. Introduction

Paraneoplastic syndromes (PNSs) are unusual disorders that affect the function of the organ systems, due to the humoral secretion of tumors. The constituents secreted by the tumors consists mainly of hormones and cytokines that are capable of mimicking normal hormones which may affect other proteins flowing throughout the body. The endocrine, skin, blood, and joints are some of the systems that are known to be most commonly affected by PNSs. Although it is rare, the nervous system also has the potential to become affected by PNSs. This phenomenon can most commonly be observed in patients with cancer, specifically neuroblastoma. The likelihood of being diagnosed with a PNS is fewer than 1/10,000 in patients with cancer. The nervous system of patients with neuroblastoma becomes compromised when antibodies that are intended to target cancer cells begin to attack the immune system in addition to muscles along with other regions of the brain such as the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves, and the spinal cord. The issues associated with PNSs vary depending on the region of the nervous system that is being affected. Neuroblastoma patients are highly vulnerable to the development of two types of PNSs: Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome (OMS) and cerebellar axia. In some instances, Kerner -Morrison syndrome has presented itself, however it is not commonly encountered. Patients may exhibit a single syndrome or multiple syndromes.

Opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome

Although Opsoclonus-myoclonus is the most common type of PNS, the chances of its development are rare. The syndrome causes impairment of the cerebellum in addition to the rest of the networks of the nervous system as a consequence of an immune-mediated response. Several cases of affected children have shown antigens in the central nervous system reacting with an excessive aggregate of antibodies. This syndrome has not yet shown to be hereditary since all known cases have been sporadic and in people without any type of family history associated with this disorder. Some of the onset symptoms include abnormal speech, swift eye movements, trembling, and muscle spasms. It occurs in accordance with neuroblastoma, but can also be caused by viral and bacterial infections. Hepatitis C, influenza, and HIV are a few examples of viral infections that are linked with OMS. While, lyme disease and streptococcal are some of the most common forms of bacterial infections. However, there have been instances in which the cause of OMS was unknown.

Patients are normally diagnosed once they begin to exhibit symptoms or if they show any signs of neuroblastoma or abnormal antibody levels. Scientists typically look at IgG anti-neuronal antibodies to distinguish a true paraneoplastic disorder from other nervous system disorders. There are three types of anti-neuronal antibodies that may be present in an individual diagnosed with a paraneoplastic disorder; Anti-Hu, Anti-Ri, and Anti-Yo. A patient with one or more of these anti-neuronal antibodies in their blood would immediately be diagnosed as having a paraneoplastic disorder, which would be a major indicator that the patient has some sort of underlying cancer. The blood of an adult with OMS would contain anti-neuronal nuclear antibody, type I (Anti-Hu), while the blood of a child would have anti-neuronal nuclear antibody, type II (Anti-Ri). In most cases, paraneoplastic disorders are diagnosed before the cancer itself. Nonetheless, a CT scan or MRI could be performed in order to identify any signs of neuroblastoma which could potentially save a patient’s life, if it is detected early enough.

There is currently not a single remedy for OMS available, however it can be treated with chemotherapy, corticosteroids, ACTH, immunotherapy, and surgery. Surgery is the most recommended type of treatment in the case of patients with tumors. In spite of this, the removal of a tumor does not guarantee the seize or improvement of neurologic symptoms. There are numerous cases of patients that have continued to exhibit abnormal behavior even after the complete removal of a tumor. A mixture of several medications could essentially increase the chances of a successful outcome in comparison to that of surgery. Studies have shown that immunotherapy with the human intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) have dramatically improved symptoms in as much as 83 percent of patients. However, immunotherapy appears to have a more significant effect in children than it does in adults.

On the other hand, despite the effectiveness of immunotherapy in children, relapse is common in more than half of the patients, which triggers the return of onset syndromes such as dancing eyes and muscle jerking. A patient has a higher chance of making a full recovery after a bacterial or viral infection, as opposed to that of someone with neuroblastoma. Recovery depends on the severity of a patient’s symptoms, therefore, a patient with mild symptoms has an increased likelihood of gaining full neurological function in comparison to a patient that experiences severe symptoms. It may take anywhere from months to years after the interruption of immunotherapy before a relapse occurs. Although, stress, a mild fever, or a case of the common cold have proven to be sufficient to generate a relapse in patients.

The human body is made up of biological systems that have specific functions for regular living. The nervous system controls both intentional activity (like cognizant development) and automatic activities (like breathing) and sends signals to distinctive parts of the body. The central anxious framework incorporates the brain and spinal rope. The central nervous system comprises of nerves that interface each other portion of the body to the nervous system. The musculoskeletal system comprises of around 650 muscles that help in development, blood stream and other real capacities. There are three sorts of muscle: skeletal muscle which is associated to bone and makes a difference with deliberate development, smooth muscle which is found interior organs and makes a difference to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is found within the heart and makes a difference pump blood. There are different diseases associated with each type of biological system. Parkinson’s Disease is a disorder that affects the nervous system, which can be treated with deep brain stimulations and Fibromyalgia is a disorder that affects the musculoskeletal system that can be treated with occipital nerve stimulation.

The nervous system is the arrangement of nerve cells and filaments which transmits nerve motivations between parts of the body It coordinates all activities of the body and permits the body to retort and adapt to changes each within and out. once the sensory input gets activated, from there your nervous system processes that input, and set what ought to be done regarding it that is named integration. After the integration, the motor output has a response that occurs when your nervous system activated certain parts of your body. One of the diseases that occur in the nervous system is called Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder in which dopamine-producing neurons of a brain structure called substantia nigra are damaged and died over time leading to several motor problems and mental disabilities. The substantia nigra is part of the basal ganglia whose major function is inhibit unwanted motor activities. When a person intends to make a movement, this inhibition is removed by the action of dopamine as dopaminergic neurons are progressively lost in PD patients, low levels of dopamine make it harder to initiate voluntary movements. The occasions driving to neuronal cell passing are ineffectively caught on but the nearness of Lewy bodies within the neurons some time recently die may offer a clue.

Parkinson’s disease has no cause, but in a few cases, there might be a genetic cause, like mutations in the PINK1, parkin, or alpha synuclein genes, and in rare cases Parkinsonian symptoms may be caused by MPTP. MPTP is a toxic impurity that can be found in the recreational drug MPPP or dimethylpyridine. In other people, one or more risk factors, rather than a single outright cause, might contribute to Parkinson’s, for example pesticide exposure or DNA variants in genes like LRRK2. Parkinson’s derive from the death of dopamine-producing or dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The substantia nigra is part of the basal ganglia, a collection of brain regions that control movement through their connections with the motor cortex. In Parkinson’s, these darkened areas of substantia nigra gradually disappear. The pars compacta are gradually affected during the disease. It sends messages to the striatum via neurons rich in the neurotransmitter’s dopamine, forming the nigrostriatal pathway, which helps to stimulate the cerebral cortex and initiate movement.

Substantia nigra neurons die; the individual may be in low movement state or a hypokinetic which is commonly seen in Parkinson’s. In addition to simply initiating movements, the substantia nigra helps to calibrate and fine tune the way that movements happen, which leads to clinical features of Parkinson’s. First there is tremor, which is an involuntary shakiness most noticeable in the hands. This is a resting tremor meaning it is present at rest and diminishes with intentional movement. Next there is rigidity, which refers to stiffness that can appear as “cogwheel” rigidity, which is when there are a series of catches or stalls as a person’s arms or legs are passively moved by someone else. Rigidity is also responsible for the stooped posture and an almost expressionless face. Another is Bradykinesia which could be a moderate move, hypokinesia is reduced moves, and akinesia which is an nonattendance of movement, and all three result from trouble starting developments. A late feature of the disease is postural instability which causes problems with balance and can lead to falls. Despite these multiple effects on movement Parkinson’s disease does not produce weakness.

Luckily, there are medicines that help with Parkinson’s side effects, in spite of the fact that none halt the dynamic neurodegeneration. The main strategy is to increase the amount of dopamine signaling in the brain. Dopamine itself cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, but its precursor levodopa can, and once in the brain, levodopa is converted into dopamine by dopa decarboxylase, most importantly within the remaining nigrostriatal neurons. Peripheral dopa decarboxylase also exists, which can metabolize levodopa into dopamine before it gets through the blood-brain barrier and via additional enzymes and metabolize into other catecholamines like epinephrine, which can use cause unwanted side effects like arrhythmias. Another strategy is using amantadine, which is also an antiviral medication that increases endogenous dopamine production. A special treatment available to help treat PD is deep-brain stimulation, which involved an implantable device that directly sends electrical signals to the basal ganglia which counteracts the aberrant signaling in Parkinson’s.

Deep-brain stimulation is an implant that is designed to electrical currents to target abnormal brain activity. The method triggers blood flow in a series of chemical reactions that leads to the release of certain neurotransmitters. Together this action help correct malfunctioning connections in the brain. Specialists use MRI’s and CT scans to map out and find the location in the brain where the implant will be located. Doctors then surgically implant electrodes on the targeted area of the patient’s brain. A wire attached to the electrode runs through the head, neck, and shoulder under the skin to the chest area where it attaches to a pulse generation that initiate electrical impulses. Doctors than turn on the electrode sending an electrical current to the brain. Once the Deep Brain Simulation is programmed correctly, it delivers continuous electrical stimulation day in and day out. A magnet is utilized with the IPG to alter the incitement parameters so that the fitting level of incitement is connected at the anode tip. The understanding is given with an get to control gadget or handheld magnet to turn the IPG on and off at domestic. Depending on the application, the battery can final three to five a long time. When the battery ought to be supplanted, the IPG is additionally supplanted, ordinarily beneath nearby anesthesia as an outpatient method.

The advantages of deep brain stimulation over the old surgery which is where we would burn areas of the brain. Without burning the brain, we can make changes and reverse the problems that could have happen with doing the surgery with the old method you can only do it on one side, be able to treat one side of the body and you can adjust the stimulation. Deep-Brain stimulation implant smooths out what the medications are doing so you can have less off time and less peak dose dyskinesias. Deep Brain Stimulation is very secure and viable but there are a few dangers. There are moreover potential side impacts, although they are for the most part gentle and reversible. There’s an assessed 2-3 percent hazard of brain hemorrhage that will either be of no importance or may cause paralysis, stroke, discourse impedance or other major issues. There’s a little chance of spillage of cerebrospinal liquid, which can lead to cerebral pains or meningitis. Utilizing less energy is alluring for a few reasons. To begin with, it decreases the sum of battery substitutions and hence the sum of surgical mediations in patients treated with deep brain stimulation. More vitally, the event of stimulation-induced side impacts, such as dysarthria or paresthesia, is related to the control connected. Subsequently, decreasing incitement control may increment the helpful window, taking off more alternatives to the neurologist adjusting the Deep Brain Stimulation settings.

In Parkinson’s Disease, continuous open-loop stimulation can also end result in suboptimal manage of fluctuating motor signs, stimulation-induced destructive effects, and brief battery life. DBS ought to be notably improved via handing over closed-loop stimulation, in which stimulation parameters are automatically adjusted primarily based on Genius signals that reflect the patient’s medical state. The subsequent boost in DBS remedy is to discover Genius alerts directly associated to disease signs and symptoms and symptoms and utilize them to automatically alter stimulation settings in accordance to changing intelligence needs (closed-loop control). Here, in sufferers with Parkinson’s disease, they ought to leverage current advances in the appreciation of how Genius networks produce extraordinary movement, to strengthen and test closed-loop techniques the usage of a novel implantable brain system that can experience and shop brain activity, as nicely as deliver therapeutic stimulation.

Musculoskeletal system is made up of the cartilages, muscles, tendons, ligaments, bones, and ligaments that support the body. Th musculoskeletal system provides shape and support for your body. It provides a way that your body can move muscle pull on bones and therefore create the rigid structures that move. It provides protection on your skull which protects the brain and the ribcages protect your lungs and heart. It is also where blood cells are produced, and it provides a place to store minerals. One of the diseases in the musculoskeletal system is called Fibromyalgia. Fibromyalgia refers to the pain in the fibrous tissue in the muscle. It is a chronic condition, which occurs more often in women, that causes widespread muscle pain, extreme tenderness in various parts of the body, and sleep disturbances. In Fibromyalgia, there are areas of tissue called “trigger points”. The brain perceives the tissue as being extremely tender, as if they are injured, when in fact, they are not. When pressed, like any other area of the body, these tender points send pressure signals to the spinal cord.

In fibromyalgia when these pressure signals arrive at the spinal cord, they are handled as if they are pain signals incoming from injured tissue rather than pressure signals from non-injured tissue. Thus, pressure signals from different parts of the body arriving at the spinal cord are sent up as if they are pain signals called nociceptors. This increases the pain signal activity sent up the spinal cord. What originally was sent as a non-painful signal is treated inside the spinal cord as a pain signal traveling up to those structures that deal with pain, causing a variety of pathologic changes. In addition, there is a decrease in the normal downward transmission of inhibitory signals, which means more and more pain signals get transmitted up the spinal cord. This results in even greater perception of pain at the brain cortex. Finally, the brain responds to this now permanent state of increased perception of pain by initiating various mechanism to protect the areas of perceived injury such as guarding and increasing muscle tension.

Fibromyalgia is a widespread chronic pain that debilitates the body, not letting the body function correctly. One of the treatments for this disease affecting the musculoskeletal system is neuromodulation. Neuromodulation is the application of electrical impulses to control brain activity. Fibromyalgia is treated with occipital nerve stimulation, which includes subcutaneous implantation of one or more anodes over the sensory nerves of cervical sections of the spine, found over the occiput of the cranium. The anodes provide electrical current to these shallow sensory nerves and are thought to impact torment handling and hence move forward torment side effects in patients with fibromyalgia. Incitement is ordinarily performed to begin with as a brief trial, amid which a terminal is percutaneously set with the utilize of fluoroscopy in an alert quiet in a surgical suite. Over the course of a few days, incitement is conveyed through an outside battery source. On the off chance that side effects of fibromyalgia-related head and generally body torments progress, at that point surgery is planned to forever embed the terminal and interface it to a battery source that’s surgically embedded underneath the skin, comparative to a pacemaker gadget.

Studies examining the impact of occipital nerve implant for fibromyalgia have appeared noteworthy diminishes in torment visual analog scale scores as well as change in useful capacity amid incitement and at follow-up. Some of the results, ONS incitement brought about in enactment within the dorsal sidelong prefrontal cortex, comprising the average torment pathway, the ventral average prefrontal cortex, and the two-sided front cingulate cortex as well as Para hippocampal range, the last mentioned two of which include the plummeting torment pathway. Relative deactivation was watched within the cleared out somatosensory cortex, constituting the sidelong torment pathway as well as other tactile ranges such as the visual and sound-related cortex. One think about too illustrated critical enhancements in weariness per the altered weakness and affect scale, number of triggers focuses, and generally dismalness per the fibromyalgia compact survey. No genuine antagonistic occasions were detailed in these ponders. Some of the advantages of the implant is that a trial procedure is done with a fluoroscope or live x-ray for guidance, similarly to a full implant for you to see if it works and then invest in it. Another advantage is that there is no need to be hospitalized meaning it is an outpatient and it takes usually about two hours to get the implant done. Risks associated with occipital nerve stimulation encompass the viable want for surgical revision of wire placement after the procedure, as well as infection, ache and muscle spasms, which they are not always present in the patient.

Knowing how the human body works can help you treat disorders from their root no matter which biological system it may touch. Fibromyalgia and Parkinson’s disease are two diseases that has been affecting many people for years and the only way for them to be treated is by knowing what causes it. Fibromyalgia is caused by pain in the fibrous tissue in the muscle. It is a chronic condition, that causes widespread muscle pain, extreme tenderness in various parts of the body, and sleep disturbances. My knowing what it is, occipital nerve stimulation triggers the pain and the side effects that fibromyalgia causes to a patient and improves the condition of the patient. Parkinson’ disease is caused by dopamine-producing neurons of a brain structure called substantia nigra gets damaged and died over time leading to several motor problems and mental disabilities. By knowing which part of the body is being affected you may trigger Parkinson’s diseases with deep brain stimulation which releases certain neurotransmitters that together this action help correct malfunctioning connections in the brain.