Category: Natural Environment

ABSTRACT

Most fungi are saprophytic and not pathogenic to plants, animals and humans. However, a relative few fungal species are phytopathogenic, cause disease (e.g., infections, allergies) in man, and produce toxins that affect plants, animals and humans. Among such fungi are members of the Aspergillus and Fusarium genera as well as other genera (e.g., Alternaria, Mucor) comprising the emerging pathogen group in humans. These fungi present a common threat to both agricultural production and the health of healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Taken together, these relative few fungi can cause huge economic losses to agriculture, loss of food for consumption, and serious, often fatal diseases in humans and animals. Plants may be a source of antifungal compounds since they have had to develop compounds to resist infections by fungi present in their environment.

Fungus obtains its energy from dead organisms. Terms such as yeast, mold, mildew, fungus, sooty mold and rust describe various forms and species of fungus. There are over 100,000 known species of fungus and still other species remain unknown to the science. They show both sexual and asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction they share DNA while in asexual reproduction they form buds or spores which only multiply when they are subjected to favorable conditions.

Fungal spores can be found anywhere in the atmosphere as they can move from one place to another due to air or wind pressure. Damp environments promote fungal growth. Fungus can enter through various means. It can be present in the food we eat. They can also be present on our body. They might be present in the air we breathe. They can also ruin our food and later on cause food shortage problems and many other problems.

Because of these reasons it is necessary to find an easy yet an effective way to overcome the growth of the fungus. There are many preservatives which are used but if they are consumed at higher rates they become dangerous for human life and other animals. So this research aims at finding an easy but an effective way to stop the growth of fungus by using natural extracts.

As these natural extracts are available at each and every house and are very cheap to buy and offer no threats to human life. These extracts along with the resistance offered to the growth of fungus also prove healthy to the human body. These extracts can be prepared very easily at home and can be used to inhibit the fungal growth. This research offers a comparison between the use of various natural extracts on the growth of fungus.

INTRODUCTION

Almost half known species of fungus have negative impact on human health and can cause many diseases. As they are mostly present in the form of spores looking for the favorable conditions for their growth, they are present in the air. So they can be inhaled by humans and humans can develop fungal infections.

If the fungal spores land on skin they will cause the skin to develop infections which may also result in bleeding. But mostly as they are in the air, the site of infection will be lung. It is not easy to kill a fungus present inside the body as they can cause serious health complications.

Fungi present in meat or poultry goods will also cause serious allergic reactions in the humans. And the fungus finds a way inside the human body through consumption of these goods.

Fungus requires warm yet damp conditions for their growth. But they can also grow inside the refrigerator. They can tolerate salt and sugar coatings. Due to this, it is possible that many bacteria will also start growing along with the fungus.

Due to these reasons, a lot of food is wasted throughout the year. Crops grown which are subjected to fungal attack are also wasted and the food grown cannot be used to feed public as it poses serious threats to public health.

Because of the above mentioned reasons, special measures should be taken to inhibit the growth of fungus but at cheaper and easier ways. The use of natural extracts is an easy yet an effective and cheaper way to inhibit the growth of fungus on our food and in our body. As these extracts are healthy for human body, they will inhibit the growth of fungus as well as prove beneficial for our health.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

• How can be plant extracts used to stop the fungal growth?
• How fungus is dangerous for us?
• How many plant extracts are useful against inhibiting the fungal growth?

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

• Onion is comparatively more effective than the garlic extract regarding the prevention and control of fungal growth.
• The entire plant extracts act as an effective measure against the fungal growth.
• Plant extracts can be used as an effective measure in order to prevent and control the fungal growth.

SIGNIFICANCE

• This research will enable every person to secure themselves from the harmful effects of fungus.
• This research will prove beneficial for human’s health.
• As it is cheap and an effective way to inhibit fungal growth, common man can make use of it.
• It will form bases for more research work to be carried out regarding the growth of fungus.
• It is an easy way which will not only provide us immunity against fungal infections but will also provide us many other benefits.
• When added in food, these extracts can enhance the taste of the food we eat.

The growth of fungus has ruined and contaminated a lot of crops and goods. Many food items are thrown away on daily basis. Many skin and lung diseases are being diagnosed every day. Many places insides the buildings and houses are subjected to fungal growth due to various reasons but the origin of causes of fungal growth still remains unknown.

Due to these reasons, it is necessary to follow a scheme of some points which will help us overcome the diseases and other problems caused by fungus or fungal growth. Following are the recommendations achieved from the performed experiments.

• One of the effective ways to inhibit the growth of fungus is the use of natural extracts.
• Natural extracts have been proved to show resistance towards the growth of fungus.
• Natural extracts should be applied for the prevention of fungal growth.
• Edible items should not be stored for long times.
• Fungus is more likely to grow on items that are frequently exposed to moisture and stored in a warm place.
• Natural extracts should be used in suitable quantity in food. In this way food will remain safe from fungal growth.
• All these natural extracts are beneficial for the prevention of fungal diseases on humans.
• Some extracts should be applied on food directly to avoid fungal growth on them externally.

REFERENCES

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold_health_issues
3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268326965_Antifungal_effect_of_powdered_spices_and_their_extracts_on_growth_and_activity_of_some_fungi_in_relation_to_damping-off_disease_control
4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3814582/
5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279924216_ANTI-FUNGAL_PROPERTIES_OF_GINGER_ZINGIBER_OFFICINALE_AND_GARLIC_ALLIUM_SATIVUM_ON_SMOKED_CAT_FISH_MYCOFLORA
6. https://www.turmericforhealth.com/turmeric-benefits/turmeric-for-fungal-infections
7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22497489
8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4016684/
9. https://sciencing.com/different-kinds-bread-mold-5956459.html
10. https://owlcation.com/stem/types_of_fungi

Introduction

Aquatic plant ecology is the study of organisms interaction with their environment to develop a better understanding of certain spices. Duckweed (Lemna) is an effective aquatic plant in removing nutrients and it has been proven that Lemna is able to manage the nutrients for wastewater treatment (Bonomo et al., 1997). Light is an important factor in plant existence. plant cells need the energy that light provides through photosynthesis, which is necessary for plant growth. The light that absorbed by chlorophyll, which ejects different wavelengths of light, excites the electrons by different amounts.

It is important to understand the colored light effects on plant growth. Colors in visible light have different wavelengths that provide different levels of energy. For Example: the violet colors are the highest lights energy due to their short wavelengths. However, red color has a longer wavelength that emits less energy. In previous studies that studied light color effects on duckweed, plants grow better on red plastic (550-700nm) sample than the control sample, But on the blue (400-470) and green plastic (420-580) panels the control sample had higher growth (Anderson & Martin, 2005).

In our experiment, we will test the yellow and blue colors effects on the growth of the duckweed plant. We hypothesized that the plant under yellow light color will grow more than the plant under the blue light color, since the blue light has shorter wavelength than the yellow, which has wavelength around ~(560-590). This means it Amit less energy than the blue light color. The less energy could be suitable for plant growth. Therefor, the aim of this study is to observe the response of the aquatic plant (duckweed) to yellow and blue light colors on plant growth.

Materials and Method

Duckweed plant was obtained from(NEIU Greenhouse). They were dried on a tissue paper to take measurements on a number of fronds and root length in each cup. After measurement was taken, 10 randomly selected plant were transferred into nine styrofoam cups, each contained 200mL of 1x Hoagland’s solution that was kept in room temperature. Three cups were covered with transparent plastic wrap, three were covered with yellow colored plastic wrap, and three were covered with blue colored plastic wrap. All cups saved in NEIU greenhouse for seven days on natural daylight.

Discussion

Duckweeds are flowering aquatic plants which float on the surface of fresh water. It can be used in wastewater treatment due to its ability of nitrate, phosphate removal and toxins capture for odor control. This report measures the difference between two lights colors which they have differences in wavelength and energy. The lights colors were chosen had a wavelength of less than ~600nm. Compared to another study that used red color (~550-700nm), which has less energy than blue and yellow colors, showed that the duckweed plant grows better than control (Anderson & Martin, 2005).

The aim of our study is to study the plant response to yellow and blue light, which we hypothesized that the plant will grow better in yellow light. Since it has longer wavelength and less energy emitted to plant, that can be suitable for the plant to growth more than blue light color. The results from our group data showed that there are no significant differences between the blue, yellow, and control in neither root length nor number of leaves. However, the root length from the class data showed slightly higher growth in the duckweed under yellow light, but the blue and control showed no difference, which still not a significant difference (Fig3). Most of the plant were dead in all cups even the control ones. This might happened due to the fact that the cups were stored under natural light in cloudy weather, which could be less than the plants needs of light source. Also, the drying time on the tissue paper could effected the plant growth in this experiment. In future studies, we want to test other light colors with longer wavelengths and less energy that would be more effective on plant growth.

References

1. Konica Minolta. (n.d.). Can Colored Lights Affect How Plants Grow? Retrieved February 11, 2019, from https://sensing.konicaminolta.us/blog/can-colored-lights-affect-how-plants-grow/
2. Understanding Photosynthesis: How Does Chlorophyll Absorb Light Energy? (n.d.). Retrieved February 11, 2019, from http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teaching-resources/283-photosynthesis-how-does-chlorophyll-absorb-light-energy
3. Bonomo, L., Pastorelli, G., & Zambon, N. (1997). Advantages and limitations of duckweed-based wastewater treatment systems. Water Science and technology, 35(5), 239-246.
4. Anderson, L., & Martin, D. F. (2005). Effect of Light Quality on the Growth of Duckweed, Lemna minor L. Florida Scientist, 20-24.

Abstract

Plant magnetobiology has become an important topic to study and manage biological effects on plants.Studies over the past several years have paved its way asa new advancementfor achieving enhanced growth and development in crop plants including horticultural plants.An emphasis has been made upon the use of this technique with different magnetic field intensity and exposure. The precisemechanism of its action is not known, but biological and chemical cues are being studied as possible mechanisms. This article presents an overview of ‘magneto priming’ for the enhancement of growth and yield of various plants.

Introduction

All the living organisms in this ecosystem are under the influence of Earth’s geomagnetic field (GMF) and it is believed that all the life forms have evolved in the presence of GMF- whether it be geotaxis in magnetotactic bacteria, cellular responses in humans or stimulation of growth in plants (LefèvreandBazylinski2013).Amagnetic field (MF) is a vector field in the neighborhood of constant magnets or electric currents that is specified by both direction and strength and is characterized by magnetic flux density (measurement in T) and MF strength (measurement in amperes [A]/meter [m]).The magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 μT (0.25 to 0.65 gauss). A German botanist in 1930 Ssawostin first reported faster growth stimulation of wheat coleoptiles under magnetic fields followed by Murphy in 1942 concluding that germination rate of different types of seeds would accelerate underMF treatment.Developments in the area ofmagnetobiology began in the 1960’s with the development of space biology and the effects on different life forms separately including studies on migratory birds (Wiltschkoand Wiltschko 1972)and honeybees(Gould 1980). In the subsequent period, magnetoorientation of magnetotactic bacteria (Blackmore 1982)was studied under bacterial magnetotaxis.

Initial studies of MFeffectsonplants were conducted by KrylovandTarakonova(1960)who experimented seed germination under MF treatment and suggested that the effects were mostly anauxin-likeand termed the phenomenon, magnetotropism. There have been several studies on the effects of plants and these have been reviewed (Maffei 2014).To investigate the magneto sensitivity of plants, four different types of magnetic fields have mainly been employed:(1) weak static homogeneous magnetic fields, (2) strong homogeneous magnetic fields, (3) strong in-homogeneous magnetic fields and (4) extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields of low to moderate magnetic flux densities.

Studieshave shown that magnetic fields have significant effect on seed germination, plant growth, development, and yield, depending upon a specific species and on the characteristics of field exposure such as intensity and duration with difference in their growth pattern (Teixeira da Silva and Dobránszki 2016). For example, a significant decrease in the cell numberof onion (Allium cepa) meristemshas been observed. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) seedlings grown in Helmholtz coils with a 10 nT MF intensity showed a decrease in fresh weight of shoots and roots, as well as dry weight of shoots and roots in comparison with GMF controls. In another study, it was concluded that very low MF was capable of delaying both organ formation and development (Lebedev et al., 1977).Belyavskaya (2004) found that weak electromagnetic fields suppressed the growth of plants, reduced cell division, intensified protein synthesis and disintegration in plant roots. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seedlings exposed to 20 μT vertical MF showed small, but significant increases in total fresh weights, shoot fresh weights, and root fresh weights, whereas dry weights and germination rates remained unaffected (Fischer et al., 2004). However, the best results have been observed for the plants exposed to Electro magnets.Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) have magnetic and electrical properties that surround objects with an electrical charge which will interact with other objects within that field. At present, there is a growing tendency to use either strong homogeneous or in-homogeneous field for the treatment of seeds for improving their performance (Shine et al. 2012).

Effects on germination rate and root and shoot initiation

Several studies proved the positive effect of Magnetoprimed seeds with significant andrapid germination and early root and early morphogenesis giving rise to the possibility that magnetism can increase the speed of plant development. Many studies have suggested positive effects in MF treated seeds of agricultural importance or with ornamental value. Groundnut seeds had shown an increase in germination rate and vigorous seedling growth, Similar studies on Onion and rice seeds (Vokharia et al., 1991; Alexander and Doijode 1995) have been observed. There are reports sharing that the magnetic field exposure increases germination of extremely low viability seeds and improvement in their quality and sprouting rates (Carbonell et al., 2008; Alexander and Doijode 1995).In case of annual grains like chickpea which is considered financially risky by farmers because of its tendency to face diseases in its early growth stages has also shown response to MF in germination and early growth characteristics(Cakmak et al., 2011) with high survival Percentage. Enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and high growth of crops like wheat and maize has also been reported(De Souza et al., 2008; Shine and Guruprasad 2012). Studies have also demonstrated that the energy involved during germination is increased due to magnetic fields.Germination energy and germination rate of tobacco seeds increased linearly with an induction of 0.15 T at expositions of 10, 20 and 30 min with and without preliminary soaking (Aladjadjiyan and Ylieva 2003).

Based on the treatment dose and type of magnet used, stationary magnets with high magnetic fields demonstrated the best results as compared to WMF and super Weak MF.50 mT and 200 mT for 2 h exposure increased the activities of hydrolyzing enzymes in Helianthus annuus, which were responsible for the quick seed germination, improved seedling vigour and better root characteristics of treated seeds in this plant(Vashisth and Nagarajan 2010). By the application of power frequency magnetic fields (100 μT), growth of germinated Viciafabaseedlings was enhanced, supported by an increased mitotic index (Rajendra et al., 2005).Exposure of maize seeds to stationary magnetic field strength of 125 or 250 mT enhanced the germination parameters (Zepeda-Bautista et al.,2010). The effects of electromagnetic irradiation on seed vigour of maize hybrids, as well as the response of each genotype were assessed in this study. It was also reported that pre-sowingtreatment increased corn seed vigour through emergence rate, establishment percentage, and dry mass of seedling aerial part, according to the combination of MF intensity, time and the genotype.

There have been several experimental studies on the effect of different MF capacitance on increased growth rates in different species (Table 1). In maize, plants showed higher growth and biomass than control plants, with asignificant increase inmaize plants which were exposed continuously to 125 or 250 mT(Florez et al., 2007). In barley, a stimulating effect on the first stages of seedling growth was observed. Germinating barley seeds were treated with 125 mTMFfor different time periods (1, 10, 20, and 60 min, 24 h, and chronic exposure). Interesting results were obtained with increase in seedling length and seedling weight (Martinez et al., 2002). Pea plants when exposed to 125 or 250 mT stationary MF (1, 10, and 20 min, 1 h and 24 h) and continuous exposure showed better growth in case of continuously exposed plants to the MF compared to control plants(Carbonell et al., 2008).

Several in vitro studies have shown that MFs can affect the development of cells and tissues cultured in vitro. In soybean, plant regeneration and growth of shoot-tip cultures exposed to MFs (2.9–4.6 mT) for 2.2 and 6.6 s showed an increase in regeneration frequency (87% and 74%, respectively, as compared to 62% in the control (Atak et al. 2003).The root induction also showed similar positive effect of MF with 26% and 36% increase over control. Shoot and root formation rates of Paulownia tissue culture increased when nodes were exposed to external MFs (2.9–4.8 mT for 2.2, 6.6, and 19.8 s during the culture period) compared to the control (Yaycili and Alikamanoglu 2005; Çelik et al., 2008).In vitro shoot cultures of P. tomentosa exposed to a magnetic flux density of 2.9–4.8 mT for 2.2 s recorded a higher growth from 61.9 to 82.5%; with an increase in total chl, chl a, and chl b content and doubled total RNA content of the treated tissues over the control (Çelik et al., 2008). These studies suggest that in vitro plant tissues respond to MF exposure in terms of enhanced growth parameters.

In our studies on an important ornamental orchid, we investigated positive influence of high intensity magnetic field (200mT) on in vitrogamma irradiated Dendrobium sonia cultures. Pre-optmizedmagnetic field strength of 200 mT was applied for different duration (15 min, 30 min, 45min, and 60 min), on freshly isolated protocorm like bodies (Shikha et al.,Unpublished). Our preliminary results suggested that MF treatment significantly altered growth, O- and OH- radical level, photosynthetic activities and water use efficiency in irradiated cultures as compared to MF untreatedcontrol cultures(Shikha et al.,Unpublished).

Mechanisms of MF stimulation of plant growth and development

Free radical production and photosynthetic efficiency

Every aspect of plant growth requires energy and in cases of stress the total energy produced could be distributed to the defence pathway(Bailey-Serres and Mittler 2006).In general, the electron transport chain (ETC) in chloroplasts operates in an O2 sufficient environment such that if ETC is overloaded it will result in leakage of electrons and generation of free radicals.This free radical produced upon stress is shown to be decreased after Magnetic treatments and alleviating the chlorophyll content and photosynthetic efficiency(Shine and Guruprasad., 2012). The reduction in the free radical content was reported in maize and soybean seedlings after the treatment with 200 mTfor 1 h and 150 mTfor 1 h(Shine and Guruprasad 2011) Photosynthetic parameters were tracked by calculating energy by performance index through three independent functional steps of photosynthesis, the density of reaction centers in the chlorophyll bed (RC/ABS), excitation trapped per photon absorbed (ϕpo) and efficiency with which a trapped exciton can move an electron into the electron transport chain further than QA- (Ψo)(Srivastava et al., 1999). This proved that magnetopriming of soybean seeds enhanced the PI up to 48 and 63% in 150 mT (1 h) and 200 mT (1 h) respectively over control plant, specifically showing enhancement of PI attributable to higher efficiency of ϕpo.Increased Rubisco content and higher light harvesting efficiency in the treated plants leading in an increase in biomass of plants from MFtreatment(Baby et al., 2011).

Water and nutrient uptake

With the most prime requirement of plant of nutrients, supply is only possible through water, and studies have shown that magnetic exposure can enhance intake of these essential nutrients (Ijaz et al., 2012). Even in salt stress these plants could show robust and vigorous growth.The water in the region is heavily salted, which interrupts plant uptake. By exposing the water to magnets, the salt ions change and dissolve, creating purer water that is more easily taken up by the plant.The magnetic field changes water properties due to displacement and polarization of water atoms. Cai et al.(2009)reported that MF caused changes in physicochemical properties of water; these changes included decreasing water surface tension and increase viscosity suggesting an increase of activation energy and water molecule size due to extra hydrogen bond formation. Fundamental to all biological systems is the biochemical activities and the biomolecule (chlorophyll) can be affected by MF as the photochemical activity, respiration ratio and enzyme activity are all influenced under MF (Phirke et al., 1996; Dhawi 2003). In our study on In Dendrobium sonia, IRGAbased studies with MH treated PLBs showed that that the water use efficiency was higher in MF treated cultures(Shikha et al., Unpublished).

Modifications at cellular and molecularlevel

Several studies reported that MF affectsatcellular and molecular level leading to plant growth enhancement (Dhawi et al., 2009). The negative charges around the DNA molecule, as any charged entity, increase the potential of MF impact and the theoretical concept of how MF affects the DNA is that MF prolongs free radical ions’ lifetime, by inducing the singlet-triplet transition of unpaired electrons leading to oxidative stress (Sahebjameipour et al.,2007).

Several studies reported a decrease in DNA level following low level exposure of magnetic field in arbour seedlings (Racuciu et al., 2008)and date palm (Dhawi and Al-Khayri et al., 2009).The mutagenic effect of MF is indirect because of the limited physical ability of non-ionizing radiation to induce double brake in DNA. Study by Pingpinget al.(2007) suggested that MF increases cell membrane permeability, which may increase uptake of water and nutrition. The effect of magnetic fields can be seen in protein synthesis activation leading to further development of root system (Phirke and Kudbe et a.l, 1996). The MF induced changes in cellular level leading to increase in cell viability, organization and differentiation (Vizcaino et al., 2003). In addition, MF affects cell proliferation and cellular metabolism (Atak et al., 2003) gene expression(Paul et al., 2006) and enzyme activity (Ataket al.,2007).

Magnetoreception

The phenomenon ‘‘ion cyclotron resonance’’is suggested to be the mechanism involved in magnetoreception. The movement will be a circulation of ions in a plane perpendicular to an external magnetic field with their lamor frequencies (Galland and Pazur 2005). When this frequency matches with that of the electromagnetic field, there is an absorption of energy from the external field. It is also suggested that exposure to magnetic field can modulate the internal potential energy of a biological tissue which could contribute to improve overall growth and development (Kavi 1983).

Another evidence is that of the Plant cryptochromes being involved in magnetoreception(Ahmad et al. 2007). In Arabidopsis, cryptochromes are encoded by two similar genes, cry1 and cry2. CRY2 protein levels in seedlings decrease rapidly upon illumination by blue light, presumably as a result of protein degradation of the light-activated form of the receptor (Ahmad et al., 2007).The expression changes of three Arabidopsis cryptochrome-signaling-related genes (PHYB, CO and FT) suggest that the effects of a near-null MF are cryptochrome-related, which may be revealed by a modification of the active state of cryptochrome and the subsequent signaling cascade plant cryptochrome has been suggested to act as a magnetoreceptor (Xu et al., 2012).

Based upon the premise that cryptochromes form radical pairs subsequent to photoexcitation, the MF mediated sensitive responses are suggested to be the result of this radical pair formation (Galland and Pazur2005; Maffei 2014). It is also the most suggested mechanism for magnetic interactions to have an effect on chemical reactions. It is opined that “the kinetics and quantum yields of photo-induced flavin-tryptophan radical pairs in cryptochrome are indeed magnetically sensitive and cryptochrome is a good candidate as a chemical magnetoreceptor” (Maeda et al., 2012). As of now, cryptochromes are considered as the likely mediators of the MF induced biological effects (Maeda et al., 2012).

Magnetoreception is a research frontier with immense application in plants. There is a great amount of information on the physiological effects and biomass accumulation, and cyptochrome and radical-pair based mechanistic view are being established as plausible mechanisms. Molecular studies in this field are needed to elucidate the biological effects. Extensive research is also necessary to extend MF-induced biological effects field-leveldemonstration forpositive outcomeon plant growth and productivity.

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Introduction

Growing crops hydroponically is an alternative to traditional soil farming methods (7). Hydroponics systems consist of a water-based solution enriching in nutrients, without the use soil (2). Commonly an artificial medium is used to provide support for the plant as soil is not being used (2). Hydroponic systems started in 1920 and have dramatically evolved in a variety of designs (2). Interest in hydroponics is rapidly increasing and is very important due to the growing demand need for maximizing food production (7). Hydroponic systems can be classified as either open systems where the nutrient solution is constantly replaced and not recycled, or closed systems where the nutrient solution is recycled (2). There are many types of hydroponic systems such as “the wick, drip, ebb-floe, water culture, nutrient film technique, aeroponic, and windowfarm systems” (2). All of these are variations of a hydroponic system just customized in a different way to achieve different types of circulation. Hydroponic systems definitely have many advantages such as conserving “water, energy, space and cost” (7). But it is important to acknowledge both advantages and disadvantages of hydroponic systems to have a proper perspective on this technology.

Pros

There are many reasons why hydroponic crops have an advantage over traditional soil farming methods. A major benefit is that hydroponics allows the reuse of water and nutrients in closed and open systems (2). This helps reduce the 70% of fresh water resources that is used in agriculture and aid in sustainability of future farming practices (7). This can be done easily in a closed system because the nutrient solution is circulating throughout the system continuously, but in an open system when the nutrient solution is not circulating there are other alternatives. Instead of directly disposing the excess nutrient solution into lakes or rivers and negatively impacting the environment, studies have shown that microalgae can be used to filter the solution (3). Microalgae is capable of significantly reducing the nutrient content from hydroponic solutions especially nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen (3).

In the case of disease in the system the solution needs to be discarded to prevent the cycling of the pathogen, thus it can be discarded without impacting the environment. When it comes to replacing the nutrients in the hydroponic solution, vermicompost can be used as an inexpensive alternative to direct fossil fuel nutrients (1). Vermicompost is a type of compost that is broken down by earthworms and provides high nutrient content (1). It has been shown in studies that using vermicompost in greenhouse and field settings increases the growth and yield of the crops (1). Hydroponic systems benefit researchers as they tend to use hydroponic systems to preform general crops studies to eliminate the complexity of a soil organism (4). For example, in studies like nutrient uptake in plants the medium used in hydroponics to support the plant is standardized and does not affect the results as a soil organism would have (5). This allows researchers to eliminate the variability of other factors associated with soil organisms that can skew the results. Hydroponic crops over the years have been recognized to produce improved quality and higher yield compared to soil-based crops and has led to and increase in production in the United States (2). Many of these systems are automatic and consider the plant requirements for the best growing conditions to maximize production (2).

For instance, since most hydroponic systems are located inside greenhouses many factors can be altered to mimic the proper growing conditions regardless what the growing conditions are outside the greenhouse (2). Factors such as the lighting, water, nutrients, temperature and air quality can all be altered (2). But there are more benefits to hydroponics than being located in a greenhouse than just factor of being able to alter the growing conditions. While crops are being grown hydroponically, they are not impacted by climate change, soil pathogens, and can be cultivated all year round not just seasonally like traditional soil farming (2). This means that indoor hydroponics can increase the number of crops being produced, while also producing better quality and yielding crops. Plants in hydroponic systems do not get infected as easily as plants because of the repetitive occurrence with bacteria when it arises (6). In circulating systems since the occurrence of bacteria is repetitive the plants can build up and immune or defence mechanism to protect it from the bacteria (6). Another benefit of having an increasingly automated hydroponic system is, there is less labour needed to maintain the crops like the need for weeding, watering and tilling is eliminated compared to traditional soil cropping (2). In hydroponic systems advance computer technology can monitor the whole system including nutrients levels, measurements, and cleaning (7). Even though all hydroponics are not as automated and expensive they still have many benefits.

Cons

Although there are many benefits regarding growing crops hydroponically, there are also many downfalls. The wastewater from hydroponic solutions contains a large amount of nutrients and will cause significant environmental problems when it is released into streams and lakes because of the large amount of nutrients (3). If the water is not filtered or cleaned, then it should not be released into the environment, thus this is an extra cost to the hydroponic system as the disposal of wastewater needs to be compromised. Hydroponic systems can negatively impact the environment from wastewater and from unrecycled parts (2). Many parts in the system such as the nutrient solution and plastic material are reusable, but when they are not recycled then it creates environmental concerns (2). Hydroponic systems avoid the problems of soilborne disease due to the fact that it is a soilless system, but they still encounter the problems through waterborne diseases. Nutrient solution in a closed system becomes a problem when phytophagous, fungal infection, or another type of pathogen can contaminate the nutrient solution or crop very rapidly when the water is circulating by accumulating or multiplying throughout the entire system (2).

In a closed system many problems can arise due to the fact that the nutrient solution is constantly cycled such as salt accumulation (2). This will affect the crops growth and productivity and will continue to do so until the solution is drained (2). Diseases can become a major issue as it can be spread across all the plants within that system over a fast period of time. Disease such as E. coli can also be a big issue with growing crops hydroponically. Studies have shown that as there is an increase in the movement of E. coli into edible parts of the plants in hydroponic systems, and especially if the roots are damaged (6). This could be costly as an infection can disturb the whole crop because of the circulation and contamination. A major downfall to automatic systems is that they are extremely expensive to set up, as the supplies are expensive and need to be installed properly (2). Considering that most of the hydroponic systems are automated, they need energy to drive machines to supply the system with controled conditions and to circulate the water or nutrient solution. Problems arise when there is no power available, the system can not provide for the crops, and the whole crop could be shocked or disrupted (2).

Ultimately this could affect the production of this system. This is why operators need to be knowledgeable and skilled to run a proper hydroponic system and eliminate errors from occurring (2). Though labour has been decreased the operator still faces a lot of work monitoring that the adequate amounts of the system such as nutrients, light, pH and diseases are kept at normal levels or else they need to be fixed (2). This comes into play even more when vermicompost is used instead of direct fossil fuel nutrient supply. When supplying nutrients in a cost-effective way using vermicompost the nutrient content varies as the compost is a product of a random mix (1). The operator will now have to take more time or technology to constantly calculate the nutrient concentration as it constantly varies in vermicompost. Considering the fact that the concentration of nutrients is unknown until evaluated, it could be a problem for the crops if they receive too much of an unwanted nutrient. Overall to achieve a healthy hydroponic system and to maximize the crop yield, precise control of nutrients and conditions is required, but can be very costly and time consuming (7).

Perspective

Based on researching both the advantages and disadvantages of growing crops hydroponically I believe crops should be grown using hydroponics when the opportunity is available. If crops are properly grown using hydroponic technology, there is so many benefits. Hydroponic crops can increase the yield and quality for many crops because of the automated systems that aid to control external factors (2). This allows growers to be able to cultivate crops all year round, to avoid climate change, and control the growing conditions that the particular crop requires (2). Closed systems can also reduce the amount of water being used by reusing fresh water resources which is very sustainable for the future as 70% of fresh water is used for farming (1). Also, by using vermicompost instead of expensive nutrients it reduces cost and is using an organic renewable resource to supply rich nutrients to the plants (1). Obviously not all crops should be grown hydroponically, but if the opportunity is available it is a great alternative, minus the setbacks mentioned above such as rapid disease spread, high cost and possible environmental impacts. Also keeping in mind these setbacks can always be improved upon to make growing crops hydroponically not an issue at all.

Summary

In conclusion growing crops hydroponically is an alternative to traditional soil farming methods (7). Hydroponics systems consist of a water-based solution enriching in nutrients, without the use of a soil medium (2). Commonly an artificial medium is used to provide support for the plant as soil is not being used (2). Hydroponic systems started in 1920 and have dramatically evolved in a variety of designs (2). Interest in hydroponics is rapidly increasing and is very important because of the growing demand for maximizing food production (7). Hydroponic systems definitely have many advantages and disadvantages but overall in my perspective on this technology I believe growing crops hydroponically is very beneficial. It is important to accept the different approaches for growing crops because of the increase in the global population and food demand. By using alternate approaches such as hydroponics, we expand the amount of production levels used to produce food.

References

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5. Adrover M., Moya G., and Vadell J. May 21, 2013. Use of hydroponics culture to assess nutrient supply by treated wastewater. Journal of Environmental Management. [Internet]. [cited March 28, 2019]; 127: 162-165. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.04.044
6. Macarisin D., Patel J., and Sharma V.K. December 7, 2013. Role of curli and plant cultivation conditions on Escherichia coli O157: H7 internalization into spinach grown on hydroponics and in soil. International Journal of Food Microbiology. [Internet]. [cited March 28, 2019]; 173: 48-53. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.12.004.
7. Rius-Ruiz F.X., Andrade F.J., Riu J., and Rius F.X. September 29, 2013. Computer-operated analytical platform for the determination of nutrients in hydroponic system. Food Chemistry. [Internet]. [cited March 29, 2019]; 147: 92-97. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.09.114

Abstract

Many different variables influence the relationship between plants and pollinators. Their mutualistic relationship drives a coevolutionary force among species. They rely heavily on each other for survival and reproduction, each exploited the others resources for their own benefit. With plants requiring insects and animals for pollen transfer and reproduction, new adaptations have arisen in response to pressures exerted on them by pollinators and external forces. Plants have modified their floral and fruit signaling to promote plant reproduction, and have evolved morphologically complex structures to restrict access to their specific pollinators. Pollinators have also made modifications to better increase their fitness. They have innate and learnt preferences of floral signals, recognizing which plants they will receive the greatest energy gain from. External factors like climate change are exerting selective pressures on these interactions. With the changing of the climate, comes changes to the life history events of these species. Pollinators are appearing earlier than normal and plants are flowering much sooner than expected. If these events do not line up with each other, mismatches will occur caused by the differences in shift of magnitude or direction. It is important to understand these relationships and how selective pressures provided by each species and external forces control the coevolutionary shift amongst these species.

Introduction

Mutualistic relationships are ubiquitous in nature. These types of species interactions involve the exchange of goods/services between species. Both species involved in these mutualistic relationships must incur some benefit from the interaction, although it usually comes with a cost. Pollinators and flowering plants do not act altruistically; they each have their own selfish interest in mind. Plants rely on pollinators such as insects and birds for their reproduction. Wind and water are also modes of transport for their pollen. Wind and water dispersal are not always the most reliable means of transport because they are unpredictable forces. The chances of the pollen landing on another plant of the same species are much slimmer than they are with animal pollinators.

Animal pollinators rely on flowering plants as a source of food. Insect pollinators, such as bees, consume the nectar deep within the flower to sustain themselves. Inadvertently, they gather the pollen from the plant and transfer it to a plant of the same species when they feed again. Bees are an especially important insect pollinator. They are species specific, so the chances of them visiting multiple plants of the same species are great. Without bees, many of the foods we eat on a daily basis would cease to exist.

This mutualistic relationship arose from the continuous interactions between flowering plants and pollinators and has resulted in coevolution of the two to increase each others survival, growth, and reproduction. Flowers have evolved bright colors and fragrances to attract bees, increasing their chances of reproducing. Plants also produce nectar as a reward for the bees, which is very energetically expensive to produce because it serves no real purpose for the plant other than to attract potential pollinators. There are many selecting agents acting on both species in this relationship, resulting in adaptations arising to increase their fitness. Pollinators have evolved specific characteristics to enhance their foraging behavior such as eye morphology. Plants have also felt the selective pressures and in response, have developed signals to better increase their chances of reproduction (i.e. attracting pollinators).

Diversity of Pollinator Systems

Plants can rely on many different species for pollination, such as birds and insect pollinators. But the characteristics of the flowering plants and the pollinators are a large factor into which pollinators are equipped for each flower. Some pollinators, such as hummingbirds, have evolved a long beak making it easy to reach the nectar deep within the flower. Other pollinators are unable to reach the nectar in these deep flowers, and therefore are less likely to visit flowers exhibiting this quality. The evolutionary and biogeographical patterns of plant-pollinator interactions show a complex system of constraints and flexibility.

In pollinator systems, there are both generalist and specialist pollinators. Generalist pollinators are happy to receive pollen and nectar from whichever species of plant they come across. Most pollinators are generalists, including most bees, flies and butterflies. On the other hand, specialist pollinators are very species specific and have evolved specific relationships with a few plant species. Specialist pollinators display specialized structures and behavior to exploit a select few flowering plant species.

Certain clades of animals can be associated with a limited range of pollinators. Ollerton et al mapped out these relationships into a phylogeny of the Family Apocynaceae. Apocynaceae is a family of flowering plants including trees, shrubs, and herbs. They chose this specific family of flowering plants because it is one of the best studied large families from the perspective of understanding plant-pollinator relationships. Bird pollination occurs frequently across the family, but always in combination with insect pollinators. Flowers that are similar in their floral phenotype and resources are often shared by similar insects.

Mutualistic Strategies

There has been a steady global decline of mutualists such as pollinators that may cause a negative effect on biodiversity. There is a direct correlation between partner diversity (generalist vs. specialist) and coextinction. Pollinators that rely too heavily on one species of plant for food sources have higher chances of going extinct if that plant also goes extinct. Generalist pollinators gather nectar and pollen from a wide range of plants so when one is no longer available, it has many others to choose from. This limits the chance of extinction for these pollinators (Fricke, 2017).

The degree to which the species relies on this mutualistic relationship also has an impact on coextinction rates. Species participating in partially mutualistic strategies have better survival chances because they will not feel the pressures from mutualism disruption as strongly. If one species of the mutualistic relationship is removed from the environment, a species in an obligate relationship with the removed species will likely suffer massive selective pressures. With their source of food gone, they will be unable to reproduce and survive. Species involved in a beneficial relationship, but not an obligate one, will not be at risk of extinction because they likely are involved in other mutualistic relationships they can fall back on.

Plant Mating Systems (Reproduction)

Although many flowering plants rely on pollinators for their reproduction, there is an inherent conflict of interest between both parties. In plants, selection favors floral traits that increase chances of reproducing, the transfer of pollen to conspecific plants. In pollinators, selection favors traits that maximize energy gain through foraging behavior. These conflicts may constrain plant mating systems at multiple levels: the immediate ecological plant selfing rates, their distribution in and contribution to pollination networks, and their evolution (Devaux, 2014). The effect on plant selfing rates under pollen limitation and pollinator foraging behavior are important factors acting on plant evolution. Plant selfing rates and their evolution are shaped by the conflict of interest between plants and pollinators. The fitness of a plant is measured by the number of outcrossed and selfed seeds it produces and the numbed of pollen grains it successfully exports to other plants (Devaux, 2014). Therefore, the fitness of animal-pollinated plants relies heavily on pollinators.

Foraging Behavior

A pollinators foraging behavior has a direct consequence for plant reproduction and is a driving force in coevolution amongst these species. Pollinators can be attracted to a plants color and smell, attracting them to plants displaying these qualities more often then to ones not. These exhibited traits advertise the reward of pollen and nectar to pollinators. Plant-pollinator interactions are not altruistic so there must be some benefit for the pollinator in visiting a plant. This reward incentive drives the foraging behavior of pollinators. Plants have developed differing traits that can attract animal pollinators to feed from them, allowing for their reproduction.

These traits include color, shape, scent and size of the flower. Some pollinators exhibit a preference in their flower morphology, whereas others do not. Hummingbirds often prefer red flowers but bees prefer flowers of yellow or purple color. There are many pollinators that exhibit a strong flexibility in preference due to learning associations between reward and a particular trait. These pollinator preferences impose selective pressures on flowering plants. They have evolved specific traits to attract pollinators with flower trait preference to increase their reproductive success and in turn, their fitness. Pollinator-mediated selection can have profound effects on flower traits in response to this selective pressure. Trait preference arises from the presence of other morphologically similar flowering species or the presence of a competitor. The increase of flower visitation by pollinators can cause selection for the preferred flower type, making it appear more frequently due to its reproductive success.

Fruit Scent/Floral Signal

The large diversity of floral traits observed in plants are due to a set of adaptations that promote plant reproduction through animal pollinators. The need to offer an attractive reward to pollinators exerts strong selection of fruit/floral traits. Angiosperms have independently evolved fleshy fruits in many of the extant angiosperm families. Fruits come in an abundance of different shapes, sizes and colors and are distributed across taxa correlating with their seed dispersal by frugivores, animals that feed on fruit.

The dispersal syndrome hypothesis postulates that fruit traits are selected to match dietary requirements and sensory capacities of their primary seed dispersal vectors (Lomascolo, 2010). This hypothesis claims the selective pressures exerted by seed dispersers causes the high variance in fruit traits. A frugivore will only visit a plant in which it receives a reward that increases its fitness. Fruits that match the dietary requirements of a pollinator will be more frequently visited and will be selected for due to their reproductive success. Another thing to be considered is the ability of the pollinator to access the reward, whether it be nectar or fruit. If a pollinator is not equipped to get to the reward, there is little chance it will visit that species of flower again. Floral signals are used as a visual and olfactory form of communication between flowers and their pollinators. Many flowering plants have evolved flowers adapted to one particular group of pollinators and emit signals to attract their specific pollinators. Specific signals, innate and learnt preferences of flower visitors, and sensory exploitation make communication between flowers and pollinators very diverse and complex.

Morphological complexity is a floral signal perceived by insect pollinators. Morphologically complex flowers constrain the access of insect visitors to their nectar rewards. Only a small portion of insect pollinators are able to successfully forage on these flowers, mainly large bees. This limitation on visitors increases the food intake for successful visitors by restricting the range of pollinators able to receive said reward. This pollinator specialization allows the plants reproductive success to increase because it limits cross-species pollen transfer. An insect pollinator suited to forage from these complex flowers will continuously visit due to the large reward associated with them. These plant traits coevolved in response to pollinator selective pressures. They evolved specific signals and cues to attract their pollinators, in turn causing the pollinators to modify their foraging behavior in response. By altering their foraging behavior to reflect their flower preferences, pollinators are increasing their foraging success and the plant’s reproductive success.

Herbivore Selection

What makes plant-pollinator interactions so diverse is because they are affected by both interactors’ phenotype and external variables. One of these external variables is herbivore-induced pollinator limitation. Herbivores feed on plants and they can have divergent effects on the individual and population levels depending on the plants response to herbivory. Plants must attract pollinators, but also must deter antagonist consumers such as herbivores.

Many plants exhibit herbivore-induced chemical defenses that work to deter herbivores from feeding on the plant. When an herbivore feeds on a plant, it alters/damages the floral displays, making it harder for pollinators to identify the plant. Pollinators will avoid flowers being fed upon by herbivores, making herbivore host plants much less likely to be visited by a pollinator. Herbivore attack can alter the quality or quantity of nectar/pollen rewards or the floral signaling meant to attract pollinators. Without these rewards or signals, pollinators will stop visiting these species of flowers, therefore reducing the flowers fitness and reproductive success. Herbivore disruption will cause volatile organic compounds to be emitted from the plant, providing cues as to the metabolic state and chemical defense status of the plant. This can attract other natural predators such as parasitoids. When antagonistic species limits the interaction rate of these individuals, it results in a fitness loss for each of the species.

Climate Change on Plant-pollinator Relationships

Climate change has been a forefront issue within the last few years. With a changing environment, comes changes to the species that live within that environment. Climate change is altering ecosystem processes and species interactions. In particular, climate warming has had a negative effect on these interactions. The change in climate is causing flowers to bloom much earlier than normally and species to appear earlier than expected. If these shifts among plants and pollinators co-occur, their activity should be maintained, although pollination might occur earlier then seen in the past. The problems arise when one species involved in this mutualistic relationship occurs earlier than its mutualistic partner. This would shift the timing of pollination and flowering, causing a reduction on plant-pollinator interactions. Without these interactions, many species would be affected, including humans. We rely on plant-pollinator interactions just as much as the species involved. A vast majority of our crops rely on pollinators to produce the vegetables and fruits we have grown accustomed to.

Morton et al highlights some of the approaches we can use to better understand and predict how climate change will impact plant-pollinator systems. Experimental manipulations, such as spatial and temporal transplants, provide insight into the current and future effects of climate change. Spatial transplants require the movement of plants or pollinators within their current ranges and beyond. Their fitness and interactions are then measured to visualize how they respond to these changes. Temporal transplants alter the natural environment of the plant, such as removing snow to reflect the conditions associated with climate change. This allows us to visualize how phenotypically plastic genotypes are.

Climate change is a force with consequences that we are already beginning to witness. These extreme changes in climate will affect all species inhabiting Earth. Both plants and pollinators will respond to these changes, altering their current mutualistic relationships. The life history events of pollinators and plants are shifting with this drastic change. Without studying the responses of these species, the consequences in these shifts will remain unknown.

Conclusions

Mutualistic relationships are ubiquitous in nature. Plants and pollinators rely on their mutualistic relationships to increase each others survival, growth, and reproduction. Although these species mutually benefit from these relationships, they do not act altruistically. For both parties involved, there is a selfish underlying interest. Plants need pollinators to transfer their pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Pollinators rely on plants to gain energy through pollen and nectar rewards. Because plants and pollinators are so closely intertwined, they have coevolved together to increase their own fitness. Plants produce nectar purely as a means of enticing pollinators to visit their flower. There is no other benefit to producing nectar and it is very energetically costly to make. These rewards increase a plants chances of reproduction. Plants emit floral and fruit signals that attract pollinators, evolved in response to specific pollinator foraging preferences. These relationships between plants and pollinators create a vast network of interactions, each contributing to each other.

It is important to study these types of interactions to better understand the impacts of environmental factors, such as climate change, on the systems. If we can map out the response of plants and pollinators on these changes, we can better identify an appropriate strategy to handling these changes. Ecosystems around the world are experiencing unprecedented rates of species loss. With climate change acting quickly, some plants and pollinators will be negatively impacted. The closely knit relationship between plants and pollinators allows for coextinction to occur among species quite easily. The next course of action in this field of research is to study different approaches to address the gap caused by climate change.

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Introduction

Photomorphogenesis is the progression of plants where the case of plant improvement responds to the scope of light. At this moment, is used as a wellspring of essentialness. Any change in the structure and function of an organism in response to changes in light intensity is known as photomorphogenesis. Close by plants, it is a common part of progression in living beings, protists, and microorganisms. (Admin, ‘A Brief Account On Photomorphogenesis’, 2020)

On germination plants go through a few stages of development culminating in flowering and production of seeds, followed eventually by death. These stages through which the plants pass are not controlled by some coincidence yet on a blend of fixed genetic factors and specific influence of the environment. One of the most significant of these natural elements for plants is light. The development of the plants is known as photomorphogenesis. The effect of light on plants has been separated into various classes. Photosynthesis states with the effect of light as an energy source. Likewise, regardless, there are the effects on improvements and bowing of plants towards or away from light, the so-called phototropic responses. Finally, there is photomorphogenesis, the control that is applied by light over the development, growth and partition of a plant, autonomously of photosynthesis. (Schäfer & Nagy, Photomorphogenesis in plants and bacteria, 3rd edition: function and signal transduction mechanisms, 2006, p. 1)

Types of photoreceptors

The photoreceptors are seven type

1. Phycobilins
2. Cryptochrome
3. UV-B Receptors
4. Flavonoids
5. Betacyanins
6. Chloroplasts
7. Carotenoid Pigments.

Phytochromes

Phytochrome is a chromoprotein whose state is affected by light. It is basically created in murkiness and exists as a matter of first importance as PR (or P660; P is the contraction of phytochrome, R implies diminished). The presentation to light of the frequency lambda = 660 nm (red) moves it into PFR (or P730; FR = far-red). PFR is re-moved into PR by introduction to light of the frequency lambda = 730 nm. PR is the organically latent, PFR the naturally dynamic state.

Spruit (1972) has proposed that the loss of phyto-chrome photoreversibility during the obliteration reac-tion (i.e., the loss of frightfully discernible phyto-chrome in etiolated tissue when present as the FR-engrossing Pfr structure) could be represented by a compartmentalization of phytochrome instead of by a genuine corruption of the chromoprotein. Spruit’s contention additionally can be utilized to represent any watched changes in photoreversibility. His contention depends on the purported ‘sifter impact,’ whereby for a given amount of color in a given example, a uniform dispersion of the shade would yield a generally high absorbance esteem when contrasted with that acquired with the shade in a compartmen-talized appropriation. (Mackenzie, Briggs, & Pratt, 1978)

Role in seed germination

The photomorphogenic improvement of plants initiates with seed germination. The advancement of germination is interceded by phytochromes and levels of two hormones, abscisic corrosive (ABA), what’s more, gibberellic corrosive (GA) that work unfairly. ABA assumes significant jobs in seed lethargy under troublesome conditions, while GA advances seed germination when ecological conditions are good. In dicots, each phytochrome part (phyA to phyE) gives seeds the capacity to react and modify the planning and spot of germination to various natural signals. Arabidopsis seeds, when appropriately sharpened to light, sprout after illumination with VLFR through phyA flagging, and optionally through phyD and phyE, though seeds less delicate to light require a higher photon fluence (LFR) to develop through phyB. Up until this point, data concerning the atomic premise of phyB-intervened germination is preferred comprehended over that on phyA-intervened germination. Light-reliant actuation of phyB tweaks ABA and GA flagging and digestion. PIF1 (otherwise called PIL5 or PIF3-like 5), RVE1 (reveille 1), and RVE2 are the repressors of germination. PIF1 is known to curb seed germination either legitimately or by implication through DELLA proteins, for example, GAI (GA-obtuse) and RGA (repressor of GA), when phyB is inert. PIF1 was at first known to curb seed germination in obscurity. Under the light condition, photoactivated phytochromes translocate to the core and debase PIF1 protein by means of the ubiquitin/proteasome framework, which has been recommended to go about as the administrative instrument of phytochromes in the advancement of seed germination. (Tripathi, Hoang, Han, & Kim, ‘Regulation of Photomorphogenic Development by Plant Phytochromes’, 2019)

Role in de-etiolation

Under the soil, growing seedlings experience etiolation with long hypocotyls and close cotyledons, lacking chlorophylls and valuable chloroplasts. Subsequent to ascending out of the soil and showing up at light, the etiolated seedlings experience de-etiolation, which joins cotyledon opening, chlorophyll biosynthesis, chloroplast headway, and right now advancement (i.e., photomorphogenesis). Phytochromes and four PIF people (PIF1, PIF3, PIF4, PIF5) expect a central activity in these etiolation and de-etiolation events, nearby various controllers. Upon FR and R light introduction, phyA and phyB experience a nuclear translocation, which prompts phosphorylation and fast debasement of PIFs, the negative translation controllers in photomorphogenic improvement. Right now, removal of utilitarian PIFs releases the genome-wide disguise of translation, progressing photomorphogenesis. (Tripathi, Hoang, Han, & Kim, ‘Regulation of Photomorphogenic Development by Plant Phytochromes’, 2019)

Role in shade avoidance

Shade avoidance is a set of responses that display by plants when they are exposed to the shade of another plant. It regularly incorporates extension, modified blossoming time, expanded apical strength and adjus. It often includes elongation, altered flowering time, increased apical dominance and altered partitioning of resources. This set of responses is collectively called the shade-avoidance syndrome (SAS).

Shade responses show changing quality along a continuum. Most plants are neither one of the boundaries hide avoiders or tolerators, yet have a mix of the two frameworks; this modifies them to their condition. Regardless, the ability to see and respond to disguise accept a huge activity in all plants: they are sessile ordinarily and access to photosynthetically powerful radiation is fundamental for plant sustenance and improvement. (‘Shade avoidance’, 2019)

Reference

1. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/phytochrome.htm
2. Admin. (2020, January 31). A Brief Account On Photomorphogenesis. Retrieved from https://byjus.com/biology/photomorphogenesis/
3. Mackenzie, J. M., Briggs, W. R., & Pratt, L. H. (1978). Phytochrome photoreversibility: Empirical test of the hypothesis that it varies as a consequence of pigment compartmentation. Planta, 141(2), 129–134. doi: 10.1007/bf00387878
4. Schäfer Eberhard, & Nagy, F. (2006). Photomorphogenesis in plants and bacteria, 3rd edition: function and signal transduction mechanisms. Dordrecht: Springer.
5. Sengbusch, P. v. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e30/30b.htm
6. Shade avoidance. (2019, July 11). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shade_avoidance
7. Tripathi, S., Hoang, Q. T. N., Han, Y.-J., & Kim, J.-I. (2019). Regulation of Photomorphogenic Development by Plant Phytochromes. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20(24), 6165. doi: 10.3390/ijms20246165

Plant extract refers to a product that is formed through an extraction and separation process where plants are used as raw materials. Generally the original components of the plants are not changed. In some cases, excipients are also used to make the powder or granular products have features like good fluidity and resistance to moisture absorption. There are also a small amount of liquid or oily plant extract products.

According to process and intrinsic quality, plant extracts can be divided into simple extracts, quantitative extracts, standardized extracts, and purified extracts. Based on the product form, they are classified into solid extracts, liquid extracts, and soft extracts. Also, based on the formula, they are divided into single medicine extract, compound Chinese medicine extract, and component extract.

Application of plant extracts

Plant extracts can be applied as and in a wide range of scenarios, including natural pigments, natural sweeteners, functional plant extracts, traditional Chinese medicine extracts, and plant essential oils used in food, additives, special foods and health foods, daily chemicals and cosmetics, formula particles and APIs.

Natural coloring

Using roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits of plants as the initial raw materials, and in together with appropriate solvent, an organic matter is prepared through separation, refining and drying processes. This kind of organic matter is called plant extract natural pigments. At present, there are more than 40 main natural pigments on the market, such as capsicum red pigment, marigold extract, gardenia yellow pigment, curcumin and so on.

Natural sweetener

Products obtained by extracting and processing natural synthetic sweet components in natural plants are usually called natural sweeteners. According to its sweetness, it can be divided into low-intensity sweeteners such as sucrose and beet sugar, and high-intensity sweeteners such as steviol glycosides, mogrosides, sweet tea glycosides, licorice extracts and neohesperidin dihydrochalcone. The replacement of sugar with natural high-strength sweeteners is the main trend in the current food and beverage industry.

Functional plant extracts

At present, there are 27 main health functions claimed by health foods, and plant extracts can be found in each of these functions:

• Enhance immunity: ginseng extract, cordyceps extract
• Assist in lowering blood lipids: Tartary buckwheat extract, dandelion extract
• Assist in lowering blood sugar: bitter gourd extract, wolfberry extract
• Antioxidant: grape seed extract
• Aid to improve memory: Ginkgo biloba extract, fenugreek extract
• Relieve visual fatigue: bilberry extract, blueberry extract, lutein
• Promote lead discharge: pepper extract, sea buckthorn extract, grapefruit peel extract
• Help clear the throat: Honeysuckle extract, licorice extract, Luo Han Guo extract
• Assist in lowering blood pressure: Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract, rutin extract
• Improve sleep: Acanthopanax senticosus extract, Jujube seed extract, Valerian extract
• Promote lactation: Pueraria lobata extract
• Relieve physical fatigue: Ganoderma lucidum extract
• Improve hypoxia tolerance: Rhodiola rosea extract
• Auxiliary protection against radiation hazards: Saussurea extract, lycopene, spirulina extract
• Weight loss: Pueraria lobata flower extract, lotus leaf extract, garcinia cambogia extract
• Improve growth and development: flavonoids
• Increase bone density: spinach, cabbage, kidney beans, oats…
• 18. Improve nutritional anemia: Maca extract
• Auxiliary protection against chemical liver damage: milk thistle extract
• Anti-acne: Magnolia Bark Extract, Strawberry Seed Extract
• Eliminate chloasma: Glycyrrhiza glabra extract
• Improve skin moisture: Astragalus root extract, rosemary extract
• Improve skin oil content: green tea extract, lavender extract
• Regulate intestinal flora: prebiotic plant extracts
• Promote digestion: Hawthorn extract
• Laxative: Cassia Seed Extract, Senna Leaf Extract
• Auxiliary protection against gastric mucosal damage: sea buckthorn oil, Hericium erinaceus extract

Chinese medicine extract

Chinese medicine formula granules: It is made by water extraction, concentration, drying, and granulation. After the clinical formula, it can be used by patients. TCM formula granules are a supplement to traditional Chinese medicine decoction pieces.

Traditional Chinese medicine extraction raw materials: a single active ingredient with a clear pharmaceutical active ingredient obtained via extraction and separation of traditional Chinese medicinal materials or natural plants. Some can be used as raw materials for traditional Chinese medicine preparation, and some, including penicillin, paclitaxel, and camptothecin, also can be used for chemical medicine preparations.

Standardized Chinese medicine extract: mainly refers to the Chinese medicine extracts included in the ‘Plant Oils and Extracts’ item of the Pharmacopoeia. A total of 47 vegetable oils and extracts are included in the 2015 Chinese Pharmacopoeia.

Plant essential oil

Plant essential oil is a kind of aromatic oily liquid extracted from plants. There are more than 3000 kinds of plant essential oils, of which about 300 kinds have important commercial value. In addition to being used as spices, plant essential oils are also a class of natural antibacterial materials, which can inhibit bacteria, fungi and viruses. Because of its aromatic taste and antibacterial activity, plant essential oils are widely used in daily chemicals (such as perfume, cosmetics, hand cream, soap, fresh air, antiseptic), medicines, food and beverages, feed (such as oregano oil), pest control, etc. China is the world’s largest producer and exporter of raw materials of Litsea cubeba essential oil, accounting for about 70% of the international market.

New plant extract products and their new applications are constantly being developed. The products that have received broad attention are: industrial hemp CBD, plant essential oils, rosemary, sweeteners, tannins, etc.

Sunset is not a word it is an emotion. During the sunset or sunrise, the sky takes on shades of orange . According to Ram Charon- this orange color gives us hope that the sun will set to rise again. Just like many people have ups & downs in their life. Some people give up. But some people still have to hope to rise & shine again. So don’t lose hope. Every problem has its solution the only thing use do is to just calm and see from where the problem is occurring. We don’t find the solution to any problem by taking stress. Stress gives us many diseases such as hypertension, depression, and many other physical and mental related diseases. So just keep calm and do the right thing don’t take care what the world is saying. Sunset is a natural beauty. It is one of the most beautiful things that nature has given to us. many people go to see the sunset on the sea beach. Many people see this from houses.

Sunset gives us immense joy and pleasure Because it is a natural beauty and every natural beauty gives us joy and pleasure. Man-made things may give us pleasure for a particular time but natural beauty gives us joy for a lifetime. The beauty of sunset lasts for seconds. But its beauty products have a few lasting impacts on the viewer’s mind. During the sunsets, all the things look beautiful. The dark mountains and tall dark trees give our inner soul happiness. During this people finish their work to come home. Birds come to their nest. The nature looks very beautiful during the sunset. Nature starts getting dark. The beauty of sunset helps many poets, writers, and authors to generate beautiful ideas and compose poems. At the time of sunset, nature seems to be in a hurry just like a service am going to his house after completing his daily work. The sun gives us natural light the whole day and everyone can imagine the world will become if the sun doesn’t rise for one day there will be a whole dark. The sun is essential in order to sustain life on Earth. The sun provides us with many vitamins such as vitamin D. It is helpful in generating energy now-a-day like solar energy.

During the sunset, the floating clouds which are no longer to carry rain or usher but that clouds add a new color to the sunset. In fact, it looks very beautiful When there is sunset, the clouds around the sun add an intense feeling in our mind. It adds a feeling to our minds. Some of the best places where people go and see the sunset are-

• The Griffith Observatory Los Angeles
• Oia, Santorini, Greece
• Ipanema Beach (Rio de Janeiro) Brazil.Diamond Head, Honolulu, Hawaii
• Taj Mahal, Agra India.

These are some of the best places in the world where people go and watch the sunset. According to Mahatma Gandhi- When they admire the wonders of a sunset or the beauty of the moon, My soul expands in the worship of the creator.

By nature, humans and the environment are deeply connected. Similarly, a lot of creativity relies on inspiration from the environment, and our role as environmental stewards. For many creative individuals, being in nature is one of the most influential avenues for opening their creative landscape. Fortunately, nature is in fact a key player in stimulating the mind toward these particular ways of thinking, which promote creativity and can cause a deeper connection between the individual and nature.

So—how does time in nature foster environmental sustainability for the creative individual?

When approaching environmental sustainability, there are deep ties which relate the time spent by a creative individual in nature, and the level of care they have for it. This connectedness, during mindful consideration of the creative process, has a stronger effect on the individual’s view of nature, and resultantly on sustainability outcomes (Ives et al., 2018). The effective state, which fosters creativity, frees the mind from places where frameworks and calculation are dominant—both of which do not promote creativity. The relationship between nature as a source of inspiration and the creative individual can be viewed as a cycle which draws the individual in and results in a codependent intimacy. This leaves both parties longing for more interaction, thus recommencing the process. This cycle has what I consider to be three steps. First, the creative individual seeks nature, which allows them to find inspiration that fosters creative thought. Then, the creative individual feels a longing to invest back into the natural environment, from which they have felt mentored. Ultimately, this cycle promotes a longing to instill sustainable environmental practices, in order to respect and uphold the environment from which creativity can be discovered.

In the pursuit of connecting with the natural world, the creative individual may find unexpected inspiration all around them. There are many characteristics of creative thinking, and being in nature has a positive affect on their development. Plambech’s 2015 study on the impact of nature on creativity, there is a clear correlation between nature as a source of inspiration to particularly creative individuals (Plambech & Konijnendijk van den Bosch, 2015). This study focused on the deep and holistic emotions of freedom associated with time spent in nature and how that allows creativity to flow and meander, just as the streams and valleys do from which these individuals find their inspiration. The biophilia hypothesis, proposes that humans are intrinsically inclined to be connected with nature and living organisms in general. This intrinsic connection promotes interaction with natural environments as a means of positive development and increases one’s desire to be a steward of the environment (Rogers, 2019). When we are able to connect with the natural world on a deeper level and explore the depths of its influence, there is a strong connection made that will inspire creativity and intimacy.

As one’s creativity becomes linked with natural environments, one experiences a longing to devote time and investment back into the environment. The further one walks into natural environments with a recognition of the influence it has on them, the closer their relationship with nature becomes. Exposure most often leads to connection, thus the more time spent in the natural world, feeding off of its positive attributes, the greater amount of care one will have for nature. In a study done on individuals reconnecting with natural environments for the purpose of encountering sustainability, the authors found that those with stronger connections with the natural environment had higher emotional and philosophical “leverage points.” These individuals also considered sustainability to be highly important (Ives et al., 2018). These “leverage points” range from a shallow connection, such as a superficially motivated material connection, to a deeper philosophical connection between nature and the creative individual. These positive emotions draw individuals closer to nature, as a single unified system and as something to be in intimate relationship with, which increases the individual’s desire to care for the wellbeing of the environment. When people are encouraged to foster a stronger connection with the environment, transformative growth can occur in their life. They will often invest that growth back into the environment from which they were inspired.

How then can we as creative individuals move forward?

With this cycle in mind, recognition of the creative influence found in natural environments is of critical importance when considering both creative processes and sustainability practices. When the creative individual seeks inspiration and influence, they can find it in natural environments. Likewise, the environment is able to find a steward in the creative individual. Biophilic in nature, the relationship that is formed from this practice benefits both the individual and the natural environment with which they are connected. Relating back to the aforementioned cycle, I propose that each of us takes the time to consider where on this cycle we may fall and how we are to set forth in upholding our creativity and environment within the cycle. Where no recognition can currently be made in identifying one’s location on this cycle, there seems to be a clear understanding of the benefits that await the creative individual and their environment in taking the next step.

I took this picture because this was one of the most amazing sunsets I’ve ever been able to witness. Have you ever noticed that you have that one thing that makes you feel warm inside and for that moment, life is good? For me, that thing is the sunset. The sunset has always been there no matter what, it is my peace and comfort. We all appreciate different things in life, but the sunset makes you value the little things in life.

I never used to appreciate one of God’s best gifts until I was a sophomore in high school. I remember it had just been one of those days where I woke up late, and showed up tardy to my first class. I had got a bad grade on a test, I went home depressed to myself. I got something to eat and went to the beach with my dog. As I sat there eating the food I had brought. I looked over the water and could not describe what I saw next. I saw the most beautiful sunset I have ever seen; it reflected over the water with gorgeous orange colors. At that moment, time stood still and everything in life was okay. It was like all my problems just evaporated into the sky. I remember sitting there with my dog and thinking why I had ever whined and complained. Life is too short and full of much bigger and better things to have bad days. Watching that sunset, I realized how important it is to value the little things in life and not worry so much when things go bad.

I believe in sunsets because they give people a sense of comfort and serenity. So many people go day by day without taking the time to watch the small beauties, like sunsets, that life has to offer. What I also like about watching and capturing these colorful moments is that you really can’t look away, you have to pay attention. In just seconds the sky will change into something new and exciting. Knowing that you want to be present in the moment and notice it all. The sunset is a symbol, it represents how good things happen every day. It is reliable and people can count on it being there around in the evening every day to give them that escape they need. Sunset reminds us that there are things, situations, or problems that end at the right time. Sunset is a good picture of not losing hope but building strength. As the sun goes down, we are never giving up instead we are preparing to rise up for tomorrow’s other challenges! The sunset gave me my escape and continued to daily. I know that no matter how bad the day, that sunset will always be there. The sunset is something more than just a ball of fire it is an escape. An escape that we all need.