The argument presented by the passage is that the conclusion of Angela Smith should be dismissed on the basis of her grandparents being members of the Iroquois nation. While the person or group making the argument is not identified in the passage, they are asserting that there is a level of bias in Smith’s arguments due to her heritage.
Analyze the Argument
The main issue that is being brought up is a question of the credibility on the part of Angela Smith when she is making her argument against the storage of radioactive waste on Native American land. It is being argued that since Ms. Smith has a Native American background, then she is biased on the issue, and her comments should not be given sufficient weight. Admittedly, there is some merit to this line of thought since someone that is directly connected to a particular issue may have some inherent biases and, as such, they are unlikely to make a decision based on facts alone. However, there are several factors that should be taken into consideration before accepting the view that Ms. Smith is biased.
The first factor is the storage of radioactive waste on Native American land. Most Native American land consists of nature preserves with limited rural and urban development. This is to help preserve the natural beauty of these locations as well as ensure that there is healthy land present for future generations. By storing radioactive waste in these places, no matter the assurances of proper security and disposal, there is still a risk of the pollutants seeping into the environment which could have devastating effects Janovics 12; Peters 55).
This is one facet that contributes to the arguments presented by Smith since there is a real danger of environmental pollution if radioactive waste is stored on Native American land. The second factor that should be considered is that it is Smith’s grandparents, and not herself, who were members of the Iroquois Nation. Attributing the status of her grandparents to herself is a very vague argument since even her name “Angela Smith” does not connote any connection to a Native American heritage. The third factor that should be considered is the fact that radioactive waste is not supposed to be disposed of in areas where they could be a considerable environmental impact. Most radioactive waste is stored in isolated areas, such as in the desert, due to the lower chance of environmental damage should the storage mechanisms fail (Bracke and Fischer-Appelt 81).
Detecting Fallacious Reasoning
When examining the argument presented in the passage, the apparent fallacy that is present is a circumstantial ad hominem. This type of fallacy occurs when someone or a group is attacking a claim by stating that the individual or group that is making it is doing so out of self-interest (Van Eemeren, Garssen and Meuffels 350; Johnson 4). In this case, one group is accusing Ms. Smith of arguing against the storage of radioactive waste on Native American land because she is part of the Iroquois Nation through her grandparents.
The problem with utilizing an argument based on circumstantial ad hominem is that an individual’s personal interests and their inherent circumstances have no impact on whether a claim is true or false (Putman 553). For example, just because a person is Chinese does not mean that their advice that the best restaurant in town is an Asian noodle house is false. They could be right, and their ethnicity would have nothing to do with it.
The same can be said about the circumstances surrounding Ms. Smith. Yes, she has Native American heritage, but her claims that storing radioactive waste on Native American land is a bad idea does have some merit due to the potential environmental effects. As such, it can be stated that the arguments directed against Ms. Smith are ad hominem in nature and are completely fallacious since they have no bearing on the facts she is stating.
Works Cited
Bracke, G., and K. Fischer-Appelt. “Methodological Approach To A Safety Analysis Of Radioactive Waste Disposal In Rock Salt: An Example.” Progress In Nuclear Energy 84.(2015): 79-88. Print.
Janovics, Richard. “Radiocarbon Signal Of A Low And Intermediate Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility In Nearby Trees.” Journal Of Environmental Radioactivity 153.(2016): 10-14. Print.
Johnson, Christopher M. “Reconsidering The Ad Hominem.” Philosophy 84.2 (2009): 4.
Peters, Helen. “Managing Geological Uncertainty For Underground Development Applications: Implications For A Future Geological Disposal Facility For Higher Activity Radioactive Waste.” Environmental Law Review 17.1 (2015): 55. Print.
Putman, Daniel. “Discussion Equivocating The Ad Hominem.” Philosophy 85.4 (2010): 551-555. Print.
Van Eemeren, Frans H., Bart Garssen, and Bert Meuffels. “The Disguised Abusive Ad Hominem Empirically Investigated: Strategic Manoeuvring With Direct Personal Attacks.” Thinking & Reasoning 18.3 (2012): 344-364. Print.
There is a prejudice against Native Americans that presents them as poor, uncultured, or even vulgar. However, the PBS Documentary The Spirit of Crazy Horse effectively dispels such myths, as it unveils the cultural beliefs, traditions, lifestyles, history, and worldview of one Native American tribe – the Lakota. The film highlights the uniqueness of the Lakota people and their philosophy, as well as the injustice they have suffered.
Main body
After watching the documentary, I felt both awe-struck and horrified. On the one hand, I admire Lakota’s love and respect for nature, patriotism, and the ability to enjoy simple things in life being happy and satisfied. On the other hand, it is unfathomable how the US government, a self-proclaimed fighter for equality and democracy, could terrorize this tribe. Even the attacks of radical Lakota groups could not justify the massacre of unarmed people. Thus, I have mixed impressions of this film, but it definitely made me review many things.
I want to note that in this documentary, one mostly sees the Lakota perspective on the historical events and their lifestyle. Therefore, the narrative may be biased, presenting some information inaccurately or not revealing all the important facts. On the other hand, there are many sources that show the US views on American history and interracial relations within the country, while people still know little about the Native Americans. It is always necessary to see different perspectives on conflict situations, and it is great that interviews of Lakota people, expressing their position and thoughts, are available now. Thus, this documentary is a valuable source of information, even if it shows a one-sided view of some historical events.
Conclusion
To conclude, the PBS Documentary The Spirit of Crazy Horse is a rare source of insight into the Lakota lifestyle, philosophy, and attitude to some significant historical events. It helps to see the Lakota people with their own eyes, not through the lens of existing prejudice or myths. It is impossible to say that the documentary is unbiased as it mostly presents a Lakota perspective on historical events. However, in my opinion, no other expert can give a better description of Lakota values, traditions, and beliefs than the Lakota people themselves.
Distorted representations of American Indian cultures have long been part of popular media in America. In the past twenty years or so there have been concerted attempts by activists and academics to discontinue the usage of American Indian imagery from the professional and amateur sports world or marketplace.
The representations, which are most often-stereotypical depictions of indigenous people, are offensive to both members of the public and, most importantly, the indigenous people themselves. The use of Native American mascots in sports is unjust because it depicts the native people in a stereotypical way and is insensitive to both their race and cultures. An example of this injustice is the “Redskins” mascot. The term “redskins” is offensive to Native Americans and the use of Native American mascots, and nicknames in sports needs to end.
Origin of “Red Skins”
“Redskin” emanates from usage of red color as an imagery and symbol that was used to identify a certain ethnic community during the time of colonization of the western countries by the Europeans. It refers to the Native Americans or the Indians who occupied the lands of America before the coming of European white settlers.
Although the original use of the term “redskin” did not have bad connotations, some people had the feeling, in later years, that the term was derogatory, racist, and it intended to depict Native Americans badly (Staurowsky, 69). Moreover, in most cases the term is associated with offensive situations, taboos, and even disgusting conditions. Indeed, the use of “redskin” is constantly avoided in many public places except in sports.
Initially, Anglo-Americans termed the Native Americans as being brown and light skinned, but this changed in the 18th century. They started identifying the Indians as being of different color from them (Staurowsky, 69). Therefore, the term was initially used in the United States to refer to indigenous Americans. However, currently, the term is specifically used to show racial degradation.
Some consider it offensive, derogatory, and extremely insulting. Indeed, most people currently interpret it as a siege to the American-Indian culture. Historically, “redskin” was probably a reference to the initial group of people who painted their body parts in red. In New York City and particularly New Jersey, the term was first used to refer to someone known as Delaware who was living in the southern part of New York State (Staurowsky, 69).
Problem with the Washington Redskins Mascot
The Washington Redskins is a football team that was founded in 1932. The use of the term Washington Redskins has brought many controversies, with majority of people particularly the Native American groups and the United States government arguing that the term “redskin” should be withdrawn from the name and only Washington Team should be left as the appropriate name (King, “Defensive Dialogues” 10).
They feel that the term is more insulting and provocative, thus it may lead to racial epithet that is disrespectful to the Native Americans. Therefore, most human civil rights activists and academic groups, including educational organizations discourage the use of the term “redskins” claiming that it can lead to racial conflicts if used in inappropriate context.
Although some people argue that the name provides more respect to the Native Americans, the feeling of bad intentions from its use by most people is enough to advocate for its elimination altogether (Staurowsky, 67).
Efforts towards Changing Mascot
Generally, Americans not at the center of this discussion take this as a case of ideological differences. Lack of concern makes the natives to see this as a mass massacre on its culture. They insist that even the judges do not put much attention in cases involving this issue. However, it important to note that even among the Native American society, there is no best way to approach this subject (Staurowsky, 67). Some say that the continued use of the mascots should be patented and benefits given to the community.
Others argue that this is demeaning, derogative and a sign of just how the natives have been at the receiving end historically when it comes to various decisions. Lastly, a group of Native Americans feels that the use of mascots honors them in various ways. They believe that these organizations do not mean harm.
Conclusively, the nature of this discussion is a philosophical gridlock even from the Native American society. The early treaties meant to eradicate conflicts between the two tribes still hold emotive concerns within the general society (Staurowsky, 70).
Why it has not Worked/ How to make it Work
From an organizational look, the usage of a mascot is an identity in itself. The idea is that it brings luck and success. This contrasts the history of native Indians who complain about historical injustices. If the organizations were to use different mascots, they would lose identity and media coverage, which comes with economic gains. The American government should devise ways to arrive at an amicable solution to this festering debacle. Hardliners within the community may get restless and spark conflicts.
Because the judicial avenue has not arrived at a solution, the government should take a hands-on look at the issue. The American society should look at ways to reassure Native Americans. Lastly, an amicable solution may go a long way in creating better racial relations across America. As it currently stands, many minority groups perceive the US government as making historical decisions that are marred in favoritism.
Discomforts of Using Native Americans as Mascots
Following many unsuccessful attempts at redacting usage of these images, some organizations have returned to using the images after stopping because natives had convinced them. This is because of the media coverage whose popularity they want to benefit. On the other hand, there is a group that feels deeply hurt and racially discriminated against by use of these images. They say that the domineering American culture has constantly projected them as a weaker race (Pewewardy, 180).
The constant revival of previous injustices visited upon them is the Achilles heel in trying to find a solution. The general implication of this emotional discussion and subsequent exhaustion of the highest legal avenues towards finding common ground is not a good thing. The possibility of hatred that spawns warlike tendencies and conflict is imminent especially in places like Dakota where the population of Indians is high (Pewewardy, 183).
Why this is a Touchy Subject
Many American Indians consider the use of “Redskins” (in both name and imagery) as having various philosophical implications and meanings. Majority’s sentiment is that the use of the Indian imagery depicts a racist environment. In addition, there is also an implication that the name creates a hostile environment (Vargas and Annys, page 1).
However, there are also supporters of this logo and name who derive their implications from the meaning. Perhaps, this is the reason why the some partners within the general society gathered several signatures to reinstate a state regulation (North Dakota) that required its application shortly. The name represented a tough time in the history of the Native American and Indians during which several native Indians were killed. It has a consequent implication that the Indians are hated (Spindel, 200).
Most American Indians have felt domineered by other American counterparts in consideration of the ancient actions or events that occurred amongst them in the ancient centuries. Therefore, the use of such names makes them recall the historical injustices, which they experienced because of the dominion (Spindel, 260). The philosophical implications are largely noted to stir emotional sentiments about the minority group that seemed to have undergone a lot of suffering.
Through the philosophical implications drawn from this name, the native Indians pose as the owners and of the land that was under dispute and view them as having deprived of their rights. The general implication here, therefore, remains emotive and might lead to the emergence of a conflict and fierce debate as already been noted, for example in North Dakota (Spindel, 259).
Usage of Native American Mascots and Nicknames at Young Age
Getting rid of Native American mascots and nicknames has been a great struggle in the United States because some individuals feel that the name shows respect, courage, bravery and a strong spirit (Pewewardy, 181). Therefore, there has been controversy in terms of the use of this term in the United States where fans, the team owners, and other academic organizations feel there is nothing wrong with mascots and logos, including nicknames (Pewewardy, 185).
Other supporters such as McCloud High School and Lamar High School in Oklahoma and Houston respectively have been quoted supporting the nicknames and mascots including their usage in sports. Indeed, several states have been identified to involve in the use of the redskin names for their teams (Pewewardy, 183).
This usage at a young age promotes the negativity. It is imperative that sports teams at a young age desist from using the imagery. The subjects taught in schools for history also need to enhance the fact that this usage is not derogatory.
How Elementary Schools Systems Encourage this
Despite the above situation, only 25 schools and 18 states have managed to drop these names following campaigns that have been geared towards eradication of the term “redskins” in the United States of America (Pewewardy 183). Despite all this support, schools should avoid the use of the term “redskins”, as it may lead to racial discrimination and low performance by students.
Many critics also concur that the name is more than derogatory and demeaning to the American indigenous people. Nevertheless, the struggle in the use of these nicknames and mascots seems unlikely to end in the near future due to the divergent perception exhibited by different groups of people (Staurowsky, 67).
How to Stop
Various attempts have been made in order to ensure that the changes will be applied to the use of mascots. Indeed, many scholars and researchers have published articles and journals advocating for the elimination and avoidance of the use of the term “redskin” (Staurowsky, 70). Again, there are also numerous criticisms from the public calling for the avoidance of the use of the term in football teams and other games and in public institutions.
Indeed, these attempts seem to have gained support from various team managers and game operators who admonish fans and other members of public that try to display logos of “redskin” in various public gatherings including sports events. Furthermore, many social science researches have indicated that the use of sports mascot is trivial and leads to low self-esteem and low academic performance at schools (Staurowsky, 74).
Why Americans use Native Americans as Mascots and Nicknames
The American society’s treatment of Native Indians has been under sharp criticism from the American Indians and other minority groups for a long time. Sections of Americans perceive the culture of Indians as war-like. However, others perceive the Natives as domicile and peace loving with a knack for been domineered (King, 10). This paper categorically depicts the manner in which the American culture uses Indian mascots to enhance the image of colonialism starkly imprinted on Indian American minds (Staurowsky, 67).
They see them as derogatory, and demeaning to them, their culture, and tradition. The Indians perceive the widespread mascot usage and its general representation as a reminder of the oppression that had been visited upon them and a continuation of an attack on their ideologies and beliefs (King, 11).
Struggles of Ending the Culture
Many organizations that use the American Indian mascot defend this by claiming that they do not want to depict a negative stereotype. However, they claim to emblem the universality and team spirit demonstrated by the Indians across generations. The media uses this to generate heated debates that make organizations to continue using these mascots to ride on the inherent euphoria (Staurowsky, 70).
There have been concerted attempts by the American Indian society in the United States to curtail usage of the mascots. For example, most Americans are made to believe that use of the mascots depicts an American society free of racial prejudices (Staurowsky, 70). However, scholars of the Indian history and representatives of the Indian culture oppose this strongly (Dabis-Delano, 350). They depict it as dehumanizing and strongly skewed to project a culture marred in retrogressive ideals.
Popularity of the usage of Indian mascots in the 20th century was widespread. Though some organizations have stopped using them, some still hung on to their mascots and do not show any signs that they will stop. Additionally, widespread usage of perceivably derogative words such as ‘redskins’ still exists in many American places (Staurowsky, 70).
Endorsements
Since the origin of the “Indians” name, some teams have become synonymous with culturally appropriated symbols of American Indians (Muir, 21). The rate of production of this imagery has greatly increased as the explosion of media technologies and the creativity of enterprising entrepreneurs have combined to generate consumer enthusiasm in varying memorabilia, placing the franchise within the top tier of professional teams in merchandise sales (Muir, 20).
Solutions to Usage of Native American Mascots and Nicknames Derogatorily
Using the Indian mascot is a controversy that just fails to fade away. The media, philosophers, and historians give varied views on this topic. This generates further discussion and the organizations at the center of all these register immense economic gains. Recently, the Native Americans have tried to get a piece of the profits arguing that without usage of their images this would not be case. Otherwise, as they have done for a long time, they insist that these organizations stop using the images (Dabis-Delano, 360).
The government is best placed to solve this problem. There are opinions that racism and bigotry characters shall be persistent if sport teams maintained to apply the concerned name and logo. The recent application of the logo and name in sports within US has elicited many reactions from different sides of the society.
The particular small boxes used by most American cheering squad during these sports were symbolically and figuratively harmful to others. The state governments should enact legislation that expressly prohibits this usage. Additionally, it is imperative that stakeholders desist from sensationalizing the issue (King, 12).
Conclusion
The paper discusses how the use of Native American mascots in sports is unjust because it depicts the native people in a stereotypical way and is insensitive to both their race and cultures. An example of this injustice is the Redskins mascot. With a notable infiltration into the American sporting culture right from elementary schools, antagonists consider the usage of these imagery and names derogatory while protagonists consider it as a way of upholding culture.
To stop their usage, states have to enact laws that expressly prohibit the culture. The media need not pay too much attention to the controversy and should detest giving airtime. Additionally, Americans have to arrive at a central ground through sober discussions and analysis of the effects of using the imagery.
Works Cited
Dabis-Delano, Laurel. “Eliminating Native American Mascots: Ingredients for Success.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 31.4 (2007): 340-373. Print.
King, Richard. “Defensive Dialogues: Native American mascots, Anti-Indianism, and Educational Institutions.” Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education 2.1 (2002): 1-12. Print.
King, Richard. “Uneasy Indians: Creating and Contesting Native American Mascots at Marquette University.” Team Spirits: The Native American mascots controversy 30.2 (2001): 281-303. Print.
Muir, Sharon. “Native Americans and Sports Mascots.” Team Spirits: The Native American mascots controversy 2.1 (2001): 19-22. Print.
Pewewardy, Cornel. “Playing Indian at Halftime: The Controversy over American Indian Mascots, Logos, and Nicknames in School-Related Events.” The Clearing House 77.5 (2004): 180-185. Print.
Spindel, Carol. Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over American Indian Mascots, New York: New York University Press, 2002. Print.
Staurowsky, Ellen. “’You Know, We Are All Indian’: Exploring White Power and Privilege in Reactions to the NCAA Native American Mascot Policy.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues 31.1 (2007): 61-76. Print.
A great deal of what we ‘know’ about history is based upon the stories that have been passed down to us through outsider accounts, cultural myths or other avenues. It is argued that by understanding what these myths are, we can begin to understand the ethics of the culture in terms of how the people understood their relationship with their environment, with other people and within their own community.
For example, the Iroquois nation’s creation myth provides a great deal of insight regarding the deep connection these people felt toward the earth as well as some sense of how they viewed the world. Building from what can be or has been inferred from myths such as the Iroquian creation myth, the purpose of the present study is to discover a ‘true’ picture of the Iroquois based on actual fact.
Importance of myth
Much of what we know of ancient culture is brought to us in the form of stories, either the stories of the descendants or the stories of the conquering outsiders. A preliminary look at the myths or legends of the Iroquois as compared to actual cultural values reveals how the stories of the culture have actually contributed to the peoples’ identity formation. Although the research study will begin with an investigation of myth, this will prove to be an essential component of any illustration of this culture.
This portion of the study will use a combination of research techniques. The first of these methods includes a literature review to discover ‘official’ understandings of a specific myth, such as the following discussion of the creation myth. This understanding, including the sense of depth of meaning conveyed by the presenter, will then be compared to the ‘real’ version as it is understood and willingly shared by a descendant of the tribe and discovered through personal interview.
The importance of this aspect of the study will also be discovered through personal interview as it is through the legends and stories that the culture has been preserved and upon which new generations build their identity. This is further supported by literature studies regarding how identity is formed.
In Iroquois creation legend, the world was formed as a result of the combined efforts of the animals which were already there. There are various versions of the story, but the basic concept holds that the nature of the earth is as a bit of mud spread across the back of a giant turtle which floats in the sea below the island of the Sky People (Oswalt, 2008). The versions shift regarding the origin of the Sky-Woman who was the first being to come down to our level of existence. Some reporters say she was the child of the Great Spirit who had become pregnant without having taken marriage vows and was punished by being sent to the lower seas (Klinck & Talman, 1970).
Others suggest she was the wife of a man who became angry that she was pregnant and threw her off of the Sky Island (Iroquois Creation Myth, 1997). There are also other versions that indicate this woman loved the sea below Sky Island and wanted to live closer to it so she started a new people which were the ancestors of the Iroquois people (Hooker, 1996). To prevent her from drowning, the aquatic animals already living in this realm dove down to the bottom of the ocean and brought back mud and muck, but couldn’t hold it together. The turtle volunteered and the mud was spread across his back to become the continent of North America.
The legends vary slightly again in discussing just how the continent was formed, whether it was the animals (Iroquois Creation Myth, 1997), the Sky-Woman as she awaited the birth of her child (Klinck & Talman, 1970) or the twins she bore (Hooker, 1996). These myths suggest a wide range of understanding, beginning with the very basic, literal understanding of the story to an illustration of the natural ‘bad’ nature of the Indian girl to a more sympathetic understanding of mutual benefit and responsibility.
Perhaps the more accurate version of the myth provides a clear distinction between the Sky-People who were magical and the Earth-people who were not. The version reported in the Klinck and Talman (1970) version is considered to be more accurate because it was originally taken at an earlier time (in the 1800s) from a sympathetic and more direct source. This version claims the Sky-Woman gave birth to a daughter and together they worked to build the continent until the daughter became of age. The man who came to marry her turns out to have been the great turtle, making the twins who are conceived a combination of Sky-People and Earth.
The twins are sharply divided with one being good and the other evil, killing his mother during the birthing process and working against his brother in their continuing devotion to building a world with their grandmother. Eventually, the twins fight with each point of contention giving rise to a new people. Because the tones of their voices as they fought shifted and changed, the different peoples who were born in this way spoke different languages. Finally, the good twin overcame the bad twin and forced him underground, where he continues to try to cause trouble by spitting fire from the earth in the form of volcanoes.
Internal knowledge
This creation myth goes a long way toward explaining not only the human role on the planet and their origin, but also many of the natural processes that can cause terror and questioning. The origin of the continent highlights the people’s extreme dependence on the good will of the animals as a means of support and sustenance. Without the animals, there would have been no earth and without the turtle, the earth that is available sinks back under the sea.
Natural events such as earthquakes and volcanoes are explained as shifts of the turtle in his eternally floating state or as attempts by the bad twin to disrupt life on the surface where the good twin was busily making life as sweet as possible for the people. From this myth, it can be inferred that the Iroquois people had a largely benevolent outlook on life in which all life was sacred and to be respected.
They generally lived in concert with their environment and with the other peoples of the continent whom they recognized as their brothers. However, they also understood that sometimes brothers made the fiercest enemies and that sometimes it was necessary to fight with one another in order to preserve the sweet life that the good twin wished them to lead.
As a result of this understanding, it is probable that within the tribe, the people also worked hard to ensure a benevolent peace among them with a reduction in fighting but recognition that sometimes this was necessary. Depending on the version of the myth, it might also be recognized that there is an element of gender relations contained in it, emphasizing both the extreme importance of the woman as the source of all human life and her concern for the population of the continent as well as her lower status as compared with the Sky-Men.
‘Real’ evidence of cultural values
These assumptions can be tested through the development of a professional relationship with a member of the Iroquois tribe, preferably one who chooses to live the lifestyle of his or her ancestors and is knowledgeable about the traditional beliefs. The information required through this portion of the research can be obtained through an interview or two in which questions have been carefully prepared but a great deal of leverage is provided to enable the interviewee the chance to discuss what he/she feels is important to understand about their culture, traditional society or how they have changed from the tribes of the past. If necessary, the focus of the research may be adjusted to reflect what is discovered during this phase of the research or supported by further literature review.
Conclusion
With a basic understanding of the impact of stories on the understanding of the people, it is also possible to discover what can be known of the people through an understanding of their traditional way of life. There are a great deal of available facts regarding how the Iroquois lived beginning as early as the 1500’s. The study will thus investigate the known facts of Iroquois life through the various types of artifacts that have survived to the present or were preserved through other means.
These artifacts include items such as the structure and function of the longhouse, favorite materials used for basic storage and transport of goods and understood styles of living in the form of gender roles and so on. This combination of facts and mythical understandings will thus yield a more accurate image of the people and their way of life than can be discovered through a single, potentially biased, source.
Bibliography
Hooker, Richard. “The Iroquois Creation.” World Civilizations. (1996). Web.
This source provides helpful information regarding the outsider’s understanding of Iroquois myth.
This source provides some corroborating and some conflicting information regarding the outsider’s understanding of Iroquois myth.
Klinck, Carl F. & Talman, James J. (Eds.). The Journal of John Norton, 1816. Toronto: Champlain Society, 1970: 88-91.
This source provides some of the earliest European understanding of the Iroquois people.
Oswalt, Wendell H. This Land Was Theirs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
This source provides a great deal of general detail about the known facts of Iroquois life.
Richter, Daniel K. Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and their Neighbors in Indian North America. PA: Penn State Press, 2003.
This source attempts to take a more pragmatic or objective view of the Iroquois people as a diverse collection of loosely related people which may contribute to a deeper understanding.
Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 1996.
This source investigates what is known more specifically about the five tribes and may help guide the research more effectively.
Native Americans are regarded as just another ethnic minority in the USA despite the fact that those people’s ancestors were born in this land. The life of these people has received significant attention, and much is known about the life on an Indian reservation. People living in such communities face major social issues, including unemployment, discrimination, substance abuse, and so on (Patterson-Silver Wolf, Welte, Barnes, Tidwell, & Spicer, 2014).
At that, the life of Native Americans in the urban setting is not very much different as people still face similar issues (Moon, Blakey, Boyas, Horton, & Kim, 2014). Nevertheless, many American Indians assimilated and became a part of the American middle class. Little is known about whether Native American adolescents living in well-off neighborhoods still see themselves as a part of the Indian community. This brief study focuses on a group of middle-class American Indian teenagers and their views on their ethnicity and cultural background.
The Description of the Group
Four females and two males aged between 17 and 19 years old took part in the study. The adolescents were the descendants of different Indian tribes, including Mohawk, Cherokee, Chiricahua, and Choctaw. The study consisted of two parts: observation and a focus group discussion. The observation was conducted in a mall over three hours. The participants were speaking English with the occasional use of words in other languages.
The appearance of the adolescents was quite remarkable as the female participants had some accessories that revealed their cultural heritage. The members of the group seemed to have close relationships. Their body language was also a sign of close and trusting relationships. They did not keep distance but gave hugs, tapped each other on the shoulder, and so on. They laughed and made jokes about each other. They also knew about each other’s habits and preferences. When they ordered food, they mentioned the preferred items of each other.
The second part of the study involved a focus group discussion. The group meeting was conducted in a local park where the groups spent a lot of free time. This place was chosen to make the participants feel more confident and create the necessary atmosphere. The discussion involved such topics as religious beliefs, values orientation, expectations, roles, views on their ethnicity, as well as their experiences associated with their ethnicity.
As for the participants’ religious beliefs, they turned out to be baptized Christians. They shared major Christian values and celebrated such holidays as Christmas. However, they also mentioned their desire to learn more about their ancestors’ festivals and rituals and take part in them.
The discussion of the ethnicity was quite eye-opening – the adolescents noted that they were proud of being Native Americans and were ready to reveal and emphasize their cultural heritage. All of them also mentioned their parents’ negative attitude towards some aspects of their ethnicity (mainly, their life on reservations as well as discrimination they faced outside of them). A half of the participants admitted that they abused alcohol at certain points of their lives. One of these teenagers admitted smoking marijuana for quite a long period of time. The participants named peer pressure as the primary cause of such unhealthy behaviors.
At that, all of the participants mentioned that one or both of their parents had had a long history of substance abuse due to such issues as unemployment, discrimination, the lack of opportunities, and peer pressure.
The adolescents were optimistic about their future in the American society. Their families are quite well-off, so they have access to higher education, which can help them get good jobs. At the same time, the teenagers were willing to learn more about their cultural heritage and find some social links with the people of the same descent. The participants used different methods to achieve this goal, including visits to reservations, taking courses in Native American studies, trying to communicate with relatives or people from the community.
The members of the group reported that they had mixed feelings associated with those experiences as they saw discrimination and social issues Native Americans had to face, which made them feel sad. They also noted that they had taken part in various events related to Native American culture, which made them feel more complete.
Reflection
Observation
As has been mentioned above, the observation was carried out in a local mall. The place was chosen as it is the site where the participants spend a lot of their time and feel relaxed. One of the important insights the observation provided was the fact that the participants were completely assimilated into the mainstream society. Their appearance and behavior were similar to their peers within the majority group.
Friese, Grube, and Seninger (2015) claim that the environment is central to the development of various behavioral patterns in adolescents of different cultural backgrounds. Underprivileged neighborhoods where Native Americans often dwell contribute to the development of various risky health behaviors. The participants of this study lived in a well-off community, which led to their easy assimilation.
The observation helped me understand the target population better. At this point, it is vital to note that the sample is very small and the findings can hardly be generalizable. At that, the observation still provided some insights that can be further investigated. As to the major insight, it is clear that Native Americans can pertain to different socioeconomic groups, which has a considerable impact on the level of their assimilation, behavioral patterns, their expectations, and so on. Importantly, teenagers are quite disconnected from their cultural heritage due to their parents’ negative experiences. Nevertheless, Indian American adolescents feel the need to become a part of their cultural heritage.
Dialogue
A focus group discussion was the chosen method as I wanted to learn about contexts and discourses rather than opinions of individuals. I wanted to make the participants share their experiences during the discussion to reveal different facets and aspects of the issue. This goal could not be achieved with the help of interviews as the participants would focus on the aspects they consider relevant. Whereas the observation provided insights into the participants’ behavior, the focus group discussion unveiled their opinions, concerns, hopes, dreams, etc. The dialogue helped me receive a deeper understanding of the target population.
The reasons for their desire to know more about their ancestors and their cultural heritage is partly due to their search of identity, which is common for their age. At that, the participants also noted that their parents’ brief accounts concerning their life within the Native American community made them more interested in their culture. It is noteworthy that the participants’ parents did not feel negative about their ethnicity or cultural identity and encouraged their children to be respectful of their heritage.
Kulis, Ayers, and Baker (2014) also report about the beneficial influence of parental involvement on adolescents’ views on their ethnicity as well as their social behavior. I now can see that young Native Americans, coming from well-off families, do not exhibit anti-social behavior although many of these people could have some issues associated with addictions or substance abuse in the past. Moon et al. (2014) note that peer pressure is one of the major factors affecting adolescent Native Americans’ choices associated with substance abuse.
The focus group discussion revealed the patterns consistent with this study. The participants also reported the power of peers over their choices. Finally, they did not face challenges related to discrimination or marginalization. This finding is consistent with the existing research. Jones and Galliher (2015) state that Native American teenagers may face some instances of discrimination, but these experiences do not affect the behavior of the youth.
Reaction and Critical Analysis of the Experience
The present research was a valuable experience that helped me gain insights into the life of young Native Americans living in urban settings. The hardships and opportunities of American Indians living on reservations are quite well-researched, while the experiences of well-off Native American teenagers also need attention. It turns out that the target population is well-assimilated and looks and behaves in the same way as their white peers do.
The results of the research made me see the population quite differently. Previously, I focused on discriminatory practices and marginalization of American Indians. However, the observation and discussion helped me understand that the target population was not as homogenous as I had expected. The socio-economic status of people affects life orientation as underprivileged groups tend to engage in anti-social behaviors while their well-off peers start paying more attention to the cultural aspect of their lives and their identities.
Moreover, the observation made me reflect on such issues as assimilation and the ethnic background. It is apparent that many ethnic groups behave and look just like their mainstream peers. At the same time, these features can be misleading as people may feel a close connection with their ethnic community and cultural heritage. I started thinking about the line between assimilation and the loss of the cultural background or even identity.
The participants looked quite disconnected from their cultural roots, while their parents’ connection was quite negative. Notably, negative parental experiences were associated with living conditions rather than cultural peculiarities. In simple words, parents did not want to visit reservations or other representatives of their family. Nonetheless, they told their children about their background and seemed to encourage their quest for their ethnic connectedness.
Furthermore, the study helped me better understand myself. I understood that I also might feel quite disconnected from my cultural heritage at times although my behavior is not different from the rest of my peers. The participants’ chase for their cultural background inspired me to learn about my people’s past as well. The young people’s search for themselves made me contemplate on the matter, too.
Clearly, I thought about the cases, as well as the nature, of discrimination in the American society. It is clear that the country’s past shapes the existing patterns and practices (Campbell, 2016). White dominance is still persistent although the society has changed considerably. It seems that assimilation is the most effective solution to the problem. Representatives of minority groups should prove that they are similar to the majority to enjoy the benefits of being a part of mainstream culture.
Apart from ideas and thoughts related to cultures, the research was a valuable scholarly experience for me. I understood the benefits and limitations of such methods as observations and focus group discussions. This experience made me a more experienced researcher. I also acknowledged the benefits of the use of several data collection methods. I believe a mix of tools can help the researcher to get a deeper understanding of the target group.
Conclusion
On balance, it is necessary to note that the observation and the focus group discussions unveiled some peculiarities of middle-class Native American adolescents. The target population is assimilated into mainstream culture as their behavior and appearance are not very different from the rest of people. At the same time, the discussion revealed these young people’s views on their ethnicity. The participants are now trying to learn more about their culture and experience it.
This research was quite an eye-opening experience for me. I acknowledged the heterogeneity of the target population. The discussion also made me reflect on my own cultural identity and the difference between assimilation and a complete loss of the self. The participants’ ideas and search for their cultural heritage inspired me to learn about ethnic and cultural aspects of my identity. Finally, the experience helped me gain some skills necessary for the implementation of qualitative studies. I now believe that a mix of research tools can help researchers obtain more details to come up with relevant findings and conclusions.
References
Campbell, A. F. (2016). How America’s past shapes Native Americans’ present. The Atlantic. Web.
Friese, B., Grube, J., & Seninger, S. (2015). Drinking among Native American and White youths: The role of perceived neighborhood and school environment. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 14(3), 287-307.
Jones, M. L., & Galliher, R. V. (2015). Daily racial microaggressions and ethnic identification among Native American young adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(1), 1-9.
Kulis, S., Ayers, S., & Baker, T. (2014). Parenting in 2 worlds: Pilot results from a culturally adapted parenting program for urban American Indians. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 36(1), 65-70.
Moon, S., Blakey, J., Boyas, J., Horton, K., & Kim, Y. (2014). The influence of parental, peer, and school factors on marijuana use among Native American adolescents. Journal of Social Service Research, 40(2), 147-159.
Patterson-Silver Wolf, D., Welte, J., Barnes, G., Tidwell, M., & Spicer, P. (2014). Sociocultural influences on gambling and alcohol use among Native Americans in the United States. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31(4), 1387-1404.
Our world is characterized by the extreme diversity as a number of peoples and folks all over the world have their own customs and traditions that contribute to the creation of their unique identity. The formation of these rituals is a long-term process that was impacted by a number of external and internal factors conditioning the acquisition of a certain value and belief. The importance of these rituals is evidenced by the fact that the main distinctive features of nations result from the differences in their mentalities and traditions. Yet, in the course of time some beliefs become less significant; however, they still remain an important part of the cultural heritage.
Besides, there are many rituals that appeared because of the mysterious character of some phenomenon. Being not able to explain its nature, people created specific ceremonies to overcome the fear and protect the community from the enigmatic forces. Death has always been one of these phenomena. It scared people and promoted the appearance of various cults to provide at least the vague explanation of its nature. Additionally, the obscurity of the perspectives awaiting the dead conditioned the formation of the concept of the spiritual world and the growth of rituals used to prepare a person for his/her existence in the new environment. The power of these beliefs and rituals is evidenced by a number of ceremonies used even in the modern society.
The concepts of death and approaches to the preparation of a person for his/her last journey varied across the world and were determined by the peculiarities of the geographical location and local traditions. If to speak about native Americans, various tribes had their own ceremonies conditioned by the unique customs and mentality. Nevertheless, they celebrated death, accepting it as an integral part of the life cycle. The majority of tribes adhered to the idea that it was the end of the life on Earth, and the start of the new existing in the spiritual world. (“Native American Rituals and Ceremonies” para. 6).
For this reason, their rituals were focused on the preparation of a person for this new form of existence. American tribes also believed in the power of spirits, and the death ceremonies were focused on the communication with these forces to ask them for guidance. Moreover, “various tribes honored the dead in several ways, by giving them food, herbs, and gifts to ensure a safe journey to the after life” (“Native American Rituals and Ceremonies” para. 7). The main aim of all these actions was the assistance to the spirit of a dead person.
Therefore, the burial customs varied from tribe to tribe and were impacted by the environment. Arctic tribes left their dead on the frozen ground while Southeastern people placed them in lavishly decorated tombs to guarantee their existence in the spiritual world (“Native American Religion” para. 2).Furthermore, coastal tribes put the corpses in canoes sending them in the last journey (Native American Religion” para. 2). Additionally, there were many communities that used cremation believing in the purifying power of flame.
It becomes obvious that native Americans used numerous rituals to protect the spirits of their dead people and guarantee their successful journey to the spiritual world. This diversity is explained by a great number of tribes residing in different regions characterized by various climate conditions. However, these rituals impacted the formation of the unique identity of people living in the region.
Native Americans are people from nations that are dependent domestically and these nations are to be found within the boundaries of the United States of America. Although these people live within the boundaries of America, they have distinctly organized themselves and this organization sets them apart from the rest of the groups in America.
The People
Native Americans have subdivided themselves into tribes and this is what they use to identify themselves. Initially, Native Americans were not granted citizenship in America. This went on until the year 1924 when the first bunch of Native Americans was given citizenship. Despite being granted citizenship; some states did not recognize the legal rights of these people until much later in the 1940s.
There are more than 500 locations that the federal government of America has set aside for occupation by Native Americans. (Pritzker, 2005). In these areas, leaders of Native Americans are allowed to produce laws and regulations that govern their people. They are also allowed to initiate public services and taxes. They are however not allowed to form their military, nor are they allowed to have their currency. Therefore, Native Americans are said to be citizens of America who live on government property which the federal governments hold on their behalf in trust.
Place (geopolitical or phenomenological)
Within the boundaries that the government has designated for Native Americans, it is required that these people will not engage in any activities that will bring about interference with the activities of the federal government. The setting aside of the tribal lands where Native Americans stay is seen as if this group of people has been accorded independence. However, the fact that Native Americans are still subjected to the rules that non-tribal citizens are subjected to means that there is not much in terms of freedom for Native Americans.
Social interactions, common interests, and goals of Native Americans
Native Americans are one of the few groups the world over with a rich culture that has managed to stand the test of modernity. The history of this group of people is characterized by stories of strife, struggle, and victory. These people have had to fight tooth and nail while claiming their rights in a country that had denied them recognition for a long time.
Assumptions
Pretty much of what is considered modern in the world today are old concepts that were borrowed from Native American society. (Kidwell & Velie, 2005) Most of the symbols that are used today and are said to be inventions of some great organization are all borrowed from this society. The Native Americans were hunters and gatherers, and they would sometimes engage in the planting of crops. Totem poles formed a very significant part of the life of these people. The Native Americans have high reverence for animals as they believed that every person had the spirit of an animal within them.
Native Americans also used smoke as the main form of communication so that if one sees smoke in the air, they would that a certain message was being communicated and the message originated from where the smoke came from.
Conclusion
The tussle between the federal government of America and Native Americans has continued for long as the latter was seeking recognition. This tension seems to have eased with the government setting aside some designated areas for these people and also allowing them to run their lives as they best, please. The only condition is that whatever provisions they produce should not interfere with the laws of the federal government.
References
Kidwell, C.S. & Velie, A.R. (2005) Native American Studies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Pritzker, B. (2000) A Native American encyclopedia: history, culture, and peoples. Michigan: Oxford University Press.
In Virtual Moundville Native American Festival-Pottery by Mary T. Newman, my objective was to reflect upon the experience and ideas attained from the culture of the Native Americans as a virtual attendee. In addition, I compared my experience during the virtual attendance to the following issues: the heritage and tradition of Native Americans and the local history and tourism. This article discusses the history of pottery making in Native American culture and the benefits of such a rich past.
The pottery culture associated with the Native Americans dates back nearly five centuries ago. However, they are classified as modern, considering the oldest dates back to 20,000 years ago. Pottery in this culture was born due to cooking, carrying and holding water, and storing harvests. Other research has stated that the Native Americans used mud to cover cooking baskets during cooking (Mahardika et al. 509). They then realized that the soil hardened, making it durable and capable of cooking without the baskets. Archaeologists have validated this statement by noting that the early pots had indentions resulting from baskets.
Watching as Marry T. Newman made a pot using the Native American culture, I realized that this was not just how the Native Americans met their necessity to have cooking pots; it was their heritage. The passion that Mary had molding and the tone of her voice could pass the message clearly, that this was something to be full of pride. Though the pottery made during those times had similarities, each culture had its own unique identity. For example, the type of clay used, the amount of heat to harden the pot, the clay’s contents, iron, and water. Marry explained and made a joke, “I’m gonna bury this one day and see if the archeologists can figure out what made that” (Newman, 3:50-4:52), got my attention and realized markings on the pot were designs.
The indentions on the early bank could have been possible due to the latest design of the pools at that time. If so, that would mean the history of pottery making by the Native Americans could be older than suggested. “Pottery in America…they say it about five thousand years old, probably could be older, we won’t know” (Newman, 1:20: 1:54). For example, there was the texture of the pine needle and the nuts, among many others.
The design of ceramic artifacts commonly corresponds to the advent of a still lifestyle that revolved around agriculture instead of a nomadic lifestyle. As stated, some professionals still believe the pottery culture was born accidentally. The pottery started on the coasts where clay mud was readily available, but as tribes went extinct, some cultures, including ceramics (Cameron 165). However, some cultures made wealth from pottery, maintaining it until today.
Due to the rich heritage of the Native Americans, there are records of huge numbers of tourists who witness pottery making and see finished products. Some tourists purchase the artifacts, which brings revenue. In addition, tourism earns a lot of income for the government, hence has benefited it for years (Cameron 163). Many communities have maintained this history today. For example, restaurants and hotels purchase these pots for décor. Intentionally or unintentionally, they contribute to the spreading of the culture.
Conclusively, the study and archaeological reports that have been submitted might have just a fraction of the whole truth. The thought that pottery could be older seems to suggest that there should be extensive research on the subject. In addition, the government should support cultures as much as they want to earn since most of the national funds are acquired from money paid by tourists.
Works Cited
Bennett, Delancy HS. “The effect of promotional bundles on purchase intent for high, medium, and low vested sports tourists’ segments within the context of the NBA’S Charlotte Hornets”. Journal of Tourism & Hospitality, vol 06, no. 02, 2017. OMICS Publishing Group,
Cameron, Catherine M. The Marketing of Heritage: From The Western World to The Global Stage. American Anthropological Association, 2008, pp. 160-169.
Mahardika, Ida Bagus Putra et al. “transesterification of used cooking oil using Cao/MCM-41 catalyst synthesized from lapindo mud by sonochemical method”. Indonesian Journal of Chemistry, vol 17, no. 3, 2017, p. 509. Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Newman, Mary T. Virtual Moundville Native American Festival-Pottery. [Video]. 2020, Web.
The various forms of artistic traditions that thrived among the indigenous people of America are referred to as Native American art. This paper explores the indigenous arts of the Native American and how the significance of art has changed in the present society. In particular, the paper discusses the richness of Native American art that depicts various aspects of the history and the culture of indigenous people.
The paper emphasizes the importance of visual arts in expressing themes and feelings as well as moral teachings. The paper discusses the way white settlers used art to portray the Native community in a negative manner. Several samples of art work have been highlighted to show how art was deeply integrated into the culture of the Native American people.
Also in the discussion is how the Native art has become a commodity, thereby losing the initial meaning it was intended for. In conclusion the paper suggest that people and in particular the scholars should dedicate themselves in understanding the aboriginal arts so that the identity can be preserved for many years.
Purpose of Research
The purpose of this research is to explore the various aspects of Native American art. The paper will mainly concentrates on achieving the following objectives among others: To show how the white settlers portrayed the indigenous people and the negative effects; the way indigenous people expressed their rich traditions and cultural identify through art; expounding on significance meaning of various form of arts; and to show how Native American art has been commoditized.
Introduction
Native North American art is very rich and diverse owing to the interaction between various communities over several centuries. In today world, many artists are now able to work in a broad range of media and visual art. The contemporary western performance art has been used as a powerful tool in criticizing the culture of the Native Americans. Many people thought that the Native arts would be forgotten.
The flourishing of the Native American art has become a story of survival in the modern society. The situation has been changed by growing number of scholars and art-lovers who want to ensure that aboriginal arts and culture is secure amidst many challenges. It is important to note that visual arts have a significance role in maintaining moral, political and spiritual systems of the society.
This role has been revealed in many ways as art undergo some transformation and renewal. The cross-cultural encounters between the white settlers and indigenous people changed the Aboriginal concepts and styles of art as the communities adapted to new features of the environment (Philips & Berlo 4).
Methodology
Since there is a lot of literature about the various aspects on Native American art, the discussion put forward in this paper has been gathered from various credible secondary sources. Secondary sources like books and scholarly journals have been used to gather the required information about the various aspects of Native American art. Through careful analysis I have managed to capture the most critical information that highlights the various aspects of the Native American Art.
How Native American are Portrayed through Art
I today’s world, there still exist stereotypes about Native Americans which are still promoted through arts especially in movies. Since the time white settlers came to North America, the indigenous community has been portrayed in a negative way. The native community, which constitutes the Indians, has been portrayed as proud and savages.
This is really ironical since the Native Americans are the one that helped the pilgrims to settle in America. Even after much needed help from the Native Americans, the whites continued to stereotype them in a bad way. In many old western films, Native Americans are portrayed as the bad guys while the cowboys who are the whites have been portrayed as the good guys. A true historical culture of Indians has not been given the true identifying even by the famous Hollywood.
There is no doubt that hostility existed between the whites and the Native Americans (Indians). Around 1977, a lady by the name Jane McCrea lost her life in the hands of Native Americans who were allied with British forces (Namias 323). In 1804, an artist by the name John Vanderlyn painted a picture of Jane McCrea killing.
John entitled his painting “The Death of Jane McCrea”. The painting illustrates a picture of two Native Americans men holding machetes above a white woman. The painting has been interpreted to depict the hostile and brutal relationship that existed between the white settlers and the Native Americans (Bulke, 2001).
In his article entitled “Eyewitnessing: the Uses of Images as Historical Evidence”, Peter Burke (3) explores the way visual elements and images have been used to develop theme of savagery and hostility in early America. Vanderlyn uses his painting techniques to portray Indians as savage and barbaric people. The painting was used as propaganda to justify the hatred extended to the Indians by the white settlers (Namias 325).
In the present times the American Indians are using visual media to fight back the negative publicity portrayed by the whites. They have used theater and films to control their own narratives about their true identity. An excellent example is the movie “Smoke Signals” which is written and directed by American Indians.
The use of Art to hold on to Traditions and Cultural Identity
The interaction between the indigenous people and the white settlers caused cultural upheavals in the community. The Indian artists of late nineteenth-century produced paintings in response to the cultural disturbance as well as expressing their grounded traditional identity.
In particular, Howling Wolf produced colorful ledger drawings that depicted ceremonies, hunts, battles, and day to day life of the Native Americans. According to an article by Szambo (6), women carried out different artistic endeavors like geometric beadwork and preparing animal hides. The accomplishment made by the female artist in expressing culture, and uplifting the social status of the community made female artistic guilds similar to male warriors groups.
Howling Wolf’s drawings depict Native Americans warriors immersed in battle. The most distinct characteristic about these drawings is attention to details. The dressing of the Native warriors and their adversaries depicts garments that can be identified with the culture of each community.
Another painting that also depicts the culture of the Native Americans is the painting of the ‘Four Indian Kings’ by John Verelst, a Dutch Artist. The four Kings were Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row, Sa Ga Yeath Pieth Tow, Tee Yee Neen Ho Ga Row, and Etow Oh Koam. Their official portraits are part of the earliest oil-paintings that still exist from the life of indigenous people of North America (Muller 24).
The portraits of the “Four Indian Kings” depict the cultural and political diplomacy that existed between the indigenous people and the British. The portraits display the Kings dressed in scarlet cloaks with gold borders, belts decorated with moose hair, and ball club all of which were items belonging to Indians native culture. However, John Verelst painted Tee Yee Neen Ho Ga Row in a full English outfit. The wampum belt, in particular, had a lot of significance in commemorating historical events and treaties.
Use of Art in Native America
It is important to note that art craft done by the Native Americans had great significance in expressing different themes. The Iroquoian peoples used wampum (white and purple beads made from clam shells) to decorate clothing, jewelry, and belts (Bartok & Ronan 18).
There existed different views about wampum between the white settlers and Native people. While white settlers used wampum as money to trade with, the native people valued it as an item that could recognize something important or used for exchange. A culture was created where important announcements in the Iroquois community were accompanied by wampum belts or strings to symbolize truth and seriousness of such events (18).
Any treaty between the Iroquois and Europeans or the Iroquois and other Native peoples were recorded through the exchange of wampum. This particular wampum was woven to make different belts where each belt had a distinct image to recall a treaty it represented. The Washington Covenant belt was used to commemorate a treaty between the Haudenosaunee and the Thirteen Colonies in 1974 (18).
Wampum had a significance diplomatic role in the history of the Native American. After an agreement to stop war amongst them, the five nations formed an alliance and a large wampum belt was made to document the alliance and the laws contained in it. The belt was known as Hiawatha belt or Confederacy belt (18).
Art was also used to communicate various messages. Dennis Cusick (1800-1824) was one of the talented painters and founder of the Iroquois Realist Style of painting. One of the most recognized paintings he did was a water color painting entitled “Seneca Mission School”. In the painting, Mrs. James Young who was a teacher is portrayed teaching some Iroquois girls in the Seneca Scool (Philips & Berlo 120). Mr. James is fully dressed in English outfit.
Commoditization of Art
In the first world nations, art has become commoditized and is now based on profit potential instead of communicating feelings and ideas. The message expressed in art has stated to lose meaning since art has been reduced to commodity status in many market places. Art is now traded freely in the market just like other commodity.
The main difference is that trading of commodities is influenced by forces of demand and supply while art is influenced by provenance, aesthetic, and authenticity. The art market is flourishing so well with the popularity of art as a commodity is going higher by the day. Understanding the relationship between money and art has become a controversial debate. Who decides on the price or value of any given art? What makes a particular type of art more expensive or valuable than the other?
There are many things that are influenced by the Native Americans including art and culture. People should see art as functional and usable if at all they are viewing it through the eyes of the Native American. Art was intended to have a real purpose and not for aesthetic value only. The art made by the Native Americans were seen as having either religious or moral purpose. This was something that was integrated in their culture. Every piece of art work had a meaning and was taken as a necessity in their group.
Native American Pottery, Beadwork and Sculpture Carving
In Native American, visual art remained an integral part of people’s lives. Visual art was used to express the concepts of beauty and the sacred and social systems of the society. The Native Americans developed some standards of beauty that ensured right value of every piece of art work and the message communicated.
Various types of clothing, painting, sculpture, ceramics, decorations, and other visual representation were measured and determined by the laid standards. The technical expertise of making art was passed from one generation to another since there were no schools. The beauty of every art work was expressed through aesthetics elements of color, shape, construction, and symmetry. Color was particularly used to create visual effects as well as representing nature (Beavon & Voyageur 12).
For example, blue represented the sky while yellow represented sun. Arts were used as form of communication and to portray particular status or rank in the society. The construction and the finishing of every art work were very crucial in measuring the success of the artist.
There were artistic objects that could be ranked higher than the others due to the fine workmanship. Jewelry and other adorned objects like belts conveyed the status and rank of the bearer. Among the Iroquois community masks were believed to be carriers of spiritual powers and could be used for certain rituals.
It is important to note that the exchange of art work as gifts formed an important element in the Native American culture. This exchange is still practiced today.
Conclusion
It has been clear from all the above discussion that art was an integrated into the culture and traditions of the Native American people. Art was a very realistic aspect among the indigenous people. The meaning of art and its value is different between the Native communities and the modern society.
Though the European portrayed the indigenous community as primitive education and better understanding of Native American art has changed this view. Various arts were used to communicate different messages. Art has made great impacts in the modern society as people continue to use it in different avenues.
The major setback back the art has suffered is the way it has been reduced to a commercial transaction thereby eroding its aesthetic value. Since art was intended to communicate to our feelings, emotions and thoughts, it must be separated from market capitalism for it to retain the critical purpose.
First nation artist have change the initial meaning of art even as the technology continue to advance. Both Native and western scholars who truly understand the value of art must come together and accept the presence of Aboriginal arts. These art collections should always be preserved in museums and other art venues so as to maintain the cultural identity of the Native people.
Works Cited
Bartok, Mira and Ronan, Christine. Northern Woodland Indians. New Jersey: Good Year Books, 1995. Print.
Beavon, Daniel & Voyageur, Cora. Hidden in Plain Sight: Contributions of Aboriginal Peoples to Canadian Identity and Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005. Print.
Burke, Peter. Eyewitnessing: the uses of images as Historical Evidence. London: Reaktion Books, 2001. Print.
Muller, Kevin. From Palace to Longhouse: Portraits of the Four Indian Kings in a Transatlantic Context, American Art Vol.22 No.3 pp.26-49. Chicago: University of Chicago press, 2008.
Namias, June. White Captives: Gender and Ethnicity on the American Frontier. Charlotte: University of Carolina Press, 1993. Print.
Philips, Ruth and Berlo, Janet. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.
The art of pouring powdered tincture, colored sand as well as tincture from different natural or artificial supplies on the surface to come up with paintings is referred to as sand painting. In most cases, sand painting does not last for long with most of it being done for religious reasons while some is done for healing purposes. This art is performed by different communities across the globe. For instance, it is practiced by Tibetan monks, by Australian aborigines and by Native Americans. This paper aims at giving a brief analysis of the sand painting done by the Native Americans as well as the purpose of the painting.
In America, sand painting is mostly practiced by southwest Native Americans. Navajo is the community that has for long been known to practice sand painting. Hatalii; also referred to as the Medicine Man lays down the sand painting on the ground where ceremonies are to be performed. The medicine man also uses rawhide or cloth canvas for sand painting. Colored sand is poured through the fingers with a lot of care and proficiency (Baatsoslanii, Bahti & Branson, 1978). Currently, there are over one thousand different customary blueprints for sand paintings that are known to Navajo. This community greatly respects their paintings. According to them, the paintings are just not mere inert objects but are holy, existing beings that ought to be worshiped. For a single ritual, there may be up to thirty varied sand paintings attributed to the ceremony.
History of the sand painting
Naturally colored sand is used to make the different colors used in the art. Gypsum is also powdered to get the white color while red color is obtained from sandstones. Other colors are obtained by mixing the available colors. For instance, blue color is obtained through mixing gypsum and charcoal (Gold, 1994). Unlike other paintings, the sand paintings are not meant for commercial purpose and once the painter finishes using them, they are supposed to be destroyed.
Purpose of the sand painting
The main purpose of developing the sand paintings is to use them in sick people. Most of the sand paintings contain figures of sacred people known as Yeibicheii. During their development, the medicine man keeps on singing, requesting the Yeibicheii to intervene and help the sick person. Basically, the type of figure and ritual to be done depend on the disease or illness that one is suffering from. Navajos believe that the painting’s effectiveness depends on its symmetry. As a result, the medicine man has to determine the sand painting’s symmetry after developing it. It is believed that the more precise the sand painting the more it is capable of meeting its purpose (Indian.org, 2010). There are instances where more than one painting is used in serving a single purpose. The person that requires to be healed is asked to sit on the painting. The sand painting acts as the gateway for the spirits and through it, the victim receives healing powers from the spirits.
Conclusion
The Navajos believe that during the healing process, all the illnesses in the patient are transferred into the painting. Consequently, the sand painting has to be destroyed so as to eliminate the illnesses. The entire ritual takes not more than twelve hours. This is from the time the sand paint is developed, used for healing, to the time when it is destroyed. Not all the information required for healing purpose is included in the sand paintings. Instead, the information is passed down from one age bracket to another by painters.
Reference List
Baatsoslanii, J. E., Bahti, M. & Branson, O. T. (1978). Navajo Sandpainting Art. New York: Treasure Chest Publications, Inc.