Category: Native American

Introduction

In early nineteenth century, the Europeans invaded Native Americans with the aim of civilizing the Indian people. This movement posed a serious negative impact to the indigenous people due to the mounting pressure that was being exerted on them by the European missionaries. This marked the evolvement of different strategies that were used by the Indians to counterattack the expansion of the American territories (Dowd, 16-18). This American movement was basically referred to as the Civilization Mission and it sought to make good citizens out of the Indians. However, the mechanisms used were not encouraging to the Indians. They used coercion and deception to accomplish their mission, and for this reason, several strategies were established against them (Dowd, 139-142).

Main Text

First, the dense population of indigenous people was a major obstacle to the spread of American civilization and the Indians took this as an advantage to them to counterattack the movement. However, this did not work well and the most important strategy that was employed was in the form of “prophetic nativism” which involved prophecies of hope made by the Indian people and some against the white people (Dowd, 144). In the years 1795 and 1815, there arose some individual prophets and few groups of Indians who claimed to have a supernatural power and inspiration from God. They challenged the Indian leaders who called for Europeans to be incorporated in their political and cultural structures. Being united in a shared ritual demanded for power and turning to the spirits, the prophets openly sought support against the leaders who in their tribes had given out part of their land to the Europeans. For this reason the prophetic groups of Shawnees, Delaware and Creeks parted with those who had accommodated them and formed a union whose role was to counter the expansion of the Europeans, an effort that came hand in hand with the war that took place in 1812 (Dowd, 181 ). The nineteenth century teachings from some of the Indian prophets were negative prophecies made against the Indian citizens. For example; the vision of a Delaware woman who warned that “If the Big House Ceremony were not celebrated with care, a whirlwind would soon wipe out the people completely and the Indians to the West of Ottawas would all fall off and die”. However, the fear induced by such threats was offset by the hope that came with prophetic promises made by other prophets. The Indian tribes who were united in the fight against the Americans believed that the power which belonged to the war-club Dance, Ottawas and the Chippewas would lead to the destruction of all the white men in America. Another prophecy was made by the Tenskwatawa who indicated that “American would not be in danger if the land overturns but this would happen if only they leave the prophetic land in a peaceful way”.

Another strategy in which Indians resisted American expansion was by forming Pan Indian Movement which was led by Tenskwatawa’s brother Tecumseh who spoke against the Fort Wayne cession a (treaty) and the Indian leaders who supported it. The Pan Indian movement made a great impact in resisting the American expansion. Anti-Christian teaching was also a strategy used by the Indians. They argued that the Europeans were the ones who killed their savior and there is no way they could follow the teachings of the Americans, and more so they had different origins in relation to the faith of the Europeans and that of the Indians.

Conclusion

The Pan Indian Movement led by Tecumseh was one of the most successful strategies employed by Indians. This was because the movement was based on the mutual understanding that Indians originated from the same creation and there was need for them to unite in fighting against the Europeans (Dowd, 193-194). Another reason for success was that Tecumseh was regarded as a warrior and a renowned traveler who possessed organizational skills in uniting the people for a common purpose. On the contrary, the prophetic nativism did not succeed because of the fact that some of the prophets such as the Tenskwatawa were only harsh to their fellow Indians and compromised with the European people. This made them to lose their disciples who could help them in fighting the American expansion.

Gaudium et Spes and Boarding Schools

Native American boarding schools have been a prominent part of the US history, remembered for the many controversies and atrocities committed within. In Oclahoma, St. Patrick’s Mission school and others operated since 1875, being responsible for the education of hundreds of Native American children (Oklahoma Historical Society, n.d.). From a sociological perspective, it is possible to argue both for and against their existence as an institution. Gaudium et Spes, for example can be utilized to either support or discourage the use of the boarding school system within Native American Communities. Section 25 of the text discusses the importance of social institutions towards promoting the common wellbeing and cultivating an individual. Partaking in social structures and the formation of dependencies, or socialization, is noted to be especially important for people. It is stated that the process “brings with it many advantages with respect to consolidating and increasing the qualities of the human person, and safeguarding his rights” (“Gaudium Et Spes,” n.d.). This quality is present in social in most social institutions, such as schools. Therefore, it can be argued that boarding schools are a necessary and beneficial component of socialization as a whole, and bring benefits despite their potential flaws.

Alternatively, one can see them from an opposite perspective. Section 26 of Gaudium et Spes talks about the importance of family and personal freedoms. It is noted that each individual requires the capacity to act on their personal wishes build a family and interact with others (“Gaudium Et Spes,” n.d.). Similarly, the role of a family unit as a component of personal fulfillment is noted. If one considers boarding schools from this perspective, they are a detriment to human flourishing. A boarding school takes children away from their families, oftentimes against their will, and denies many the opportunity to realize their wishes.

Pro Arguments

Discussing the topic of boarding schools for Native Americans further, it is possible to find arguments supporting the practice from the time periods they were established in. The article from the The Catholic Telegraph, dated January 1890, proposes boarding schools as the only suitable option for native children (The Catholic Telegraph, n.d.). In particular, the author cites their ability to socialize the Native Americans in accordance with Christian American values, and promote the formation of nuclear families (The Catholic Telegraph, n.d.). In addition, the writer notes low rates of attendance for regular schools by native children as the reason for their argument. Taking both of these sentiments as truth, it can be surmised that a system of compulsory boarding school education is a necessary and only solution to the problem of Native American education.

Against Arguments

There are specific arguments against this stance, however, particularly regarding the organization and actual implementation of boarding schools. Constructed as a way to teach Native American children, they were envisioned to possess all the necessary accommodations for housing and prolonged living. With both the dorms and the school building, children were taken away from their families for prolonged stay. The actual existing boarding schools, unfortunately, did not meet the proper standards for educational or residential buildings. The buildings were well-known for their poor financing, resulting in terrible living conditions and a lack of necessary infrastructure (Native Voices, 1903). Most boarding schools were built from existing barrack buildings or constructed without proper care. In addition, boarding schools, particularly ones established by Catholic religious orders, often focused heavily on the Christian faith. In schools such as St. Patrick’s in Anadarko native spiritual and religious practices were prohibited, instead familiarizing children with Catholicism (Hinton, 2022). Pressure to conform and limited access to native traditions payed a large role in shaping negative experiences in boarding schools. Many factors found within boarding schools contributed towards children’s high mortality, including poor ventilation, overcrowding and violent treatment by the staff (Native Voices, 1903). Children were not screened for disease in full measure, resulting in outbreaks and other issues. Tuberculosis and eye disease were rampant among the students.

References

The Catholic Telegraph. “Indian Education.” Catholic Research Resources Alliance. Web.

“Gaudium Et Spes.” Vatican. Web.

Hinton, Carla. “Catholic Leaders Exploring History, Legacy of Oklahoma Catholic Indian Boarding Schools.” Oklahoman. Web.

Native Voices. “Overcrowding, Poor Ventilation Contribute to Deaths in Boarding Schools – Timeline – Native Voices.” National Library of Medicine – National Institutes of Health. Last modified 1903. Web.

Oklahoma Historical Society. “St. Patrick’s Mission | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.” Oklahoma Historical Society. Web.

We Shall Remain: After the Mayflower

In this episode, it involves the Wampanoag who are local Native American and their political leaders of the other local tribes. Actually, these are the major cohorts used in the entire play which appears to have been directed to the audience to give some in-depth insights and understanding of the political stand and relationships of the locals with their leaders, besides highlighting the kind of social interactions of the people from the society.

It is revealed from the commencement of the play that this episode tries to expand the relations of Native American and English men in the agreements that they signed starting with the 1^st treaty which took place between Massasoit leader and King Philips (Bennet 35).

The Massachusetts Bay colony platform seems to be more difficult and hard to understand and more challenging to the Christian pacifists. His final decision to form a political coalition with Pilgrims was driven by personal and political gain to form allies against rival tribes (Moore and Bruder 237).

Although the Massachusets had welcomed the colonial in a friendly mood, the colonists continued to grew in number; they became less reliant on the Wampanoag and got more interested in their land. Due to high immigration of the Europeans from England, Wampanoag land becomes more squeezed resulting in their resettlement. In early 1660, Europeans introduced praying towns which were used to offer safety to natives as they were changed to Christianity and making their traditions useless hence condemning any traditional practices. It is clear that After Mayflower Wampanoag is not seen as a dormant victim but as an active victim. This is openly stipulated by the decisions that Massasoit and King Philips made of loving their enemies and welcoming them.

We Shall Remain: Tecumseh’s Vision

This is the second part of the episode and it features on religious beliefs where a young prophet (Tenskwatawa) emerges to claim to have been sent by God to review that Indians have been in terrible straits for adapting western culture and omitting traditional spiritual ways. As the Tenskwatawa went on prophesying against the whites, his brother was organizing and forming military forces from the hostile community to stop and defend the spread of the white people. In this episode, Tecumseh dies as an Indian warrior and a hero in his nation for devotedly fighting for the independence (Moore and Bruder 241).

We Shall Remain: Trail of Tears

From this episode, it brings the memories of 1838 when Cherokees were relocated from their ancestral land to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. It was a long journey which claimed a good number of the Cherokees in the wilderness. The group was lead by their leaders John Ross and major Ridge who disagreed with the oppressive rules and vowed to serve the interest of their people till the end. Although, more than four thousands Cherokees perished on the way colonial rule never sympathized with them (Bennet 148).

We Shall Remain: Geronimo

This documentary features life of a Native American who believed to fight unto the end to ensure that freedom was achieved by his people. He was a Chiricahua Apache, an Indian originated tribe, who was devoted to fight his Mexican and American enemies to death. He firmly resisted colonialism and fought for the independence.

Works Cited

Moore, Noel, and Kenneth Bruder. Philosophy: The Power of Ideas. London: McGraw Hill, 2010. Print.

Bennet, Sage. Wisdom walk: Nine Practices from the World’s Spiritual Traditions. Novato: New World Library, 2007. Print.

Native Americans are the people the Europeans met upon their arrival in present-day North America. These people have a rich history that portrays the elements of wisdom, courage, hard work and solid political, social and economic organization. This is evident from the details that are present in most of the stories that attempt to explain how these people lived before their lives were interrupted by the white Europeans. The stories may have different characters and differences in terms of names of places but a huge number of themes are the same. In this essay, the similarities in the thematic of the stories, the differences that are present in the stories and the possible reasons for these differences will be examined. Also, the trickster and his or her importance to oral tradition will be discussed. In addition to this, the objectivity of written history as an account of the past will be looked into.

To start with the thematic similarity in these migration stories of Native Americans, it is true to say that most of them recognize the presence of a higher power that is responsible for their existence. For example, the Hopi had a belief that this Supreme Being was responsible for their safe journey to what they termed as the fourth world (Waters 12-17). In a deeper sense, this faith in the Creator is an indication of the religious nature of these Native American groups. They had an unquestionable belief in a master controller who made all happenings in the universe possible. This faith made them behave in a way that was meant to make this Supreme Being happy. In the event that something unseemly was done, sacrifices were offered as a way of appeasing the spirits that acted as intermediaries between the people and the creator. The aim was to make the Supreme Being forgive them for the wrongdoing and therefore not punish them. Punishment was in form of diseases and attacks by other people.

As a way of reaching out to this Supreme Being in a special way, not everybody in society was given the privilege of leading the functions that were conducted in honor of the creator. Special people who came from specific families and had unique gifts were responsible. For example, the prophets who foretold the migrations of the people to the turtle-shaped island had a special gift that allowed them to communicate with the Supreme Being and therefore had the prerequisite for serving as intermediaries between the gods and the people.

The people who were associated with the service of the creator were highly respected and their prophecies came in mysterious ways. These people are given unique names perhaps as a way of showing their special position in society. For example, the prophet who warned the people of the possibility of being destroyed if they did not move to the turtle-shaped land is described as the Prophet of the First Fire.

Far from the similarity in the theme of faith in the creator, the various groups of Native Americans had elders who guided the people both in peace and crisis (Mails, pp. 4-7). The stories about Native Americans have this theme, and to a large extent, these people served as the reservoir of wisdom for society. They came in handy especially in moments of crisis when the people were confused and the community seemed to have lost focus. For example upon the revelation that the destiny of the people is going to be affected through migration, the elders had to sit down and consult so as to find ways of establishing whether the prophecy was genuine or not. In the case of the turtle-shaped island, the elders took action by instructing the people to try and locate the island that was mentioned in the prophecy. The specific name given to these elders was the elders of Midwiwin Lodge (Warren, pp. 23-26).

The immense respect that was given to these elders is testimony to the special position they held in the Native American societal setting. Stories that carry the theme of elders go-ahead to show how the people always took the advice of the elders and acted accordingly. More often than not, the actions that were carried out in accordance with the advice from the elders ended up saving the community. This means that these elders were either spiritually unique or had wisdom that the rest of the members of the society did not have. A combination of both is a possibility too.

Leaving the theme of elders aside, most of these Native American migration stories have the theme of prophets. These were special people who carried the messages of the creator and the other smaller gods and spirits to the people (Delicado, pp. 5-9). As mentioned elsewhere in this essay, the prophets had a special position in society and commanded respect. This emanated from the sacred nature of the job. In the migration story in which the people were ordered to move to the turtle-shaped island, the prophet of the First Fire was very categorical that if the people did not move, they would be destroyed (Benton-Banai, pp. 14-19). This message was definitely from the creator whom the people revered and paid homage and allegiance to. In some cases, these prophets were involved in the offering of sacrifices to the creator in moments when it was believed that the people had disobeyed the creator and were therefore likely to receive punishment (Wolf, pp. 23-28).

Another common theme in most of these migration stories is conflict. Conflict can be described as a disagreement between two or more individuals. It can also be a disagreement between two or more groups of people. In Native American migration stories, conflict as a theme appears both within Native American groups as well as between the Native American tribes and other people. A number of conflicts in most of these migration stories take the following form: conflicts between the various tribes of Native Americans over resources such as water and land, conflicts between the Native American groups or tribes and the invading Europeans whose greed made them kill the natives so as to take their land, conflicts between the Native Americans and other groups who were neither of the Native heritage nor the European inclination, conflicts between man and the gods as well as conflicts between man and the natural environment.

The results of these conflicts vary according to the nature of the conflict. For example, the disagreement between the invading Europeans and the Native American tribes led to war wherein many natives and some Europeans were killed. The invading Europeans cunningly referred to the natives as savages. They then used the military technology that they had brought from Europe to kill millions of the natives. The drive for the killings was the fertile land that was under the ownership of the Native Americans. In modern times, there is still confusion as to who the savage in this saga was. Was the greedy invading European the savage with his dripping saliva at the sight of Native American fertile land? Was the quiet and peaceful Native American the savage with his undisturbed way of life? It is natural that when one is attacked especially in his or her home, he or she looks for ways of defending himself or herself. Therefore the Native Americans did what any of us would do in similar circumstances. On the other hand, the land other resources that the Native Americans controlled were too much for them. Were they supposed to relinquish some of these to the invaders without much contest? That is a theme for another time. The bottom line is that the conflict between the natives and the Europeans led to numerous deaths.

Still on the theme of conflicts, internal conflict among the people led to divisions. These divisions gave rise to independent clans whose migration took them to different places. Over time, these separated groups developed new languages that were different. Other aspects of life also differed to the extent that it became difficult to determine whether two or three different groups or tribes were related ancestrally. On the other hand, conflicts between man and the gods led to sacrifices that were aimed at appeasing the gods.

Another theme that is similar in most Native American migration stories is an invasion. The prophets communicated with the gods and got the message of imminent invasion by foreigners. The advice that followed this revelation was a movement to other places so as to avoid confrontation which would lead to the destruction of the people. For example, the first prophet of fire was categorical that the people had to move to the turtle-shaped island as already mentioned in this essay. The reason for the movement was the destruction the people would have experienced in the invasion by the Europeans.

In addition to invasion by foreigners, the theme of a common origin of all the Native Americans is prevalent in nearly all migration stories of Native Americans. The emphasis is on the fact that the migration in some cases led to the development of many groups due to such occurrences as the remaining behind of some groups and the rise of numerous groups after a conflict. It is estimated that migration began in 900 AD (Benton-Banai, p. 102). Whatever the reason that these stories give, they agree on the point that the various tribes that constitute the Native American people are all from common ancestry.

On the other hand, there are differences in these stories. The best possible explanation for these differences is that they have been told by different people who have obtained their information from different sources.

In most of these Native American migration stories, the trickster is the Spider Woman. What is the significance of the Spider Woman as a character? Through her, the provision of protection to the people in the course of migration is given. In some sense, the trickster represents the spiritual power that came to the rescue of the people in moments of crisis.

Written history can be an objective account of the past if it is based on sources that are primary and therefore reliable. For example, if people who are part of an experience give a detailed account of the phenomenon and the account is kept in written form, then the written history becomes objective. But in cases where themes are developed over pieces of information that are picked from various sources, it is impossible to avoid biases and misreporting and this inevitably leads to an imbalanced and subjective historical record. Therefore the source of the material that is transferred into written history can determine the objectivity of the written history.

Works Cited

1. Benton-Banai, Edward. The Mishomis Book: The Voice of the Ojibway.New York: Red School House~Indian Country Communications.1988.Print.
2. Delicado, Miriam.Blue Star: Fulfilling Prophecy. New York: Trafford Publishing, 2007.Print.
3. Mails, Thomas.The Hopi Survival Kit: The Prophecies, Instructions and Warnings Revealed by the Last Elders. New York: Penguin Non-Classics, 1997.Print.
4. Warren, William. History of the Ojibway People. (Reprint ed.). Minnesota Historical Society Press.1984.Print.
5. Water, Frank. The Book of the Hopi. (Reprint ed.).New York: Penguin Non-Classics, 1977.Print.
6. Wolf, Robert. Last Cry: Native American Prophecies & Tales of the End Times. New York: Trafford Publishing, 2003.Print.

This paper will discuss four different Native American groups that lived in new world before the arrival of the Europeans. The paper will particularly focus on the Aztecs, the Incas, the Pueblo and the Iroquois. The ethnic groups that inhabited parts of central Mexico between 14^th and 16^th century were referred to as the Aztecs. These people spoke the Nahuatl Language and were very dominant in the 14^th -16^th century. The Aztec civilization revolves around the people who spoke the Nahuatl language and it includes their culture during the classic age. These people had a compact and rigid class system and slavery was one of the most dominant features of the class system (Pohl, p. 90). Each Aztec ethnic group would elect its own government officers whose role was to maintain law and order. The elected member of the governing council also regulated the affairs of every tribe. Over time, the tribes grew apart and by the time an Aztec city was established, each tribe was running its own individual affairs.

The Iroquois people first settled in the north eastern part of North America and moved to the modern day Maryland where they settled along the Susquehanna River. The Iroquois were farmers and they fought for land with the neighboring communities especially the Algonquin. Around 1400 AD, the Iroquois formed a club organization that was referred to as the Iroquois confederacy and this confederacy comprised all the ethnic tribes in the Iroquois language group. These ethic groups include the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Cayuga, the Seneca and the Onandagua and the purpose of the confederation was to create an alliance that would be used for fight enemies and to prevent internal wars (Roger, p. 23).

The Incas were quire different from the other groups that inhabited the larger America. Their language was very different from the other Native American groups. The Incas they lived in a place called Cuzco in the American Highlands. After the 10^th century, the Incas started expanding and their expansion helped them to control almost the entire South America. The Inca territory was expansive, stretching from Chile to Ecuador. The Inca Empire had millions of people. This was a very high population at that time and their demographic advantage enabled them to assert their authority in the region. The Incas had a very flexible social structure. They did not have class systems and at the top of the social structure was the Inca who wielded absolute power. Each tribe had its own head that reported to the chief Inca. The social unit of the Incas was communistic and the authority was centralized which gave little room for individual advancement (Roark et al, p. 67).

The Pueblos were Native American people who live in the United States of America and the pueblo of people consisted of 21 tribes which include the Taos, the Acoma, the Zuni and the Hopi tribes. In their early history, the Pueblos lived in caves and cliffs. They started building homes along river banks using sand after 700 AD. The Pueblos were socially organized in clans and lineages and the women lived in their own houses. The Pueblos were strictly monogamous. Each Pueblo tribe had its own administration and the people would elect the councils that used to regulate the affairs of each tribe. The Pueblos had the most distinct way of life and were considered eccentric.

Works Cited

1. Pohl, Frances. Framing America. A Social History of American. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002.
2. Roark, James, et al. The American Promise: A history of the United States. NY: Pearson Books, 2008.
3. Roger, Nicholas. Indians in the United States & Canada, a Comparative History. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1998.

The Native Americans are also called Red Indians. Columbus came into contact with them and noted that they were gentle people who went around unclothed. He also remarked that they could be commanded to work where need be.

According to an Abenaki Legend, the Native Americans believe that the world was created by the Great Spirit. He first commanded Tolba, a great turtle to come from the water, and he became the land on which the Great Spirit built mountains and valleys. He then wanted to insert creatures that would make the world a happy place. He wanted everything to be perfect, but he got weary of thinking about how he could create the world to perfection. He slept, and whilst he slept, he dreamt about his creation. When he woke up, his dream was his creation, and he deemed everything to be perfect. The Great Spirit is, consequently their god. White J (pp. 2-3).

The Native Americans’ ideas conflict with the society because first of all, they believe their women are their leaders, and they are allowed to make vital decisions for their communities. Most social institutions preach equality between men and women. Their leaders include chiefs’ and in the current world, this form of leadership has been passed by time. Chiefs’ are no longer recognized as leaders in most communities. They also do not believe in God. They believe in the Great Spirit. They also think that there is a difference among people, and this is brought about by their color. They call themselves the red people while the Americans are the white people. The Native Americans also hold the belief that they are the god’s chosen people, and so they deserve to be first-class citizens.

The Hawaii state is mainly populated by Native Americans. They have been from time immemorial felt that they suffer oppression from other people. Red Jacket says that “You have got our country, but are not satisfied; you want to force your religion upon us,” Jose Cardena (pp. 1- 7). On the other hand, the article on “Chief Joseph surrender speech” admits after a long and losing battle that he will fight no more. White J (pp. 1-2). In the past, they fought for their land. There then came the signing of many treaties that allowed the Indian’s permission to trade and cross borders into other states. Cardena Jose (pp. 1-32). Currently, the law has made it legal to push them off their land. The government denies the Hawaiians having a sovereign state because it would lose its military base. Hawaii is also a holiday resort and the US government also fears that it would be losing a source of income. The Hawaiians, on the other hand, value their ancestral land, and they have a policy that their children should inherit their land. Cardena Jose (pp. 11-12).

The solution for both these parties would be to come to an agreement on how much the government can encroach on their land. The government deems Hawaii to be a holiday resort; therefore, to the government, it should be just that. It can make money from these islands. The military base should only be on the shores since they use submarines. They should have no authority over the lands.

The Hawaiian Islands are mostly occupied by Native Americans. They can, therefore, be allowed to practice their traditions. Their laws and regulations should also be acceptable to their people and people from other states. There should be equality in how crimes are dealt with. This would make Hawaii a sovereign state as Native Americans would rule themselves without interfering with the US government.

Works cited

1. Cardena, Jose. “Red Jacket.” (1830): pp. 1-7
2. Cardena, Jose. “Native Roots: Indians of the Americas: From Maya to Aztec to Native American indian Nations”. pp. 1-32
3. Cardena, Jose. “Native Americans Indians”. pp. 11-12
4. White, J. “Chief Joseph Surrender Speech”. pp. 1-2

Introduction

During the 1700s, the new England colonies were fully settled and established. By then known as the mature English Colonies, they embraced both England and American practices. Critical changes in their lives were influenced by the agitation to be independent of Great Britain’s rule. The colonists were learning English, farming, fishing, and trading within new alliances with the native Americans. Although most of the English people were puritans, some were growing rebellious by adopting American freedom of worship. Upon attaining self-sufficient economies, the colonists sought economic freedom from the Europeans. The native Americans are part of everyday life in the mature English colonies through economic, cultural, and social practices.

Economic Practices

The mature new English colonies relied on trade alliances established by the North Americans. When the settlers arrived in America, they first made the native Americans their allies. While they had plenty of raw materials for manufacturing and production of goods and services, they needed consumers and suppliers of other materials¹. Therefore, they made trade alliances with the North Americans for barter exchanges.

During their trade, the settlers relied on American barter and non-barter forms of exchange such as wampum and nails from the Americans². Due to a lack of currency, the colonists would use “commodity money” which varied from region to region. For example, in Virginia, the exchange rate of tobacco was standardized as a form of money exchange³. Through the established trade alliances with Americans, the settlers would purchase items such as clothes, tools, and utensils from North American manufacturers and artisans. The mature English colonies continued to rely on the trade alliances established by their predecessors.

Cultural Practices

The native Americans influenced the English colonists through religion and farming. A larger population of the mature English colonies practiced puritanism as a distinct religion while others were rebellious. Puritanism embraced tough Christianity practices that limited followers’ freedom⁴. Native Americans practiced freedom of worship whereas religious practices involved different types of idol worshipping. Some puritans admired the American freedom of worship and broke loose from the English religion⁵. Although most developed modern Christianity somewhat deviates from catholic teachings, they still were impacted by the concept of freedom in worship.

The Native Americans were part of the colonists’ lives through agricultural self-reliance. The native Americans were self-reliant on the sources of food they consumed. They would produce corn, beans, squash, and chile, consumed along with other collected fruits and hunted meat⁶. In the 18^th century, the New England colonists borrowed the agricultural culture where they farmed corn and beans. The New England soil was rocky and following harsh winters and short summers, the colonists only farmed food for family consumption⁷. In that sense, the colonists again borrowed the concept of self-reliance in farming from the native Americans. The colonists also learned the native American survival tactic of hunting and fishing. Following the American culture of consuming a balanced diet, the English acquired animal protein through hunting and fishing. Therefore, the native Americans were part of the new England colonists’ experiences through sharing farming culture.

Social Practices

Socially, the European colonists made native Americans part of their lives through the interpretation of English and the embrace of kinship ties. New England settlers had difficulties conversing with the Native Americans. Therefore, most colonists would work alongside American English interpreters⁸. Most European colonists spoke a variety of foreign dialects which differed from American English. By the 18^th century, the settlers were more open-minded and willing to work with Americans for an industrial revolution⁹. Therefore, they worked for hand in hand with American interpreters of the time. Furthermore, with increasing puritanism rebels, the settlers and Americans grew more social understanding. With an increased need for socializing, the settlers needed more native American English interpreters.

The trade-focused settlers eventually adapted the American kinship ties. Bound by kinship ties, North American families would live together in small communities. The communities were formed by both nuclear and extended families¹⁰. They believed in complete family support for community development. To some point, the settlers borrowed the idea of kinship ties. They lived in community-based colonies that separated them from the Americans¹¹. The colonists had a higher recognition of a family as a whole and the least of those who composed it. Clans, signifying a sense of belonging like the American tribes also defined the colonists. Therefore, native Americans experience kinship ties amongst the European settlers.

Conclusion

The native Americans impacted the lives of mature English settlers through economic, cultural, and social practices. The settlers adapted the American mode of exchange in the absence of a currency. The economic alliance made it possible for both natives and settlers to co-exist and develop a common economy. Freedom of worship and farming are other critical ways of practicing American ways. The colonists also borrowed social norms such as language and kinship ties in their lives. Through the various adaptation, the English colonies significantly grew along the American culture. Therefore, in many ways, the native Americans from the north developed the English colonies.

Bibliography

Bacon, Nathaniel. “Bacon’s Rebellion: The Declaration (1676).” History Matters. Web.

The American Yawp. “A Gaspesian Man Defends His Way of Life, 1641.“. Web.

The American Yawp. “17th Century Competition and Rise of Civilization in North America.” (n.d.), 1-84.

The American Yawp. “Colonial Society.” Web.

The American Yawp. “Indigenous America.” Web.

The American Yawp. “The American Revolution.” Web.

Footnotes

1. “Colonial Society.” The American Yawp. Web.
2. The American Yawp, “Colonial Society.”
3. “Indigenous America.” The American Yawp. Web.
4. Bacon, Nathaniel. “Bacon’s Rebellion: The Declaration (1676).”. Web.
5. “A Gaspesian Man Defends His Way of Life, 1641.” The American Yawp. Web.
6. The American Yawp, “Indigenous America.”
7. The American Yawp, “Indigenous America.”
8. “17th Century Competition and Rise of Civilization in North America.” The American Yawp, 66.
9. “The American Revolution.” The American Yawp. Web.
10. The American Yawp, “Indigenous America.”
11. The American Yawp, “17th Century Competition” 61.

Introduction

Native Americans are characterized by the diversity of their cultures, forming a variety of tribes that follow contrasting traditions and often use different languages. Many of the differences can be attributed to the vast size of the continent where they live relative to the size of the population. However, there are likely other reasons why people chose to distance themselves from each other and form highly varied cultures. It is possible that the organizational particulars of the Native American society played a role similar in influence to that of geography. The purpose of this discussion post is to propose explanations for the branching development of the people of the Southwest.

It is not unusual for societies that experience different circumstances to follow highly divergent paths of growth. Groups of people that lived in various locations could choose appropriate ways to produce the goods necessary for survival, including hunting smaller game or bison and resorting to agriculture (Anderson and Chamberlain 2008, 8). Numerous horse cultures that sprang from geographical positions can serve as an example of such divergences, such as “the classic, flamboyant equestrian culture of the western Plains nomads and the less dynamic horse culture of the eastern Plains village farmers” (Hamalainen 2003, 834). The variance would influence the entire course of a group’s later development, the formation of traditions, and the establishment of relationships with other residents of the area.

However, the Southwest is not so geographically diverse that environmental circumstances can explain the range of variance. This fact becomes particularly evident once the notion of communication between different groups is taken into account, as the process necessarily involves mutual understanding, which stems from similarities. However, the history of Native Americans is marked with prominent individuals (Jacobs 1993, 341), leaders who enjoyed respect and authority. They had the power to shape their group in small ways, and the changes accumulated with each generation. This individualistic political culture may be the critical factor in explaining the myriad of little details that distinguish various people of the Southwest.

Native Americans are a highly diverse group, a tendency that is likely due to their low population density. The environments of different areas lead to variance in foraging methods, which are the foundation of civilization. Furthermore, the size of the American continent would discourage travel and visits to distant groups. However, even in the relatively small area known as the Southwest, Native Americans display a number of inconsistent traits. It is possible that their historical reliance on leaders led each tribe to become a unique entity due to centuries of personalized changes. The influence of both factors in conjunction is a likely reason for the cultural phenomenon at work.

Acceptance and Resistance to the White Establishment

The history of the interactions between white people and Native Americans involves numerous conflicts and acts of bloodshed. The former brought new technology and products but also had a wholly different cultural and religious perspective and expressed heavy demands. Some of their approaches caused significant harm to the native people, who occasionally retaliated with force, sparking further enmity and sometimes escalating into wars. However, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, large-scale conflicts became less and less frequent as the white people established their dominance. This post investigates the last of the opposition by Native Americans and their approaches to expressing it.

A refusal to accept reality in the face of unambiguous defeat was likely a significant contribution to lingering aggressive tendencies. Such mindsets would turn to the supernatural to help them achieve their goals, as they would have no purchase in reality. The case of Noch-ay-del-kline can serve as a noteworthy example, as well as the massacre by white soldiers that followed (Kessel 2005, 61). Most cases of aggression and attempts to remove the dominant faction were met with swift and merciless violence, possibly as an echo of previous violent confrontations. Most overtly hostile groups did not survive throughout the period, to say nothing of prospering.

Some Native Americans adopted a more pragmatic approach, acknowledging the power of the establishment but opposing the abuse of its power. They were aware that white people were not a monolithic entity and would likely overlook cases where their members were in the wrong and did not suffer disproportionate retribution. The Grandfather of Redwind, who resisted invaders that wanted to claim the settlement’s land and repelled drunken hunters, can serve as an example, as “there have been many ‘Grandfathers’ in the histories of American Indian peoples” (Jacobs 1993, 341). These communities did not enjoy rights equal to those of white groups, but they retained what was left to them by the conquerors.

Conclusion

Native Americans did not abandon their grudges after being forced into reservations by the victorious white people, but they had different ways of expressing them. Some remained defiant and declared open hostility to the dominant faction, a behavior that usually warranted disproportionately violent retribution. Others accepted their new situation but maintained their dignity, refusing to give further concessions to arrogant individuals and small groups. The second variety was considerably more successful and mostly survived the period of repressions while the first was mostly destroyed or pacified by the backlash from white authorities.

Bibliography

Anderson, Gary Clayton, and Kathleen P. Chamberlain. 2008. Power and Promise: The Changing American West. New York: Pearson Longman.

Hamalainen, Pekka. 2003. “The Rise and Fall of Plains Indian Horse Cultures.” Journal of American History 90, no. 3: 833-862.

Jacobs, Wilbur R. 1993. “Patterns of Political Leadership in Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Native North America.” American Indian Quarterly 17, no. 3: 341-342.

Kessel, William B. 2005. “White Mountain Apache Reflections.” Journal of the Southwest 47, no. 1: 57-69.

The Native Americans’ tales, difficulties, and accomplishments were well-focused, and I enjoyed that. Moreover, how well the remaining subjects were put together during the course. It was, far and away, the most meaningful class I have taken, from the modules to the homework and discussions. Everything was made simple to grasp by it and especially considering the names, dates, and many facts and tales. Additionally, I could relate to the many issues, and my interest in the subjects significantly increased. The Native Americans, watching their pain and difficulties, are, in my opinion, the major emphasis. To a certain extent, I can identify as an empath, motivating me to participate in the conversations. I wanted to contribute by making the various themes simple to comprehend and establishing a link between myself and the other students.

Subjects and Sources

There is a cozy image for European-born Americans, but it minimizes the tragedy of his legacy on the indigenous populations of Africa and the Americas. The fact that Columbus was the initial European to introduce enslavement to the New World is not generally included in classroom history texts (Slavery and colonialism, 1989). The Spanish attacked the Taino under Columbus’ direction, and neither adults nor children were spared (Slavery and colonialism, 1989).

The Taino population of Hispaniola, which was believed to be between one million and two million in 1492, was wiped out within 30 years due to war, forced labor, famine, and illness (Slavery and colonialism, 1989). Slave trade between Africa and Europe was extremely little before the European America discovery. Many Americans and Europeans see Columbus’s history as a positive one of discovery and advancement, which is honored with festivities, parades, and white sales. His legacy includes colonialism, slavery, and the eradication of peoples’ and cultures’ identities for others worldwide.

One of the module’s most interesting pieces was about the names of tribes and important geographical locations for the natives. Isqulktpe Creek Overlook, which flows through into the Umatilla Indian Reservation, is what it is called now (Tribes, panel work to remove “squaw”, 2010). Compared to other states, Oregon has the most squaw names with 163, including 63 separate Squaw Creeks (Tribes, panel work to remove “squaw”, 2010).

Over time, the term, an Algonquin word for woman, came to be commonly understood as a racial epithet (Tribes, panel work to remove “squaw”, 2010). In 2001, a group of senior citizens persuaded lawmakers to order the renaming of all “squaw” locations in Oregon, but only 37 things changed nine years later. (Tribes, panel work to remove “squaw”, 2010). However, since the tribes have names, the laborious process that will take months to complete and include two boards will begin. This process will entail evaluations, research, suggestions, and concerns.

Another fascinating topic was about the policy shift that allowed the start of preparing the Indians living on reservations for citizenship by giving them land so they may be motivated to advance toward civilization on their own. The tribes previously lived in substandard conditions with minimal opportunities to adopt white culture. Starvation and disease were the main experiences of the indigenous people at Grand Ronde, despite the treaties’ and agents’ assurances of a better quality of life on the reservations. They had no property of their own and existed in tiny groupings of tribes, probably established around 1856, with families living within the same home for several generations (Lewis, 2018).

The tribes lived off of what they could collect from the coastal forests, salmon from the Salmon Rivers, vegetables from small backyard plots, and subsidized food from the agency for more than 20 years (1856–1969), even though treaties guaranteed allotments (Lewis, 2018). Tiny tracts of land were defined and marked off for dwelling and agriculture by the individual members of the bands in March 1856, in the early days of the reservation (Lewis, 2018). Later, the tribal members developed a summertime custom of departing the reservation to work on farms in the Willamette Valley to earn money to purchase their survival supplies.

Analysis

It is crucial to face the attempted systematic extermination of the Native people of North America by ancient and modern conquerors as people explore racism and renew their commitment to social equality this Lent. On a foundation of colonization, racism, and genocide, the United States was established. Although it is an inherent sin of the country, it does not just pertain to the past. Native Americans now have much lower median earnings, homeownership rates, growing health inequities, and poverty rates that are twice as high as those of the general population. These results are a result of a white supremacist system. Rich traditions, beliefs, and resistance are part of the Native American experience.

Native Americans formed strong confederacies and tribal nations before colonists arrived. Genocide was justified by establishing institutional control and legal authority as a white response to Native Americans’ cultural and political dominance. In the United States, this paradigm of white supremacy is still in place today. White invaders in North America have labored to steal from their earliest contacts with Native Americans until the present. Land theft, resource theft, theft of identity and culture. It is crucial to identify and address these thefts to get justice. The story of Native Americans cannot be fully covered in this resource, but we hope that it will serve as a starting point for anyone who wants to learn more about the people whose stories should not be forgotten.

References

Lewis, D., G. (2018). Promise of Citizenship and informal allotment at the Grand Ronde Reservation. Quartux. Web.

Slavery and colonialism make up the true legacy of Columbus. (1989). The New York Times. Web.

Tribes, panel work to remove “squaw” from Oregon place names. (2010). Oregon Live. Web.

Introduction

The development of the Virginia colony started with the settlement of Native Americans, this was followed by the establishment of European settlements at Jamestown in 1607 by the English colonist. Virginia colony became the wealthiest and most populated British colonies in North America following the introduction of tobacco. Jamestown Island is believed to be the first permanent English settlement in the Virginia colony this site was selected since it was considered to offer a strategic defensive position against other European forces that were expected to approach by water, later the colonists realized that the area was inhabited by Native Americans, as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, the tidal river water was not safe for consumption and finally the area limited in terms of farming and hunting.

The English colonist came prepared to trade with Native Americans for food as a result of the constant drought that kept hitting that region, they also had plans of exploring gold which they did not find thus it was difficult for them to introduce any profitable industries.

Early years of Virginia

In the early years, the English venture to Virginia was heavily dominated by men, these men comprised of well-heeled adventurers, a small number of agricultural laborers, and artisans, they had a huge impact on relations with local Native Americans, who belonged to a military alliance overseen by the paramount chief, Powhatan. However, women of at least three races namely white English, Native American, and Africans played a major role in the development of Jamestown.

According to Brown (1999),” the presence of English women as wives, mothers, servants, agricultural workers, and as high valued immigrants impacted highly on the development of the English settlement at James town”. On the other hand, when Virginia created the legal framework for slavery African women were a central concern because of their potential to reproduce the slave labor force that in turn produced the colony’s “gold”-tobacco.

Although both the Native Americans and the English colonists had some successful interaction despite the variation in the culture they had constant conflicts over the ownership and control of land this eroded the trust between them. In an attempt to improve relations with the Native Americans, a settler named John Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of the then chief of Kecoughtan. Unfortunately, the marriage did not last for long since she died of smallpox at the age of 22 while on a visit to England.

John Rolfe an English colonist introduced a milder variety of tobacco to the Virginia colony in 1612, at a time when the colony’s economy was deeply affected by the failure to locate gold. English colonists as opportunists as they were quickly learned they could make a lot of money through the business of growing and exporting tobacco from Virginia to England since it promised to provide a good source of revenue to the farmers in Virginia.

Growing tobacco became the most profitable agricultural product in the Virginia colony and colonists argued that without it their colony would have failed. Following the introduction of tobacco, the production spread down the James, York, and Rappahannock Rivers, throughout Tidewater Virginia, as a result, Fredericksburg which initially was a small town grew into a thriving colonial commerce center.

The Act of 1730 was passed later after a decline in price for tobacco, this Act required all farmers to bring their tobacco to an inspection warehouse to have it inspected as a way of controlling the quality and quantity of tobacco grown in Virginia so that the Virginia planters would still earn good prices for their tobacco crop. This further promoted the development of Fredericksburg town since it was chosen as one of several tobacco warehouses sites in colonial Virginia.

The price of tobacco was high and English workers had too few jobs available at home between the 1620s and 1630s, thus, Virginia found its supply of labor in England. In 1660 the value of tobacco dropped, the situation was worsened by the Great Plague that reduced England’s population. A terrible fire broke up in London destroying much of the city thus creating new jobs at home for construction workers of all sorts. No longer able to lure their countrymen, the settlers in Virginian looked toward African labor as an alternative, following the pattern established by the Spanish and Portuguese more than a century before. However, the Africans were treated worse than the poor Europeans who had been recruited to work in the Virginian colony.

Establishments of new plantations

Lots of land and hard work were essential for the growth of tobacco thus Colonial Virginia planters quickly discovered that they could not make it without many permanent workers to help grow tobacco as well as to get it ready to be shipped to England. Successful planting of tobacco depended on a reliable and less expensive source of labor a thing that contributed to the slave trade where Africans were brought over on crowded ships against their will to eventually become that source of labor needed for growing tobacco. The wealthy Englishmen who were in a position to transport at least 250 workers to Virginia were given grants of land by the London Company.

This went a long way in the establishment of new plantations along the rivers and coasts, each having its access to the sea. Nevertheless, the newcomers to Virginia were not treated as slaves immediately. Some were indentured servants and eventually obtained their freedom and they could acquire their land having worked for five to seven years. Slavery became a part of colonial life, through the late 1800s. Slaves were often bought and sold for plantation work from slave blocks, eventually, some of these slaves became skilled laborers such as coopers, blacksmiths, and shoemakers.

In addition to making a profit Virginia Company aimed at creating a community where Englishmen and Native Americans could work side-by-side and in complete harmony. It implied that the Native Americans would be to adopt English customs as well as Christianity. Interaction between the Native Americans and the English colonist through education and religion played a major role in shaping the development of the Virginia colony.

Religious leaders in England assumed that the native Americans’ spiritual beliefs contributed to lack of education and literacy, thus the religious leaders in England took the responsibility of bringing Christianity to the native Americans as a form of enlightening them and bring them to the church which was part of the government so that they could have total control over them. This resulted in the establishment of many churches in closer vicinity so that the plantation workers could attend services and go back to work without wasting much time. The effort to win many souls to Christianity was short-lived following the introduction of schools.

References

Text of Video Narration. Web.

Kathleen M. Brown. Women in Early Jamestown. Web.

Tobacco and Slavery in the Virginia Colony. Web.

Virginia looks toward Africa for labor. Web.