Category: Native American

History

The Effects of Colonization on Native Americans Though European travelers and settlers referred to the Americas as “the new world”, there was nothing new about the lands they had “discovered”. For thousands of years, Native people roamed the lands freely in the form of hundreds of different tribes. They built communities, practiced their own religions, spoke their own languages, and lived their own lives, uninterrupted. That all changed the day Columbus landed on San Salvador, October 12, 1492: “Columbus mistakenly assumed that they must be near the Indies, so he called the island people “Indios”… He marveled that they “would make fine servants” (America: A Narrative History, 21).

Almost immediately, the European bias towards Native Americans was born. From this point forward they would go through centuries of hardship in direct correlation with the colonization of the Americas. There were many ways European colonizers caused harm during early interactions in the 16th century with the Natives of these “new lands”. Native Americans had been isolated on their own continent for hundreds of years. Their immune systems were not equipped to handle the new diseases being brought across the ocean. They were being wiped out in large numbers, whether they got the opportunity to stay on their home turf, or if they were being taken back as servants to Europe. The Natives were at a disadvantage fighting back against the colonizers due to the advancements in technology Europeans had over the Americas. By no means were Native Americans simple. They had built complex communities, they had social structure, language, and their own way of doing things. One thing they did not have was guns. Their weapons could not hold up against that of the conquerors. Europeans not only brought over guns and disease to these “new” lands, but they also brought domesticated animals the Natives had never seen before. “The Spanish brought with them strange beasts: horses, pigs, sheep, and cattle. Horses provided greater speed in battle and gave the Spanish a decided psychological advantage” (America: A Narrative History, 30).

The power dynamic between Natives and the Europeans was great. Native Americans were overwhelmed by the force of their intruders. It was relatively easy for the colonizers to overpower them. If you did not comply, you would die. So, in general, the Native Americans would succumb to slavery or join forces with conquering armies and overtake other tribes. This was the beginning of a vicious cycle that would dismantle the culture Native Americans had established over thousands of years. Europeans were motivated to come to America for many reasons. For some it was gold and glory with their monarchs, for others it was religious freedom. Religious freedom was the case for the Puritans who traveled across the sea to escape the reign of power the Church of England had over their home country in the early 17th century. The Native Americans were essential to the livelihood of Massachusetts’s first settlers. Without them and their help, who knows if this starter colony would have made it. A Native American man named Squanto was particularly helpful to the young settlement the pilgrims built. He was captured and seized by explorer John Smith. He managed to escape and return back to his homeland. “In addition to interpreting and mediating between the colonial leaders and Native American chiefs, Squanto taught the pilgrims how to plant corn, as well as where to fish and hunt beaver” (Editors).

Understanding the way of the land was crucial to surviving the harsh winters of New England. Even with this knowledge, many settlers didn’t make it through their first year. Without it, it’s doubtful any of them would have. Even though the Pilgrims received help from the Native Americans they still held prejudice against them based off of their strict beliefs. In an Article from Publick Occurrences, an early newspaper printed out of Boston in 1690, the author describes Native Americans in two different lights. “The Christianized Indians in some parts of Plimoth, have newly appointed a day of Thanksgiving to God for his Mercy in supplying their extreme and pinching Necessities under their late want of Corn, & for His giving them now a prospect of a very Comfortable Harvest. Their Example may be worth Mentioning” (Publick Occurrences).

If the natives complied with their religion and conformed to their ways, they were praised. On the other hand, those who didn’t satisfy their agenda were described as “barbarous Indians” (Publick Occurrences).

The goal of the Puritans coming to America was to establish pure land that followed their very specific and strict beliefs. This meant changing anyone they came in contact with or forcing them out. As long as the Native Americans followed along, they were generally accepted. In following along with Christianity, the Native Americans begin to lose their own culture and beliefs they worked thousands of years to establish. In not following along with these beliefs they were forced out of the land they have known as home for thousands of years. With the introduction of the Pilgrims to these lands, the Native Americans continue to lose their lives to diseases, lose their culture to the new “norm”, and lose their land to their invaders. The Native Americans will continue to deal with hardships and prejudice for decades. It gets particularly bad for them as colonizers begin to expand their grasp of the land out west. Tribes that are used to the east coast climate, the oceans, and the way of life they established are now forced to uproot themselves. They find themselves in unknown territory, meeting new unknown tribes, having to reestablish themselves and the way they live, only to be forced further west as the years go on. One of the biggest political enemies of the Native Americans was President Andrew Jackson. “President Andrew Jackson’s military command and almost certainly his life were saved thanks to the aid of 500 Cherokee allies at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814” (Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center).

Despite this, Jackson was the one who signed into law the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The trail of tears is responsible for thousands of Native American deaths due to disease, hunger, and exhaustion. Andrew Jackson signed their death warrant. Regardless of how the Native Americans acted around their European neighbors, they continue to be subject of discrimination. Without the help of the Cherokee nation, Jackson and his army would not have succeeded at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Still, he has no problem turning his back against them and sending them away from their lands and into their graves. During this time in the early 19th century, it was still a goal to assimilate the Native Americans to the white man’s cultures. “Jackson rescued a Creek boy orphaned during the Battle of Horseshoe Bend… He adopted “Lyncoya” and sent him to be raised among his family, noting to his wife Rachel that he felt “unusual sympathy” for the orphan” (Shire).

He had no problem taking this boy from the culture he knew and assimilating him into that of the white man. Not to mention he only gained access to this orphan through a battle that the Native Americans had no benefit fighting in. Before the United States became the United States, the natives were able to live peacefully on their land. Now they are forced to fight in battles that have nothing to do with them. Now they are forced to leave the lands they’ve called home for thousands of years. Now they are forced to assimilate to a life that’s foreign to them in order to survive in society. Andrew Jackson and other Americans believed they were doing the natives a favor in converting them to the European lifestyle. All they were doing was erasing Native American history. The population of Native Americans from all different tribes will continue to decline rapidly throughout generations. They will lose their homes, their traditions, their way of life, and their culture. It is all a result of the selfishness of colonization.

Since the “discovery” of what is now known as the Americas, the native people that occupied these lands have been victims of colonialism. The judgment and prejudice started in the 15th century with the explorers who were quick to enslave these human beings. These stereotypes carry on throughout the centuries. Native Americans were prosecuted for their way of life and belief systems because it was different from that of the white Europeans. They were dehumanized and named as barbarians, savages, and beasts. They were forced to assimilate to new religions and cultures and in turn erase their history. Those who didn’t conform to social norms accepted by the majority of the United States were forced from their homes into unknown territory and often times to their untimely deaths.

Even into the 20th century when a film comes around Native Americans are portrayed on the silver screen in an unflattering light, continuing the patterns of racism against them. Nowadays Native Americans have reservations, few and far between, that are even still being taken away from them. From the Dakota Access Pipeline to the United States not recognizing the Mashpee Wampanoags as an official Native tribe. The same tribe that initially greeted the Pilgrims with open arms and helped them survive harsh New England winters are fighting the U.S. government to be recognized and get their land back… In the 21st century. We cannot erase what has happened to our Native American brothers and sisters throughout history. Though there is nothing we can do to make it right and it’s too late to fix things, we must not forget. We must recognize their history, and their heritage, and acknowledge the hardships they were put through because of our ancestors and our government.

Works Cited

1. “1. The Collusion of Cultures.” America: A Narrative History, by David Emory Shi and George Brown Tindall, W.W. Norton and Company, 2016, pp. 4-53.
2. Cherokee Nation Cultural Resource Center. “A Brief History of the Trail of Tears.”
3. Cherokee Nation, cherokee.org/About-The-Nation/History/Trail-of-Tears/A-Brief-History-of-the-Trail-of-Tears.
4. Editors, History.com. “The Pilgrims.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2 Dec. 2009, www.history.com/topics/colonial-america/pilgrims.
5. Publick Occurrences, no. I, 25 Sept. 1690, p. [1].

Read:

1. America’s Historical Newspapers, infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/readex/doc?p=EANX&docref=image/v2:10950691659C3068@EANX-109758C82E486768@2338588-109758C843F5FA20@0. Accessed 22 Apr. 2019.
2. Shire, Laurel Clark. “Sentimental Racism and Sympathetic Paternalism: Feeling Like a Jacksonian.” Journal of the Early Republic, vol. 39, no. 1, Spring 2019, pp. 111–122. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1353/jer.2019.0009.

Reparation, also known as “compensation in money or material payable by a defeated nation for damages to or expenditures sustained by another nation as a result of hostilities with the defeated nation – usually used in plural” [merriam-webster, 2019], has been a question affecting our nation for years. There have been many examples of our nation ‘damaging’ many people of our nation. These examples can be having African Americans as slaves, Native Americans with stealing their land, and Japanese Americans being confined, etc. These problems have been happening since the 1600s and the impact is still affecting some people.

In 1619, slavery started with African Americans. “… people were kidnapped from the continent of Africa, forced into slavery in the American colonies…” [history, August 2019]. In 1831, the Trail of Tears happened, where Native Americans more specifically the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole, had to walk 1000 miles (almost three months) from Ohio to the Mississippi Rivers, many of them dying. In 1942, the Japanese Americans were confined because of Pearl Harbor, even if they did not correlate with the people involved in Pear harbor.

When slavery first happened, it was a lot worse than how it ended up becoming. For example, as mentioned before African Americans were kidnapped from the continent of Africa to work on American plantations and as stated, “The state’s regime partnered robbery of the franchise with robbery of the purse.” [theatlantic, 2014]. Although this exact case took place in Mississippi, the idea of it is not ethical. Another case would be if enslaved farmers were seen to be in debt which most were, the debt would carry onto the next season. Men and women were allowed’ to fight for their right so this was not the case, doing so resulted in them either being beaten greatly or can result in death. One African American that slavery highly affected was Clyde Ross. “…Mississippi authorities claimed his father owed $3,000… the elder Ross could not read… did not have a lawyer…” [the atlantic, 2014]. Because of these specific reasons, the authorities of Mississippi seized his land, took their animals, and their car, and it resulted in the Ross family needing to become sharecroppers. Sharecroppers are “farmers that rent small plots of land from a landowner in return for a small portion of the crop to be given to the landowner at the end of each year.” [history, 2019].

Although slavery became illegal in 1865, the effect of slavery is still present today. When slavery was still legal, the white man thought of African Americans as less than them and that they were not actual human beings. To this day, racism is still present in ways such as medical care and poverty. An example of medical care would be when Serena Williams just had her child, her medical care was not as it needed to be. She was in a lot of pain and requested a CT scan however they didn’t listen to her and sure enough, she was right and needed to be put on heparin which is a blood thinner because there were blood clots in her lungs. It is scientifically proven that poverty runs more likely with African Americans then it does any other race. “21.2% of African Americans live below the poverty line while only 8.7% of white people do.” [talkpoverty, 2019].

Native Americans losing their land is another example of how this nation was unfair. In 1838, the deadline for the Indian removal got closer which in turn led, “thousands of federal soldiers and Georgia volunteers entered the territory… Americans hunted, imprisoned, raped, and murdered Native Americans.” [loc, 2019]. The Cherokees that did survive were forced to walk on what was known as the Trail of Tears which led to approximately 4000 Cherokees dying. “Indian nations held the full rights of ownership to their lands, and in many situations, these rights were recognized and guaranteed (not granted) by treaties with the United States.” [Indianlaw]. After the Indian Removal Act of 1830, when Native Americans lost their land, they also lost a piece of their identity. [nps, 2017]. Native American land for them was used as a place of worship, and a place that they could bury their ancestors which they lost so as a result, they lost their purpose. Languages known to Native Americans were lost as they were replaced with English, and example of this being Tsalagi which is the Cherokee language. Another way they lost their identity was by having to convert to Christianity. This, in turn, resulted in them, “changing their appearance, attending western schools, and abandoning traditional hunting practices in favor of farming…” [nps, 2017].

In 1942, Japanese Americans were detained during WWII. After Pearl Harbor, anyone that was Japanese including, American Citizens of Japanese descent, they were taken to internment camps. Leading up to it, the people had only six days to pack all their belongings, which included, clothes, and anything of importance, anything they could carry they could bring. [nps, 2019]. The Japanese Americans were forced to stay in the camps from 1942 – 1945. “Executive Order 9066 affected the lives of about 117,000 people – the majority of whom were American citizens.” [history, 2019].

After the Japanese Americans were released, they were either sent to richer regions or more poorer regions. “…who were sent to richer regions, where the local population earned close to the median income, had better opportunities upon release and did better economically than those who were sent to poorer places” [news.harvard, 2017]. However, when they got released and turned to their old living style and the place they were from, their jobs and houses more than half the time would be gone.

A political perspective agreeing to this issue would be Marianne Williamson, a 2020 Democratic presidential candidate. Williamson has a plan for reparations that involve, “… a commission of African-American leaders who would decide how to disburse $200 – $500 billion in payments to descendants of American slaves…” [cnn, 2019]. A political view that disagrees with reparations is Barack Obama. In an interview, Obama stated, “I fear reparations would be used as an excuse for some to say we’ve paid our debt and to avoid the much harder work…”

In comparison, both Williamson and Obama believe that the nation needs to pay for the things that happened to the people in this nation. However, one (Williamson), took the ‘pay’ literally and wants to pay for the descendants, and the other (Obama), believes that we need to pay in a way that does not include money. In contrast, Williamson believes that a way to make what happened ‘better’ or pay for it would be to give out money. More specifically, anywhere from $200 – $500 billion, spread out to descendants for school and any sort of education. However, Obama believes that if the nation simply pays for what happened, the issue is not fixed. Instead, it is simply brushed over and nothing was solved.

Concerning that, I believe there are good things and bad things about reparation. For example, it is a good thing because of discriminatory ways, education might be something that is hard for some people to accomplish especially college and reparation, mainly paying for a good education or a good college would be a good way to repay for everything that has happened to that specific group. However, in contrast, I believe that there needs to be better ways than simply repaying somebody. For example, making sure that a specific thing does not happen again. Also, in relation to this, some groups might take advantage of it and there would need to be a way to either monitor what happens or come up with a specific system.

Especially Native Americans I believe should be involved in reparation because I am Native American more specifically Cherokee, and this has always been something that I hold close. Especially when people say that white men were the first here, but it was Native Americans and I also had family that died that day walking on the Trail of Tears. Native Americans had papers with the government stating that they owned the land and had every right to it however the government and soldiers still took the land away.

In my opinion, Reparation should happen for specific groups. African Americans and Native Americans have had a lot of hardship since the very beginning and deserve some sort of compensation for 1: African American being slaves and 2: the government going against Native Americans and taking their land. However, I don’t believe that reparation should take place for every single group because then it would just be handing out cash instead it should be for the groups that might desperately need it and were greatly affected. Another way reparation should take place is besides just handing out money, they can make sure in the future nothing like that happens again such as slavery and a removal act of any sort. However, I do believe that money especially for education is a good way to “payback” for everything that happened.

For reparation to happen, the first thing that would need to happen is that the government would need to get on board and come up with a plan to disperse the money. There would not be an easy way because if you offer money, anyone might go up and say that they qualify for that specific group, therefore there needs to be a system or a checklist of some sort to help. The money would come from a group willing to offer such as scholarship groups or the government itself.

Reparations would help greatly especially the kids who need help getting an education, this is something that might make or break what happens to them in the future. It would address problems by giving people especially people who are poor a chance and not put too much pressure on the parents to be able to afford something if there is no way that they could. I believe it would fix a lot of problems but not every problem because there are always going to be ways that something can change, or something can be better.

In conclusion, reparations should be made for certain groups especially African Americans for slavery and Native Americans for having their land taken away from them. All of these things as mentioned above happened which is why I agree with reparation. Although there are many viewpoints, I would choose to give reparations to descendants of these specific groups especially for education in the future.

 Wisconsin has a dynamic history of minorities that is still being affected today. I will specifically be talking about the American Indian, female, and African American minorities, a history of their impact in this state, developments in our education systems as a result, ongoing discrimination issues, and what I will do as an educator to combat these prejudices.

It is estimated that Wisconsin has been inhabited since 10,000 years ago. Before European influence, American Indians utilized hunting, farming, gathering, and trade as a way of living, passed on through generations of tradition. The initial integration of non-indigenous culture began in 1634 with the fur trade. Up until the late 1700’s the Wisconsin region remained occupied by both English and French primarily due to the economic benefits of the trade. After the establishment of the American government, Wisconsin began seeing an uptick in settlers due to the westward expansion. In the 1800’s the Wisconsin tribes experienced a significant loss of land to the American government. The Treaty of Prairie du Chien was established in 1825 to create peace between the tribes and the American settlers and created boundaries. Between the late 1800s and the early 1900’s the American government focused on assimilating the American Indian tribes to the ways of the American government and oppressing the native culture and traditions of the tribes by creating boarding schools and establishing the Dawes Act of 1887 that established individual ownership of land, advantageously leaving the leftover land to the American government. The Indian Reservation Act of 1932 reversed the Dawes Act, creating a reservation system for American Indians, but was later rejected with the House Concurrent Resolution 108 in 1953, ending the recognition of over 50 tribal governments. Wisconsin established rights to casino gambling to Wisconsin tribes in 1987, creating economic benefits to the tribes which is still in effect today.

Specifically with our education system, the American Indian tribes influenced the Wisconsin Act 31, created in 1989 to require that students are given accurate information about the history and culture of American Indians. The DPI American Indian Studies Program was also established within the Wisconsin Department of Public Instructions to provide assistance and training to school districts as well as facilitate other tribal departments. As well as establishing that American Indian history and culture are taught in our school systems, The American Indian Studies Program is also responsible for the American Indian students currently being taught in our school systems.

The history of women in Wisconsin also began 10,000 years ago as some of the American Indians native to this region were women. Women within the tribes were instrumental in the harvesting and gathering of food for their families. With the fur trade beginning in the 1600s, European traders typically took Indian women as wives, as opposed to European women, as this was beneficial for the trader’s livelihood. American Indian women were helpful liaisons between the traders and the Indian tribes as well as extremely knowledgeable about living off of the land. It wasn’t until the westward settlement that Wisconsin began to see more nonnative women. With the westward movement, there was an emigration of Indian tribes from the Eastern Coast to the Wisconsin region. Notably, Wisconsin’s first public school teacher was an American Indian woman who settled in the area from New York. When Wisconsin became a state in 1848, there was a discussion on giving women the right to their property as well as their right to vote, but it did not make it to the final constitution. Women played an active role in the abolition movement, creating their reform organizations. They participated in the underground railroad system, hiding slaves in their homes. Women were also the medical, spiritual, and economic backbone of the soldiers fighting in the Civil War, providing financial support as well as providing medical aid in the hospitals. Following the Civil War, industrialization caused women to seek jobs in the workforce. The Wisconsin State Federation of Labor welcomed women and included them in part of their platform. The movement for women’s suffrage in Wisconsin was well-organized, becoming the first state to ratify the 19th Amendment of 1920, allowing women the right to vote. A year later, Wisconsin passed the first equal rights bill, that gave women equal rights as men. Women also contributed to both world wars, being the main day-to-day providers for their families while most men were off at war. The Wisconsin Commission on the Status of Women was created in 1964 to advise the governor on policies that affected women but was later dismantled in 1979. The Wisconsin Women’s Network was created in its wake and is currently still in existence.

The History of African Americans in Wisconsin dates back to the 1700’s beginning with the fur trade. Some, but not all African Americans were slaves to the traders. Some were free men and fur traders themselves. With the westward expansion, slaves were brought in with the white settlers. In the early 1800’s the slaves that did arrive from other regions were typically freed as Wisconsin was considered free soil. As well as women, African Americans also received consideration when the original constitution for Wisconsin was created. African American (men) right to vote was approved in the second referendum of 1849. Unfortunately, election officials continued to prohibit men of color from voting in the state until 1866, when a case was brought to the Wisconsin Supreme Court by a member of the black community. The Court established that African American men were allowed to vote, and have been since 1849. During the Civil War, African Americans were not permitted to serve as soldiers until 1863 with the Emancipation Proclamation. After 1863, hundreds of African Americans from Wisconsin enlisted. In the early 1900’s the structure of Wisconsin agricultural and manufacturing jobs resulted in limited need for hired labor. Consequently, most African Americans found other states to have better employment opportunities. This resulted in a stunted population growth for African Americans in Wisconsin. It was not until the mid-1900’s that the African American population saw a significant increase, due to the increase in jobs in the region.

In the Wisconsin school system, the Milwaukee Urban League fought for the right to have black teachers in school beginning in 1930 which was further helped by the Brown vs. Board of Education decision of 1954. Segregation of schools continued, notably in the Milwaukee area. As a result, the Congress of Racial Equity (CORE) was organized in 1963. In 1976 it was finally determined that schools were still being segregated, and it took an additional three years for them to create a plan to fix the issue. While progress was made to end segregation since the 2000’s there has been a trend of resegregation in Milwaukee public school systems. Recently it was found that 73.5% of black students in the metro area attend schools consisting of 90% more non-white students.

Wisconsin enacted various measures to combat the discrimination of American Indians, women, African Americans, as well as other minorities in our school systems. In 1848, the creation of the Wisconsin Constitution established tuition-free schools open to all races and religions. In 1949 the Wisconsin pupil nondiscrimination law made separate schools and exclusion based on race and religion illegal. A series of federal laws, including the Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination of race as well as Title IX of 1972 prohibiting the discrimination of sex, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibiting the discrimination of people with disabilities, led to a revision of the Wisconsin pupil nondiscrimination law in 1975 to include these additional groups. In 1983, there were additional provisions to include pregnant women and mothers in the school system. In 2006, single-sex classes and schools were formally prohibited. Today’s practice of pupil nondiscrimination requires school districts to designate an employee to handle and resolve discrimination complaints.

It is undisputed that discrimination of minorities continues to exist, both intentionally and implicitly. We are still dealing with segregation issues, as well as school policies that disproportionately affect people of different genders, races, beliefs, and income levels. School districts like Superior and Kenosha made changes to their dress codes within the last couple of years because they were not gender-neutral. Researchers have shown discrimination to also have less obvious impacts on people, specifically with stress and overall health.

As a future art teacher, I will strive to find creative ways to be culturally responsive. Specifically, I would like to incorporate lessons that include both present and past minority artists, why these artists are or were relevant, as well as having students create historically and culturally appropriate art forms. I intend to structure activities that aim to give the students context for how these pieces originated as well as a general respect for them.

Through my research of the American Indian, women, and African American history and influence on past and current Wisconsin culture, as well as its specific implication in our school system, I felt an overarching optimism in the continuing movement towards equal suffrage as well as a pride in what has been accomplished so far. Unfortunately, we are very far from being equal and I also had feelings of disappointment in where we are at today. Seeing articles posted in the last one or two years dealing with gender discrimination and racial segregation in our schools is very disheartening. I hope that being armed with this knowledge will help me better structure my teaching as a future educator.  

 Wisconsin has a dynamic history of minorities that is still being affected today. I will specifically be talking about the American Indian, female, and African American minorities, a history of their impact in this state, developments in our education systems as a result, ongoing discrimination issues, and what I will do as an educator to combat these prejudices.

It is estimated that Wisconsin has been inhabited since 10,000 years ago. Before European influence, American Indians utilized hunting, farming, gathering, and trade as a way of living, passed on through generations of tradition. The initial integration of non-indigenous culture began in 1634 with the fur trade. Up until the late 1700’s the Wisconsin region remained occupied by both English and French primarily due to the economic benefits of the trade. After the establishment of the American government, Wisconsin began seeing an uptick in settlers due to the westward expansion. In the 1800’s the Wisconsin tribes experienced a significant loss of land to the American government. The Treaty of Prairie du Chien was established in 1825 to create peace between the tribes and the American settlers and created boundaries. Between the late 1800s and the early 1900’s the American government focused on assimilating the American Indian tribes to the ways of the American government and oppressing the native culture and traditions of the tribes by creating boarding schools and establishing the Dawes Act of 1887 that established individual ownership of land, advantageously leaving the leftover land to the American government. The Indian Reservation Act of 1932 reversed the Dawes Act, creating a reservation system for American Indians, but was later rejected with the House Concurrent Resolution 108 in 1953, ending the recognition of over 50 tribal governments. Wisconsin established rights to casino gambling to Wisconsin tribes in 1987, creating economic benefits to the tribes which is still in effect today.

Specifically with our education system, the American Indian tribes influenced the Wisconsin Act 31, created in 1989 to require that students are given accurate information about the history and culture of American Indians. The DPI American Indian Studies Program was also established within the Wisconsin Department of Public Instructions to provide assistance and training to school districts as well as facilitate other tribal departments. As well as establishing that American Indian history and culture are taught in our school systems, The American Indian Studies Program is also responsible for the American Indian students currently being taught in our school systems.

The history of women in Wisconsin also began 10,000 years ago as some of the American Indians native to this region were women. Women within the tribes were instrumental in the harvesting and gathering of food for their families. With the fur trade beginning in the 1600s, European traders typically took Indian women as wives, as opposed to European women, as this was beneficial for the trader’s livelihood. American Indian women were helpful liaisons between the traders and the Indian tribes as well as extremely knowledgeable about living off of the land. It wasn’t until the westward settlement that Wisconsin began to see more nonnative women. With the westward movement, there was an emigration of Indian tribes from the Eastern Coast to the Wisconsin region. Notably, Wisconsin’s first public school teacher was an American Indian woman who settled in the area from New York. When Wisconsin became a state in 1848, there was a discussion on giving women the right to their property as well as their right to vote, but it did not make it to the final constitution. Women played an active role in the abolition movement, creating their reform organizations. They participated in the underground railroad system, hiding slaves in their homes. Women were also the medical, spiritual, and economic backbone of the soldiers fighting in the Civil War, providing financial support as well as providing medical aid in the hospitals. Following the Civil War, industrialization caused women to seek jobs in the workforce. The Wisconsin State Federation of Labor welcomed women and included them in part of their platform. The movement for women’s suffrage in Wisconsin was well-organized, becoming the first state to ratify the 19th Amendment of 1920, allowing women the right to vote. A year later, Wisconsin passed the first equal rights bill, that gave women equal rights as men. Women also contributed to both world wars, being the main day-to-day providers for their families while most men were off at war. The Wisconsin Commission on the Status of Women was created in 1964 to advise the governor on policies that affected women but was later dismantled in 1979. The Wisconsin Women’s Network was created in its wake and is currently still in existence.

The History of African Americans in Wisconsin dates back to the 1700’s beginning with the fur trade. Some, but not all African Americans were slaves to the traders. Some were free men and fur traders themselves. With the westward expansion, slaves were brought in with the white settlers. In the early 1800’s the slaves that did arrive from other regions were typically freed as Wisconsin was considered free soil. As well as women, African Americans also received consideration when the original constitution for Wisconsin was created. African American (men) right to vote was approved in the second referendum of 1849. Unfortunately, election officials continued to prohibit men of color from voting in the state until 1866, when a case was brought to the Wisconsin Supreme Court by a member of the black community. The Court established that African American men were allowed to vote, and have been since 1849. During the Civil War, African Americans were not permitted to serve as soldiers until 1863 with the Emancipation Proclamation. After 1863, hundreds of African Americans from Wisconsin enlisted. In the early 1900’s the structure of Wisconsin agricultural and manufacturing jobs resulted in limited need for hired labor. Consequently, most African Americans found other states to have better employment opportunities. This resulted in a stunted population growth for African Americans in Wisconsin. It was not until the mid-1900’s that the African American population saw a significant increase, due to the increase in jobs in the region.

In the Wisconsin school system, the Milwaukee Urban League fought for the right to have black teachers in school beginning in 1930 which was further helped by the Brown vs. Board of Education decision of 1954. Segregation of schools continued, notably in the Milwaukee area. As a result, the Congress of Racial Equity (CORE) was organized in 1963. In 1976 it was finally determined that schools were still being segregated, and it took an additional three years for them to create a plan to fix the issue. While progress was made to end segregation since the 2000’s there has been a trend of resegregation in Milwaukee public school systems. Recently it was found that 73.5% of black students in the metro area attend schools consisting of 90% more non-white students.

Wisconsin enacted various measures to combat the discrimination of American Indians, women, African Americans, as well as other minorities in our school systems. In 1848, the creation of the Wisconsin Constitution established tuition-free schools open to all races and religions. In 1949 the Wisconsin pupil nondiscrimination law made separate schools and exclusion based on race and religion illegal. A series of federal laws, including the Federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination of race as well as Title IX of 1972 prohibiting the discrimination of sex, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibiting the discrimination of people with disabilities, led to a revision of the Wisconsin pupil nondiscrimination law in 1975 to include these additional groups. In 1983, there were additional provisions to include pregnant women and mothers in the school system. In 2006, single-sex classes and schools were formally prohibited. Today’s practice of pupil nondiscrimination requires school districts to designate an employee to handle and resolve discrimination complaints.

It is undisputed that discrimination of minorities continues to exist, both intentionally and implicitly. We are still dealing with segregation issues, as well as school policies that disproportionately affect people of different genders, races, beliefs, and income levels. School districts like Superior and Kenosha made changes to their dress codes within the last couple of years because they were not gender-neutral. Researchers have shown discrimination to also have less obvious impacts on people, specifically with stress and overall health.

As a future art teacher, I will strive to find creative ways to be culturally responsive. Specifically, I would like to incorporate lessons that include both present and past minority artists, why these artists are or were relevant, as well as having students create historically and culturally appropriate art forms. I intend to structure activities that aim to give the students context for how these pieces originated as well as a general respect for them.

Through my research of the American Indian, women, and African American history and influence on past and current Wisconsin culture, as well as its specific implication in our school system, I felt an overarching optimism in the continuing movement towards equal suffrage as well as a pride in what has been accomplished so far. Unfortunately, we are very far from being equal and I also had feelings of disappointment in where we are at today. Seeing articles posted in the last one or two years dealing with gender discrimination and racial segregation in our schools is very disheartening. I hope that being armed with this knowledge will help me better structure my teaching as a future educator.  

Native American women have several distinctive characteristics because of the distinct gender roles in the native culture. These roles define their place in the society in both positive and negative ways. Gender violence targeting the Native American women follows some of these patterns.

The goal of this paper is to examine the factors contributing to gender violence against Native American women and the response of their religious and spiritual traditions.

There is need to point out that there is a varying degree of acculturation of Native Americans. Some of them are completely urbanite with little or no tie to ethnic life, while others have the full ethnic upbringing. This paper focuses on the ethnic Native Americans with a strong tribal background.

Several factors contribute to the violence against Native American women. These include the weaknesses of the criminal justice system, racism and the “lasting legacy of colonization”. The Native American society has its own criminal justice system. This system is not as elaborate as the federal law.

There was a push to expand the jurisdiction of the tribal courts to give them the power to give sentences longer than three years. In their current state, they do not have the power to issue sentences that have a strong deterrent effect. Women who undergo domestic violence do not feel safe to report perpetrators because of the high risk that the system will not deliver justice.

When cases of assault do not end with a conviction, the society ostracizes the women. It is difficult to participate socially after such as experience. This situation makes it impossible or highly undesirable for women to report cases of violence against them. They prefer to save face and to live with the consequences of violence.

The second major factor responsible for violence against Native American women is racism. Along with other minorities, Native Americans are the target of racism because of their distinct culture. Statistics show that there is a greater incidence of violence against Native American women compared to any other ethnic minorities.

The simple conclusion to this fact is that there is a race factor behind the high levels of violence. Native American women tend to be less educated than all other minorities.

They also have very visible cultural tendencies, which make them an objective target of hatred from dominant communities. They are also the object of many stereotypes that arise out of this cultural distinctness.

The third issue that influences violence against Native American women is the lasting legacy of colonization. In the native Indian societies, violence against women was unheard. It was a sign of lack of control to beat a woman.

Since the arrival of colonialists, violence against Native American women grew, both from their tribesmen and from those from other derivations. The main reason for this is that social balance deteriorated with the arrival of settlers.

They disturbed the cultural systems that the Indians lived under for the time before the arrival of the settlers. Some of the forces that weakened the tribal safety net were the attempt to evangelize the natives, efforts to school them, and the general violence that affected the entire Indian people accompanying colonization.

Religious and spiritual traditions of the Indians had a very revered view of women. Women played an unmatched role as the givers of life who perpetuated life. The Indian culture revered life as sacred and sought to live in harmony with nature.

In those days, men who meted out violence on their wives faced harsh censure from the community. It was a sign of weakness to beat a woman.

One of the repercussions of such actions was that the perpetrator could never lead other men in any activity. They could not lead warriors to war, and they could not lead hunting parties. It also limited their role as elders and guides to the community in later life.

There is significant weakening of the religious and spiritual systems because of the forces discussed earlier. Unlike the past where the entire community could hold an errant member to account for misdemeanors, the systems collapsed over time making the punishments either irrelevant or mild because of the multiplicity of options available for perpetrators to escape punishment.

There is reduced significance of the place of women in this society as life givers because of all the alternate philosophies affecting perceptions of the roles of women.

In order to reverse the current trends, the most significant thing that can help to catalyze the process is increased involvement of the federal government in the administration of justice in gender violence cases.

The federal government needs to either empower the tribal courts to deal more firmly with cases of violence against women, or to establish alternative criminal justice processes that are friendlier to victims of abuse.

The best way to participate in this process is to join or support advocacy groups working towards getting greater involvement of the federal government in the cases of violence against Native American women.

References

American Psychological Association. (1989). Contemporary Psychology. (E. G. Boring, Ed.) Michigan: American Psychological Association.

Chapin, R. (2010). Social Policy for Effective Practice: A Strengths Approach. New York: Francis & Taylor.

Fortune, M. M., Abugideiri, S. E., & Dratch, M. (2010). A Commentary on Religion and Domestic Violence. In L. L. Lockhart, & F. S. Danis, Domestic Violence: Intersectionality and Culturally Competent Practice (pp. 78-98). Columbia: Columbia University Press.

Lockhart, L. L., & Danis, F. S. (2010). Domestic Violence: Intersectionality and Culturally Competent Practice. Columbia: Columbia University Press.

Since the middle of the 20^th century, Native Americans have been provided the opportunity to raise funds through having casino and slot parlors on their land partly to compensate for former abuses done to their ancestors. However, this paper will focus on the abuses of this opportunity by groups who are truly not Native Americans.

Further, these enterprises exploit Native Americans by subjecting them to temptations without providing the groups with a percentage of the funds raised by these gaming reserves.

The general discussions of the financial justification of casino and slot parlors serve as a useful backdrop when developing a profile of the Native American. They suggest the need to distinguish among different types of casino and slot parlors activities, both in terms of characteristics of the particular type of casino and slot parlors (e.g., win probability; take-out rate) and characteristics of the particular Native American.

This pattern existed for all casino and slot parlors types except sports books, where the percent of income bet was progressive, and casinos, where it took a u-shape. Considering the combined effects of participation of different income groups in different casino and slot parlors activities, and the takeout rates of the latter, the report concludes that low income bettors have a higher proclivity to high take-out games (Fromson 71).

The position is moderated somewhat, however, when each type of casino and slot parlors is considered, for illegal sports books and casino activities are shown to be progressive. But before one uses this to advocate the legalization of casino and slot parlors for an equitable revenue source, findings for Nevada residents in particular must be considered.

To the extent that the overall efficiency of casino and slot parlors is related to the distance necessary to travel to participate in this activity, Nevada residents are not as affected by travel costs. Therefore, casino and slot parlors in Nevada actually becomes highly regressive. Moreover, all other forms of casino and slot parlors activity are found to be more regressive for Native Americans (Calloway 43).

The advisability of legalizing casino and slot parlors in order to generate revenue for the state must be assessed in terms of the equity of casino and slot parlors as a tax source, i.e. casino and slot parlors taxes, and the efficiency of raising revenue through casino and slot parlors taxes, i.e. the cost-effectiveness of casino and slot parlors legalization.

Related to the second criterion, the revenue potential of legalizing casino and slot parlors is determined by

1. the total amount wagered on presently legal forms of casino and slot parlors;
2. the total amount wagered on presently illegal forms of casino and slot parlors;
3. which forms of casino and slot parlors are legalized;
4. the degree of substitutability among the various forms of casino and slot parlors and between legal and illegal forms of casino and slot parlors; and
5. the price elasticity of the demand for casino and slot parlors, i.e. the sensitivity of the potential Native American to total casino and slot parlors take-out rates, including government-imposed tax rates. Critics consider in turn the equity and efficiency arguments of casino and slot parlors legalization (Fromson 65).

As has been noted, there is disagreement as to the regressive nature of casino and slot parlors taxes as a source of revenue. The argument against gaming is supported by the observed pattern of casino and slot parlors behavior for persons of different income groups. One counterargument is a more theoretical one. It maintains that casino and slot parlors demand depends on the structure of prizes and not the pay-out ratio.

Proponents of legalization cite it as a way for the state to raise additional revenue for new or expanded programs while not provoking any latent antitax sentiments of its citizenry. Such legalization is merely rendering to the state monies that would otherwise be lost either to states where the activity is legal or to illegal operations. Moreover, there are desirable spillover effects in the reduced need for law enforcement and the stimulus to existing and/or new business (Calloway 67).

The opposition contends that needed revenue should be provided by more predictable and less morally offensive means. Many raise the problem of the potential conflict for the state performing the dual role of operator and regulator. Others cite the inevitable subordination of the control of casino and slot parlors to revenue considerations.

Moreover, critics claim that revenue gains are exaggerated by ignoring the effects of competition from other legal and illegal forms. Spillover effects are also judged undesirable: communities are debased by a proliferation of casino and slot parlors establishments and activities, casino and slot parlors enterprises are supported at the expense of legitimate economic activity, and the need for social services and law enforcement is increased (Fromson 132).

The core of these arguments points to the need for a cost-benefit analysis in assessing the efficiency of raising revenue through various levies on casino and slot parlors activity. This will, of course, consider the expenditure necessary to generate a dollar of revenue. Total legalization of all forms of casino and slot parlors is not likely.

However, there are no available estimates on the effects of legalizing only some casino and slot parlors activities. Proponents of state-sponsored lotteries have argued that legal lotteries would not only provide much-needed revenue but would also serve to reduce participation in illegal numbers games (Hatfield 43).

This contention ignores important differences between lotteries and numbers and correspondingly exaggerates the degree of substitutability between them. While both are considered less active than casino or horse track casino and slot parlors, numbers betting does involve more active participation in the selection of the number than the mere purchase of a lottery ticket.

Lottery ticket purchase, the acceptance of a small probability of winning a large sum of money, may be the visible expression of one’s only hope of accumulating a large sum of money. Therefore, it must be realized that these two games attract different kinds of buyers, On the contrary, justification tends to favorably dispose persons to casino and slot parlors in general with a consequent increase in legal and illegal forms (Calloway 98).

In native lands, the degree of substitutability between legal and illegal casino and slot parlors is greatly affected by such factors as credit policies of a casino and slot parlors enterprise and tax policies toward casino and slot parlors and casino and slot parlors winnings. Here again arises the inherent conflict between the desire to be competitive with illegal operations and the need to raise revenue.

Casino and slot parlors demand has been shown to be price elastic, i.e. a reduction in the take-out rate results in an increase in the total amount wagered. But, to the extent that the lower take-out rate is from a lower tax, total government revenue will decline if the increased handle can not compensate for the lower tax rate.

Therefore, policymakers must use the tax rate that maximizes tax revenue (Hatfield 43). The effects of the tax rate on demand and revenue can be illustrated with national horse racing. The lowered tax rates brought a small increase in wagers, but a much greater reduction in government revenue.

Other examples of this phe-nomenon have been cited for Nevada Horse and Sport-Betting parlors. A related problem of competition stems from the fact that illegal casino and slot parlors winnings are not subject to income taxation. It is not totally outrageous to suggest a similar exclusion for all casino and slot parlors winnings.

This practice exists outside the United States where casino and slot parlors is legal and is applied to lottery winnings in the United States. Such an exclusion of winnings for the casual bettor has been endorsed by former officials of the Internal Revenue Service (Wilmer 140).

In order to develop a theory of gaming and Native Americans, two separate issues must be examined: the dynamics of casino and slot parlors as a social phenomenon, and the social reaction to casino and slot parlors. Devereux notes that societal disapproval and participation in the behavior co-exist; their interrelation must be examined for the function of casino and slot parlors to be thoroughly understood. The structural features of capitalism require motivation and specific characteristics among the members of society (Wilmer 81).

The society must attempt to standardize particular beliefs and behaviors. Economic goals are to be rational (profit making) rather than emotional, competition and upward mobility are encouraged, and cultural definitions or values are created that maintain the motivations necessary. These values have their origin in the Protestant ethic which stresses hard work and the acquisition of private property (Calloway 87).

These characteristics often lead to strain in addition to the desired outcomes. American capitalism conflicts with some of the values found in Native American culture. Hard work and self-denial are often replaced with self-seeking, acquisitive actions. The competition of the economic order contrasts with the ideals of love and self-sacrifice. Casino and slot parlors represent a violation of the tenets of capitalism, for rewards may come from chance rather than hard work.

Those aspects of casino and slot parlors which are deplored are not unfamiliar ones, but are quite similar to values found in the legitimate economic system (Wilmer 140). Since the economic system can not be attacked, casino and slot parlors provide an opportunity to reject these values and reinforce the dominant order. Casino and slot parlors then become a safe scapegoat for society and the prohibition of it serves a function of social control.

Casino and slot parlors provides an opportunity to protest against economic rationality and budgeting funds, to experience excitement and escape from ethical (puritanical) constraints, and to act in a setting that allows one to indulge in competitiveness and autonomy in decision making without effects on one’s “real life.”

The element of chance also provides an escape from the rationality of the culture since casino and slot parlors permits one to rely on fate and superstition. Finally, casino and slot parlors itself is pleasurable. The sport event (football game, horse race) may be of intrinsic interest and placing a bet on one’s favorite team or horse only heightens the interest.

The social setting of a casino or a racetrack may encourage non-bettors to participate and join the fun. By participating one may also play the “sport of kings” which provides at least a temporary status passage (Minerd 10).

The wealthy bet large amounts of money and do so in an atmosphere of sociability and exclusiveness. Here, betting is consistent with notion of “conspicuous consumption,” for wealth is put in evidence through heavy wagering. Interestingly, betting is also typically on the favorites, which Herman interprets as an outcome of sociability rather than security concerns. Symbolic independence would seem to be an experience sought most frequently by those who have the least freedom in their daily lives.

Also, if casino and slot parlors serves a “safety valve” function for those in society who are least successful, lower-class members should engage in games of chance more frequently than persons in middle and upper status positions. This assumption has led to several studies which focus on lower-class casino and slot parlors (Wilkinson 128).

Researchers (Wilkinson 128) describe the Native American setting of the tavern as one in which men are able to control their fate, achieve goals, and gain recognition from their peers without risking their actual status in the outside world. The tavern is cut off from their dayto-day lives, thus offering a “safe” environment in which to beat the system and indicate their ability to control their fate.

Here casino and slot parlors provides a release for hostility against the society, but also reinforces and preserves major values of the larger society. The Native American who places his bets on the basis of available information such as past performance of horses, past positions, and track conditions is given the highest prestige, while the lowest prestige is afforded those who bet on the basis of a hunch or random choice. Figuring out the choice, or using rational information is a socially approved technique for decision making (Calloway 83

Social structure of Native Americans leads to casino and slot parlors due to inconsistent values and a scarcity of outlets for chance taking in other areas of one’s life. Different social status groups engage in this behavior due to their own needs, but the lower class Native American participates due to status frustration and alienation from his work.

Generally, these analyses describe casino and slot parlors as a needed safety valve for those with high levels of motivation, but who have few opportunities for making decisions, working independently, or governing their own fate. Casino and slot parlors offers an enjoyable means of releasing frustration and utilizing one’s motivation to achieve.

Casino and slot parlors are to be a result of marginal-class culture by some social scientists. Emphasis on fate and immediate gratification encourage betting on games of chance, and although the “belief in luck” was found to be more characteristic of the working class than the middle class, it was not related to a propensity to gamble.

Casino and slot parlors were related to propensity to gamble across social classes, not just in the working class. It must be noted that other ethnic groups (Jews and Italians) also report high amounts of illegal casino and slot parlors activity. Illegal casino and slot parlors were most prevalent in central cities, so the ethnic group participation may be a result of sub-cultural values among group members favoring casino and slot parlors (Wilkinson 128).

Access to opportunities for this may be enhanced due to residential segregation in urban areas where illegal betting operations have been conducted for some time. Evidence for these explanations is present in the survey results. Exposure to and availability of casino and slot parlors were found to be excellent predictors of participation for all respondents (Rand and Light 111).

For Native Americans, casino and slot parlors provide excitement and entertainment for participants. In the past, these aspects of placing bets have been overlooked or treated as secondary in importance to the financial desires for gain and upward social mobility. A more accurate perspective on casino and slot parlors must emphasize that this is a leisure activity which provides consumers with an opportunity to directly engage in playing with money.

One cannot deny that there are Native Americans who gamble compulsively or attempt to obtain wealth by taking chances on lotteries, numbers, horse races, and sports events. However, these participants may constitute a small proportion of all those who gamble in the USA (Calloway 91

Some researchers explain obsession of Native Americans as unconscious anal fixation. They the behavior as obsessional neurosis. Based on Freud’s (1953) contention that infants who tend towards constipation develop a feeling of great value for feces, which in later life is replaced by money, Fuller argues that the Native American is displacing his desire to play with feces.

Since all casino and slot parlors is characterized by playing with money, casino and slot parlors, according to Fuller, represents a general regression to the anal stage of development. In support of this conclusion, Fuller points to idiomatic useage of feces in the lexicon of the Native American such as the game “craps” replete with “coming out the hard way,” “they’re rolling,” “the don’t pass line” and “making it the hard way.”

This anecdotal evidence is far from convincing. One could easily point to phrases common to geology such as “fault slippage,” “sink holes,” “extrusions” and “bowels of the earth” and arrive at the conclusion that geologists, too, suffer from a general anal fixation (Rand and Light 111).

It is my contention that casino and slot parlors behavior is similar to all other types of behavior in both its development and maintenance. The various forms of casino and slot parlors may be understood by noting the salient features in the environment which accompany the behavior; namely, the stimulus situation and the pattern of reinforcement. The act of casino and slot parlors is common to most Native Americans’ experience; and it even occurs in other species (Calloway 58).

Rather, it is a label commonly applied to behavior resulting from a fairly sophisticated combination of personal reinforcement history, and prevailing reinforcement contingencies. Although others have argued that Native Americans behave in order to satisfy a repressed wish to punish themselves, or to achieve dominance (in spite of the fact that most Native Americans finally lose), the author views the behavior as an inevitable by-product of a person’s particular sensitivity to variable ratio schedules of reinforcement (Light and Rand 66).

In sum, casino and slot parlors situations provide a fertile environment for the Native American people and their behavior, since the response is contingently reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule. Further, the situation leads to the possibility of maximizing the positive reinforcing factors of winning. Although the application of activity effective positive reinforcement in casino and slot parlors situations is admittedly infrequent, it is likely that it does occur.

Casino and slot parlors produce extremely persistent behavior among Native Americans. By viewing the aspects of casino and slot parlors, it is clear that the situation provides powerful contingencies for maintaining negative behavior patterns. In order to understand why Native Americans are more susceptible to variable-ratio schedules of reinforcement, we must briefly examine how personality variables interact with reinforcement.

Native Americans, in the course of their lives, experience consistent relationships between sets of problems and means of solutions. Personal expectations develop as a result of previous reinforcement. One important expectation Native Americans develop involves the degree to which they see themselves as instrumental in effecting changes in the environment. Specifically, Native Americans develop a belief in the degree to which their own behavior controls the availability of reinforcement.

This finding indicates that heavy gamers do not see their behavior as instrumental in producing rewards and punishments. Rather, rewards and punishments are largely a matter of fate or luck among Native Americans. It is important to note that an external locus of control is a generalized expectation followed by Native Americans. For Native Americans, this would not only influence their casino and slot parlors behaviors, but their entire behavioral change.

Works Cited

Calloway, C.G. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Fromson, B. D Hitting the Jackpot: The Inside Story of the Richest Indian Tribe in History, Atlantic Monthly Press, 2003.

Hatfield, D. L. The Stereotyping of Native Americans. The Humanist, Vol. 60. 2000, 43.

Kevin K. Washburn, “The Legacy of Bryan v. Itasca County: How an Erroneous $147.

County Tax Notice Helped Bring Tribes $200 Billion in Indian Gaming Revenue” 92 Minnesota Law Review 919 (2008).

Light, S. A. and Kathryn R.L. Rand, Indian Gaming and Tribal Sovereignty: The Casino Compromise. University Press of Kansas, 2005.

Minerd, J. Native Americans vs. Environmentalists. The Futurist, Vol. 34, 2000.

Rand, K. R. L. and Steven Andrew Light, Indian Gaming Law and Policy. Carolina Academic Press, 2006.

Wilkinson, Charles. Blood Struggle: The Rise of Modern Indian Nations. 1st. Ne York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company Ltd., 2005.

Wilmer, Frank. Indian Gaming: Players and Stakes. Wicazo Sa Review, 12(1), 89-114. Retrieved from JSTOR. (140-164).

Introduction

Equality is one of the most important phenomena of modern society, following the concepts of which is crucial for its successful development. One of the groups that are subject to special discrimination is Native American women. This is because they may have limited access to medical services and work and, as a consequence, experience a generally negative attitude. Thus, this work aims at studying how negative attitudes, abuse, and discrimination affect the experience of Native Americans on reservation minority women.

The Roots of the Problem of Native Americans

One of the problems is the fact that the problem of negative attitudes and intolerance, and inequality toward Native women are very rarely discussed in scientific literature. Hence, during the research for this academic paper, a limited number of articles were found that specifically examined the female population. Further, the topics were devoted to the general difficulties faced by representatives of the native population.

It is worth noting that the problem of discrimination and unfairness toward native women has quite deep roots in the history. Hence, this has been happening since the time when the indigenous people were used as slaves. Moreover, many representatives of this group were subjected to the opposition, and many conquerors made attempts to recruit people in this territory. Thus, this trend is reflected in the modern world and society. Findling et al. (2019) showed that “Native Americans experience pervasive patterns of discrimination across many areas of life in the United States” (p. 1439). This is reflected in many areas of the lives of people who must face problems.

The Issue Native Women Face in Modern Society

Regarding native women, this group is experiencing an even greater number of issues. This is because, in addition to restrictions in health care and work, they are subjected to psychological and physical violence and various kinds of bullying. Thus, Brewer (2021) underlines that “Native American women are two to three times more likely than women of any other race to experience violence, stalking or sexual assault” (para. 9). Fig. 1 shows the percentage of women who are raped by race. This is one of the most severe problems for society as it causes separation and discrimination and requires an effective solution.

Minority Reservation is a Crucial Improvement for Native Women

One of the critical aspects in the framework of this research is the issue of the reservation of Native women. This problem concerns the representation of women in constitutional documents in relation to the spheres in which the male population predominates (Bose & Das, 2018). Moreover, the introduction of these changes may make it possible to create a State in which the needs, characteristics, and rights of both sexes are taken into account (Dias, 2017). Therefore, the initiative can help to make a significant step in the struggle for equality between men and women and contribute to increasing the value of the female voice, especially in the political sphere.

Conclusion

Thus, the country’s state authorities should pay more attention to how unfairly society treats Native women. Representatives of this type of minority face daily discrimination. This applies to the workplace, public opinion, racism, and psychological and physical violence. Native women have to fight this injustice, which has been stretching for many centuries. Therefore, it is necessary to pay more attention to the study and dissemination of awareness about this problem among government agencies and the public. Measures to prevent this issue also include the introduction of policies and strategies to focus on diversity and equality in all areas. Last, the country should provide legislation protecting women from violence.

References

Bose, N., & Das, S. (2018). Political reservation for women and delivery of public works program. Review of Development Economics, 22(1), 203-219.

Brewer, G.L. (2021). Native American women face an epidemic of violence. A legal loophole prevents prosecutions.NBC News.

Dias, M. F. (2017). Women’s Reservation: Democratic reality or political illusion. Women’s Studies Research Center, 32.

Findling, M. G., Casey, L. S., Fryberg, S. A., Hafner, S., Blendon, R. J., Benson, J. M., Sayde, J.M., & Miller, C. (2019). Discrimination in the United States: experiences of Native Americans.Health Services Research, 54, 1431-1441.

Native American women are scared to speak out about their abuse. (n.d.). New Mexico News Post.

In Phoenix, Arizona, there is a direct relationship between water displacement from the upper Gila River and the well-being of the local indigenous tribes such as Pimas and Maricopas. By the end of the 19th century, no water was flowing down the Gila River, which altered the lifestyle of these two tribes. Thus, affecting their cultural practices, health, and economic status.

Minorities are frequently left behind regarding safe housing, stable employment, and economic security. When people consider the causes of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, they think of known risk factors at the individual level. However, they are socially structured, and one of the dimensions it is patterned throughout is by neighborhoods (California Newsreel, 2008b). This causes socioeconomic and health inequities in certain neighborhoods with a lack of access to nutritious foods and secure exercise facilities.

The ethnicity of both tribes and Gwai Boonkeut significantly impacts their health. The tribes’ lack of access to water altered their diet and labor habits. The nearest supermarket is one hour away from the reservation. Once they lost access to water, they could not grow and provide for themselves. The government presented them with commodity boxes containing unhealthy food, which altered their cooking techniques. Fry bread, for instance, is not a traditional Native American food. The origin of fried bread can be traced back to the commodity food program.

Moreover, fry bread is essentially an attempt to make the most of the ingredients available: flour, lard, and vegetable shortening. When people grow up with something, it eventually becomes part of the culture. It assimilates into the community to the point where it is considered the norm (California Newsreel, 2008a). Native Americans were looked down upon and considered savages. Therefore the government did not care about their welfare. Gwai Boonkeut relocated to a neglected Black urban community. Gwai Boonkeut resides in a Laotian hamlet where over fifty percent of residents spend thirty percent of their income on housing. This results in financial stress, which can contribute to heart disease and diabetes. Health encompasses much more than a person’s physical body; it also includes their environment.

Gwai suffered a heart attack due to the stress of working two jobs and paying his family’s bills. He was treated for his illness and then returned to the environment that caused it. The river damming altered their eating and exercise habits; it harmed the lives of the indigenous population. Being Native Americans from impoverished communities places them at a disadvantage. Forty years ago, the tribe had the world’s highest incidence of Type II diabetes (California Newsreel, 2008b). The cause was a lack of access to sufficient healthcare, and nutritious food has resulted in a diabetes epidemic.

Native Americans’ socioeconomic position on reserves is crucial for their health and healthcare. Diabetes has become a big issue among Native American communities due to bad eating habits, a lack of exercise facilities, and inaccessibility to nutritious food. Social determinants of health include a sense of control and self-empowerment crucial to people. It affects a person’s self-identity and optimism for the future (California Newsreel, 2008b). Gwai Boonkeut resides in an unsafe environment that makes him unwell. The tribes’ separation from the river altered their eating and working habits. However, access to nutritious foods and safe locations to exercise, in addition to more affordable homes and higher-paying jobs, will contribute to the positive development of the population. Regular doctor visits and education about diabetes, obesity, and heart disease could help reduce health disparities in low-income neighborhoods.

References

California Newsreel. (2008a). Unnatural causes: Bad sugar. PBS. Web.

California Newsreel. (2008b). Unnatural causes: Place matters. PBS. Web.

By definition, Spiritualism can be defined as a belief in the possibility of a way of communication between human beings and the spirits of the living dead and the mechanisms through which this is achieved in practice.

In its doctrine, Spiritualism argues that all that is within the universe can not only exhibit the material characteristics but also exhibit other properties far much beyond the natural human understanding, otherwise known as metaphysics. As such, it is the exact opposite of Materialism, which explains the occurrence, and properties of matter as found in the theories of physical sciences.

In addition, it can be thought of as a belief that what exists is either a spirit or soul. An important distinguishing feature of spiritualism as a kind of religion is that here the spirits of the living dead can be communicated to and a medium exists that can convey to the living the information concerning life after death.

Various spiritualists have different belief but there exists beliefs that are common to all. They all believe in the existence of God and that the soul continues to exist in the world of the living dead, that every one will carry his own cross and that even after death the soul can change.

Having come out of Christian religion and being a religion kind of, Spiritualism has some relationships with those other religions namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Spiritism, and other indigenous religions but receive strong opposition from religions like Judaism. Both Christians and spiritualists believe in the existence of God, death of Jesus Christ on the cross as well as conducting church services on Sundays.

However, spiritualists believe that the death of Jesus on the cross was not to save humankind as per the Christians and that every soul shall be individually responsible for the deeds or sins committed. They also believe that even after death one can still change and that there is no particular hell or heaven but a series of such depending on the performance of the individuals. Both Islam and Spiritualism share the concept of spirits existing between man and God.

Hindus, who believe that if one dies before the right time then the spirit hangs around in form of a ghost until the right time of his death after which he is reincarnated, share the same concept of existence of soul after death. However, Judaism differs with the spiritualists and argues that God forbids any form of worship connected to the spirits and that such people shall be permanently cut off from His people.

In the native America, there exists various religious cultures among them Christianity, and Islam, alongside many others. One important and interesting effect off having a wide diversity in religious culture in the Native America is the impact of such beliefs and culture on the way people relate with one another.

The coming of the European missionaries into America back to the 16^th century and the sticking of the Native Americans to their traditions blended to give rise to other religions that are partly traditional and partly Christian. Native American attached a lot of value to their tradition and culture more so in an attempt resist the oppression of Europeans who conquered their land.

There was also the desire to have one common Indian religion. (Neuser 23) In fact, the whole concept of religion changed meaning to Native Americans and to them it simply denoted Christianity. Therefore, the love for this Indian religion led to emergence of spiritualist religion.

One of these people who are closely attached to this religion is an Indian known as Don Juan Matus who had various teaching on the understanding of mankind and the universe in general.

His teachings have since been written by different authors some of whom had personal interviews with him. Juan was mystical and always had strong belief in signs coming to him from an unnatural source. Specifically, Juan believed that the universe consists of two worlds namely: tonal: – the world of material and the first in hierarchy and naugal, the non-material world (Antonov 5).

He said that communication in the world of materials was through the senses of our physical body, which he referred to as first-attention. However, to be able to sense anything in the second world one is required to develop a second-attention, which he termed as clairvoyance. There was also the third-attention through which one would communicate to God and his signs.

Before and during the times of Don Juan, the concept God was taken to be a universal Eagle that was the sole controller of the universe. The Eagle fed on the souls of human beings leaving the body and that was the cause of death.

Besides, it would allow the soul of one to move on to the next stage if the person had gained the required power during their lifetime. This belief was frightening and Juan had to come out strongly to oppose it. He argued that approaching God only required one to manifest love, just as the teachings of most other religions.

Spiritualism was also characterized by other beliefs like those that were referred to as The Sacred Tree. This Sacred Tree had a lot of symbolic meaning and thus had a variety of functions. This holy place was believed to be the dwelling place of the Supreme Being. According to Bopp, the Sacred Tree was a symbol that had a great importance to the traditionalists as it represented life, cycle of time, the earth, and the universe (20).

In the ordinary context, the shade of a tree can provide protection from strong heat or rainfall. Similarly, the Sacred Tree is believed to be a source of protection. The Sacred Tree connotes a place where people come together for certain purposes; it can also be thought of as a “womb that gives birth to our values and potentiality as human beings” (Bopp 22).

Besides, the fruits of the sacred Tree can be view in the perspective of the food needed for human growth; that is it represents the “nurturing that human beings receive in interacting with other human, physical, and spiritual environment” (Bopp 22). Finally, the leaves of the Sacred Tree are a representation of man; ordinarily, the leaves fall off a tree to the ground to form manure, which later helps other trees to come up, a phenomenon that depicts people who pass the teaching to the generation that will succeed them.

The need to explain the origin of mankind, the concept God and Life after death that led to the emergence of such beliefs and doctrines as seen in Spiritualism is still a point of concern to many philosophers and other scholars to date and will continue giving birth to more religions

Works Cited

Antonov, Vladimir. Native American Spirituality: Path of Heart (Don Juan Matus, Eagle and Others). Ontario: CreateSpace. 2008.

Bopp, Judie. The Sacred Tree. WI: Lotus Press. 1984.

Neuser, Jacob. World Religions in America: An Introduction. Fourth Edition. Westminister: John Knox Press. 2009.

The sacred way of living is a common phenomenon among most of the Native American religious groups. Their practices also involved searching for holy places or seeking the sacredness of the earth. According to Hartz (2009, p.8), a good example is the Lakota Nation of the western plains whose holy men had to choose sacred countryside locations to perform a four-day Lakota ceremony known as the ‘Sun Dance’. The holy men had to perform religious rituals on the chosen land and sanctify it to assure sacredness.

This is a clear indication that religious groups have a strong believe in the sacred way of living and sacredness of the earth. About Hartz’s writing (2009, p.8), Lakota religion had to alternate the sacred places every year. Native religions, therefore, had implicit relationships that outlaid them as part of a religious lifecycle for life. Religious ceremonies are a reminder of sacred origins and indicate the necessity of harmonious way of life and a balance of the universe.

Ideas that promote harmony between human existence and the planet

Moral parameters

About Buerki and Vottero (p.46), on the identification of moral parameters, it would be important to engage in a personal debate over the extent to which decision would have on one’s reputation for instance; to what extent would evil deeds affect segments of the sacred way of life. Involving moral parameters assist in formulating the process of problem analysis and identification. Sacredness should also involve analysis of the effects involving legal constrains in any given circumstance.

Relevant Sacred human values

The decision one makes ought to enhance the sacred relationship with others rather than conform to a fixed code of ethics or religious culture. Administrations design some earthly internal bureaucratic rules and regulations in such a way that they enhance the internal efficiency but on the other hand, compromise the holiness. Ethically these are third party constraints (Buerki and Vottero, p.46).

Native Vs Contemporary Religious Settings

Native American religions and Eastern/Western religions have a strong devotion to religious practices and strongly believe in the role played by God in shaping lives. Religious exercises depict God grace over life through the enhanced safety and wellbeing and also disappointment or disapproval in the form of the existing misfortunes as well as tragedy. Considering the insight into the seventeenth century, the role of England Kings and the political role show needs to demand leaders who do not meander in the illusion of entitlement (Rowlandson, p.21).

There is a thin line between civilization and savagery. This is a forced upon the journey to the civilization of the twenty-first century and an indication that contemporary leadership depicts civilization as a radical and permanent change of the sacred salvation as indicated by lack of connection to nature (Rowlandson, p.21).

Conclusion

The sacredness of the Native American religious groups shows a huge distinction between good and evil, or savagery and civilization. Although they have, a wide range of ambiguous practices and uncertainties, the religious groups shows faithfulness, grace, and providence to shaping the world and that everything occurs for a purpose. People believe in showing the importance of accepting religion and aim at making sense out of such religious believes or preparations.

Various quotes from the holy books act as strengthening points for believers. According to Rowlandson (p.19) quotes from the Bible, for example, “the Load still showed mercy to me, and helped me; and as he wounded me with one hand, so he healed me with the other” is a close reference to immediate situations. Sacredness assists people in making the best out of a situation for a better situation and having a strong believe regarding religious believes is evident in today’s setting.

Works Cited

Buerki, Robert and Louis Vottero. “Ethical Responsibility in Pharmacy Practice.” Chicago: Amer. Inst. History of Pharmacy Publisher, 2002. Print.

Hartz, Paula. “World Religious Native American Religions.” (Third Edition). New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers. 2009. Print

Rowlandson, Mary. “The Sovereignty and Goodness of God.” Bedford/Saint Martin’s publishers, 2002