Category: Native American

Summer Rain

This poem describes the feeling of happiness and ease that summer rain presents the narrator with. Summer rain can be described as very simple in its structure; however, the simplicity of its structure does not set any significant difficulty in rendering all the incredible emotions which summer rain may present a person with. This poem is a lyric description and celebration of natures beauty, and the effect it produces on the narrator. The author chooses to personify the Sky addressing it as a mighty father. It is probably done to encourage the audience to think about the superiority and grandeur of the Universe and show humanity the importance of a respectful attitude toward it. The significance of the image of Father is also in encouraging people to think about their origin. In addition, the poem is probably aimed to show the way interaction with nature as our source of life is important in overcoming the daily hardships of life and forgetting about them. In the conclusion of the poem, we read that the narrator finds peace and is calmed down from ones every anxiety due to the happiness to feel summer rain and watch its beauty. The poem applies a row of graceful wordings and refined language figures.

Rainbow

This poem tells about the excellence of nature and the Creator over human beings. It encourages thinking over the very essence of life. The poem raises philosophic issues related to the meaning of life. Its figurative language inspires me to feel impressed by the mightiness of God. It also shows God as a loving person who created the Earth in such a way that might be pleasant and interesting for people to explore. The poem is full of refined language means and figures which significantly add to the impact it has on the reader; its language can be described as exciting and touching as a result.

Compare and Contrast Analysis of the Two Poems

Comparing the poems Summer rain and Rainbow, a row of vivid similarities along with significant differences can be observed. First of all, discussing the poems style it should be said that it is rather similar. In both of them, the reader can observe the excellence of nature and its inspiring perfection. Both poems can be acclaimed as a vindication and celebration of nature and its Creator. However, the second poem is more religiously inspired.

As to the tone of the poems under consideration, it may be said that the tone of Rainbow is more enthusiastic and praising, whereas the tone of Summer rain can be described as very calm, steady and relaxed. Both poems demonstrate a respectful attitude to nature and the Creator which can be well noticed in their tone.

Finally, addressing the themes of the poems is may be said that they both feature similar themes. The poems greatly focus on nature and its celebration along with the praise of the One behind nature.

In conclusion, the two poems under consideration can be acclaimed as dignified pieces from Native American poetry with its main features of a celebration of nature and the encouragement to value every natural manifestation around us including rain, rainbow, the sky, the earth and so on. Both poems suggest the idea that humans are children of God and encourage addressing him with praise and glory.

Introduction

Land is a vital factor of production since it offers the foundation for all other activities. This essay explores the moral and legal arguments about the removal of Native-Americans from the Mississippi strip.

Background

Red Indians were the initial land owners in this region and only welcome white Americans to settle close to them due to their generosity. The visitors were welcome and given land to settle and later started their families and became part of the local population. To date, the local population occupies most of Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Alabama and Virginia.

Moral and Legal Arguments

Opponents

It is morally wrong to abuse ancestral land and relocating these people is not a wise move. All world communities have their ancestral lands that harbor their traditional and sacred places like shrines. Secondly, this community has lived here for many years and has known this place to be its home. Therefore, nobody should willingly or forcefully relocate them. Moreover, the people interested in relocating them have not exploited all other idle lands. These people have been guided by their policies and are not ready to change them. Lastly, land ownership is a legal process that must undergo scrutiny and investigations to identify land owners. Therefore, the Georgia state should respect the Indian communities right to land ownership.

Proponents

On the other hand, the attempts to relocate the Indian communities from this strip of land are an important undertaking. First, this community is largely pastoralists and only a handful practice peasant farming. These activities are unproductive since they have poor yields. Secondly, this community lacks a civilized way of life since they use traditional methods to keep animals and produce crops. They use crude tools like buffalo shoulder plates to plough their lands. In addition, they are largely pastoral and this means they keep moving from place to place. Therefore, relocating them will help in making them live civilized lives where modern technology is used in various activities.

Thirdly, this community occupies a large track of land covered by forests. They indulge in activities that interfere with natural wildlife. This should be avoided to ensure natural forests are protected against exploitation by human beings. Tourism can thrive in this region since there are wild animals and indigenous vegetation.

Lastly, all human beings are entitled to proper health, access to education, proper diet and protection against criminals and wild animals. This community subjects young children to harsh conditions (extreme cold, rain and night insects) making them susceptible to infections. The government has a responsibility of protecting the lives of its citizens and should do all that is within its powers to safeguard human life.

Opinion

The attempt to relocate the Indian communities from the Mississippi strip is a welcome undertaking if only the concerned parties observe the following issues. First, the attempts should benefit the victims as well as other people to qualify to be productive undertakings. Secondly, the process should be carried out in a civilized manner that will not interfere with their social, economic and political affairs.

Conclusion

The relocation of the Indian communities will without doubt face stiff reactions from the victims and other concerned parties. However, the Georgia state should consult the local communities and counsel them on the need to convert their land to productive use.

Following the success of Spanish explorers and conquistadors in what is now called South America, other European nations began exploring Northern America in the hope of finding similar riches and resources. The desire for raw materials was twofold; first, the resources would increase the nations wealth by exploiting them. Second, there was the need for new trade routes after the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople increasing trade costs with the East (Corbett et al., 2017). The English began their exploration of the Americas later than the French and Spanish. While also desiring resources, some English colonists fled religious persecution in England.

The Colombian exchange was the name given for the complex movement of goods and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Staples of modern agriculture like potatoes, chocolate, and beans, as well as diseases, such as syphilis, were transmitted from South America to Europe and Africa. Slaves were bought and shipped from Africa to North and South America, while livestock like pigs and horses entered America from Europe for the first time (Corbett et al., 2017). This rapid movement of capital and ideas would accelerate the European economies and revolutionize agriculture.

In South America, the Spanish, following their initial conquests, enslaved and exploited the native population. The North American Natives were not enslaved in the same manner; however, both native populations were decimated by disease. Over the centuries, Europeans had developed antibodies against smallpox, mumps, and measles, but the natives had no protection (Corbett et al., 2017). As a result, millions of Native Americans died from diseases across both North and South America. Knowledge of immune systems and germs did not exist at that time. However, Europeans would have been familiar with the concept of disease transmission, as they knew how to use quarantines to suppress outbreaks. As the Europeans cared little for the Natives, no preventative measures were taken, putting at least part of the responsibility for the epidemics on the Europeans.

Reference

Corbett, P. S., Janssen, V., Lund, J. M., Pfannestiel, T. J., & Vickery, P. S. (2017). U.S. history. OpenStax.

This research proposal will give an overview of what led to relocation of the Cherokee Native Americans from their native lands in Georgia to Tahlequah, Oklahoma.

In brief the Trail of Tears as this relocation is usually referred to, is the US government enforced relocation of the Cherokee Native Americans from their native lands in Georgia to Tahlequah, Oklahoma (Calloway, 2008 p.34). This march was a distressing and tedious one for the Cherokee Nation. As a result more than 4000 deaths occurred during the march and afterwards in Oklahoma (Calloway, 2008 p.36). Approximately, 20% of the Cherokee Nation died either during the march, or shortly afterwards due to diseases such as dysentery among others (Calloway, 2008 p.36).

The Cherokee Nation call this march the Nunna daul Isunyi, or the Trail where We Cried (Steele, 1994 p.18). The march was exceptionally difficult, spanning over 1000 miles. Nearly, 2000 people died on the Trail of Tears, so cause for weeping is not hard to understand (Steele, 1994 p.18).

My thesis is that, the issues that determined this devastating decision by the US government started long before 1838, when Cherokees were forced to set foot on the Trail of Tears (Steele, 1994 p.23).

Expansion and land treaties in the areas surrounding Georgia in the 1800s resulted in the Compact of 1802 (Calloway, 2008 p.34). Part of this compact was an agreement to relocate Native American populations living on lands defined as Georgia (Calloway, 2008 p.45).

The Cherokee Indians, who affirmed themselves in 1827 to be a distinct nation, protested this relocation decision by the US government (Calloway, 2008 p.53). Several lawsuits went before the US Supreme Court contesting the right of the US government to forcibly relocate members of the Cherokee Nation (Calloway, 2008 p.22). Further, not all were in support of the actions that led to the Trail of Tears (Steele, 1994 p.23). In particular, Davy Crockett and writer Ralph Waldo Emerson contested the actions taken by the US government, and either spoke or wrote impassioned appeals on behalf of the Cherokees (Steele, 1994 p.23).

The treaty that was ratified by the US government, ostensibly giving up claim to any lands east of the Mississippi by the Cherokees, was not signed by any Cherokee leaders (Calloway, 2008 p.34). However, Presidential support first by Andrew Jackson and then Martin Van Buren was for the forced relocation (Calloway, 2008 p.34). Thus in 1838, at gunpoint, Cherokee people were removed from their homes and set off to march on the Trail of Tears (Calloway, 2008 p.46).

Most of the Cherokee Nation, about 17,000 people, was forced to march on the Trail of Tears, and much of the relocation was actually conducted and supervised by Cherokee leaders (Calloway, 2008 p.24). It should be noted that, the Cherokee group was extremely westernized as compared to some of the other Native American groups (Calloway, 2008 p.27). They lived in villages, made use of the American political system, and wealthy Cherokee people might own slaves (Calloway, 2008 p.27). Actually, 2000 slaves also marched on the Trail of Tears with their Cherokee owners (Calloway, 2008 p.27).

About 1000 Cherokee people were exempt from the enforced march because they lived on lands already owned by individuals who opposed the march (Steele, 1994 p.42). Additionally, about 400 Cherokee people in North Carolina also evaded the Trail of Tears (Steele, 1994 p.42). Nevertheless, most in the Cherokee Nation endured the indignities and the suffering of this forced march (Steele, 1994 p.44).

Perhaps, because of the Cherokees strength as a nation, and ability to work with the US government, the Cherokee Nation recovered from their devastating losses and has remained one of the largest groups of Native American people in modern days (Calloway, 2008 p.37). Efforts have been made in the past to commemorate and compensate for the intense suffering inflicted on the Cherokee Nation by the US government (Calloway, 2008 p.27). A 2000 mile trail called the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail was dedicated in 1987 (Steele, 1994 p.23). The trail crosses through nine states and serves as a reminder of the injustices committed by the US government toward the first Americans (Calloway, 2008).

Works cited

Calloway, Colin G. First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History. Third Edition. New York and Boston: Bedford / St. Martins Press, 2008.

Steele, Ian K. Warpaths: Invasions of North America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Problem Statement

The analysis of sources, which are related to the topic of the future study, indicates that researchers pay close attention to the needs of individuals who live on reservations. For example, they can examine social and economic aspects of their lives (Raheja, 2010). Many of these studies are aimed at examining the experiences of Native American women (Kuntz, Hill, Linkenbach, Lande, & Larsson 2009; Pallacios, & Kennedy, 2010). However, it is crucial to state here that these studies are supposed to examine only one specific issue affecting the life of Native American women living on reservations. For example, Browker (1992) examines dropout rates among these females. This researcher notes that dropout rates among women from the reservations were high compared to other women in the U. S (Browker, 1992). This trend has been observed by other researchers, for example, one can mention the research article by Elizabeth Stearms (2006), who notes that Native Americans are more likely to leave school before graduation. In part, this phenomenon can be attributed to the differences in attitudes toward education (Swischer & Hoisch, 1992). Consequently, Light and Marrin (1985) conduct a study that focused on the upbringing of children on reservations. This study does not specifically concentrate on the parenting behavior of these women, but it provides an overview of how children are brought up in the reservations.

The studies that have been covered in the literature review indicate that more attention should be paid to the needs of women who want to raise their children outside reservations (Pallacios and Kennedy, 2010). Certainly, researchers acknowledge that there are culturally shaped parenting strategies (Giles-Sims & Lockhart, 2005, p. 196). Moreover, they recognize the importance of economic factors that influence the relations between children and guardians (Giles-Sims & Lockhart, 2005). Nevertheless, such studies do not throw light on the specific experiences of groups that have long been isolated from the mainstream culture or even marginalized. Thus, it is critical to focus on a set of challenges that are faced by Native American females. Therefore, it would be important to examine how these women raise children on and off preservations (Hodge, 2009; Rizos & Krizova, 2007). Very often researchers overview the problems encountered by various sub-groups that are included in Native American population. One can argue that such groups have been marginalized by the state (Hooks & Smith, 2004, p. 559). This study will enable Indian American women, who live on reservations, to share their experiences. These are the major benefits that can be identified.

Purpose and Significance

Cultural identity shapes peoples decisions, attitudes, and values. This argument is relevant if one speaks about the needs of Native Americans who do not always successfully integrate into society (Champagne, 2000). In turn, the purpose of this study is to gather information about the exact experiences that women from reservations face. In particular, it will be aimed at examining the attitudes that women have toward raising children. One should bear in mind that the findings derived in the course of this research will apply only to a very narrow group of population. They should not be applied to other cultural groups.

There are several reasons why it is important to examine the topic. To begin with, the findings of this study can be used by legislators, politicians, and public administrators who should understand the challenges faced by Native American women living on reservations. To a great extent, this study can be used for policy development and decision-making. Additionally, this information can be relevant to non-governmental organizations that are concerned with improving the living standards of Native American reservations. Furthermore, the information collected in the course of this research may be necessary to help these individuals to integrate into the community.

Problem Background

Many scholars have carried out studies regarding the lives of Native Americans on reservations. Some researchers have examined the experiences of people who grow up amid a different civilization (White, 1995; Ross, 2005). Additionally, Silko (1996) concluded that a person cannot easily integrative or reconcile two cultures. Consequently, Native American Indians, who live off the reservations, have to adjust to a set of different behavioral norms. Several studies throw light on the experiences of Native American children who live in foster families. As a rule, they do not easily establish relations with their guardians because they are more accustomed to different parenting strategies (Giles-Sims, & Lockhart, 2005).

In addition to that, some studies have been carried out in order to describe and explain the difficult economic conditions that people from reservations have (Hoffmann, Jackson, & Smith, 2005; Kuntz et al., 2009; Fox, Becker-Green, Gault, & Simmons, 2005). These studies have highlighted the various challenges that people on reservations face on a daily basis. Among these difficulties, one can distinguish between homelessness and poor living conditions. It should be mentioned that many families have to live in houses that are too small to accommodate a family that has children. Similarly, the quality of the houses in which these families live is very poor despite the fact that most of the people own their homes (Lankford & Riley, 1986). Moreover, reservations lack basic infrastructures like running water, good roads, and telecommunication. It is also worth noting that previous studies have shown that unemployment rates on reservations are very high. Each of these aspects impairs the quality of life on various reservations. This is why some women believe that it is much better to raise their children off the reservations. Their decisions can be explained by the need to gain access to basic amenities. Moreover, these people look for opportunities that will enable them to climb the social ladder. For example, one can speak about employment.

Theoretical Framework

This study will employ the historical trauma theory that has often been used by researchers. This framework is aimed at explaining how trauma experienced by one individual can be transferred to another across different generations (Muller, 1998; Osburn, 2009). According to this model, such painful experiences of the past can prevent a person from integrating into society (Haedicke, 2009, p. 47). In turn, this study will expound on the social, political, and economic effects of the trauma that Native Americans faced as a result of segregation and discrimination during the colonial era to the present moment. More specifically, this theory will be used to explain the impact of this trauma on Native American women.

Secondly, the study will incorporate the principles of constructivist theory. This theory has been chosen because it is based on the premise people always rely on their background to construct worldviews or attitudes toward various phenomena (Gartner, 2012, p. 16). According to this model, their knowledge is constructed in the course of day-to-day activities. Moreover, this theory implies that peoples past experiences can shape their parenting behavior (Scaife, 2013, p. 66). This is one of the aspects that should be considered. To some degree, the memories of mothers can significantly affect the education of children. So, this study will examine the impact of past experiences of the parenting strategies of Native American women. Overall, the chosen theoretical frameworks are helpful for explaining the behavior of people and their interactions with their children.

Research Questions

This study will be aimed at answering the following questions:

1. What does it means for a woman to grow up on the reservation?
2. What experiences do women who grew up on reservations have when they also raise their children on reservations?
3. What challenges do women, who grew up on reservations face, when they try to raise their children off the reservations?
4. What are the differences between growing up on reservations and off reservations?

Nature of the Study

The study will examine the experiences of Native American women living on and off reservations from a qualitative viewpoint. In particular, it will be necessary to use a semi-structured interview. This data collection method is suitable in those cases when it is necessary to understand the opinions and attitudes of respondents. This approach is suitable when it is necessary to identify specific concerns of individuals (Creswell, 2003, p. 181). Moreover, this approach is beneficial because it helps the researcher involve the participants in the discussion of various issues (Creswell, 2003, p. 181). For example, respondents will be able to discuss their past experiences. This is why it has been chosen. I will rely on the principles of the grounded theory according to which a researcher should first focus on the collection of data and then proceed to the formulation of a hypothesis (Creswell, 2003). This approach ensures that a scholar does not twist the answers of respondents so that they could fit his/her theory.

This is one of the main pitfalls that should be avoided. Additionally, I will travel to the reservations to get first-hand information about the way in which these women are bringing up their children on reservations. Moreover, in this way, one can understand the challenges they face. In addition to that, the study will examine the experiences of Native American women who were brought up on reservations and are now living off the reservations. I will also focus on the attitude of these respondents toward the child-rearing process off the reservations. Admittedly, there are studies that can throw light on how the experiences of children or adolescents can affect their parenting strategies in the future (Huh, 2006, p. 185). Yet, they are not fully relevant to the needs of Native American females because they do not take into account the cultural legacies of individuals. This is one of the issues that should be considered. In turn, this study will derive more specific information that is related to this particular population. This goal will be achieved by conducting interviews with women living off reservations.

Possible Sources and Types of Data

The study will mainly incorporate the interview of women who were brought up on the reservations. It will be the main method of data collection. Additionally, the study will be aimed at describing the experiences of these women as they raise their children on or off the reservations. In this regard, the study will involve traveling to the reservations and interviewing the Native American women to get first-hand information from these respondents.

Reference List

Browker, A. (1992). The American Indian female dropout. Journal of American Indian Education, 31(3), n.p. Web.

Champagne, D. (2000). Contemporary Native American Cultural Issues. New York, NY: Rowman Altamira.

Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. New York: SAGE.

Fox, K., Becker-Green, J., Gault, J., & Simmons, D. (2005). Native American youth in transition: The path from adolescence to adulthood in two Native American communities. Portland, OR: National Indian Child Welfare Association.

Gartner, C. (2012). Biography, Life Transitions and Social Capital of Seniors: Adult Learning in Modern Society. Boston, MA: GRIN Verlag.

Giles-Sims, J., & Lockhart, C. (2005). Culturally Shaped Patterns of Disciplining Children. Journal of Family Issues, 26(2), 196-218.

Haedicke, S. (2009). Political Performances: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Rodopi.

Hodge, F. S. (2009). Breast cancerscreening behavior among rural California American Indian women. American Indian culture and Research Journal, 33(3), 3542.

Hoffmann, L. L., Jackson, A. P. & Smith, S. A. (2005). Career Barriers Among native American Students Living On Reservations. Journal of Career Development. 32(1), 31-45.

Hooks, G., & Smith, C. (2004). The Treadmill of Destruction: National Sacrifice Areas and Native Americans. American Sociological Review, 69(4), 558-575.

Huh, D. (2006). Does Problem Behavior Elicit Poor Parenting? A Prospective Study of Adolescent Girls. Journal of Adolescent Research, 21 (2), 185-204.

Kuntz, S. W., Hill, W. G., Linkenbach, J. W, Lande, G. & Larsson, L. (2009). Methylmercury risk and awareness among American Indian women of childbearing age living on an inland northwest reservation. Environmental Research, 109(6), 753759.

Lankford, R. & Riley, J. D. (1986). Native American reading disability. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(3), n.p., Web.

Light, H. K. & Marrin, R. E. (1985). Guidance of American Indian children: Their heritage and some contemporary reviews. Journal of American Indian Education, 25(1), n.p. Web.

Muller, H. J. (1998). American Indian Women Managers: Living in Two Worlds. Journal of Management Inquiry, 7(1), 4-28.

Osburn, K. M. (2009). Southern ute Women: Autonomy and Assimilation on the Reservation, 1887-1934. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press.

Pallacios, J. & Kennedy, H. P. (2010). Reflections of Native American teen mothers. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing, 39, 425434.

Raheja, M. (2010). Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, and Representations of Native Americans in Film. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Rizos, M. & Krizova, V. (2007). The Montana Experience: On and Off the Reservation. Common Ground. Web.

Ross, L. (2005). Native women, mean-spirited drugs, and punishing policies. Social Justice, 32(3), 5462.

Scaife, J. (2013). Deciding Childrens Futures: An Expert Guide to Assessments for Safeguarding and Promoting Childrens Welfare in Family Court. New York, NY: Routledge.

Silko, L.M. (1996). Yellow woman and a beauty of the spirit: Essays on Native American life today. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Stearms, E. (2006). When and Why Dropouts Leave High School. Youth Society, 31(1), 29-57.

Swischer, K. & Hoisch, M. (1992). Dropping out among American Indians and Alaska Natives: A review of studies. Journal of American Indian Education, 31(2), n.p. Web.

White, P. M. (1995). American Indian Studies: A Bibliographical guide. Tucson, AZ: Libraries Limited.

Native people experience a spectrum of difficulties integrating into the modern American environment. It is because of pressure from the authorities and continuing racism toward Native peoples. Generations who grew up in the middle and late part of the last century essentially despise modern America, as it has sought to shackle its cultural heritage in every way it can. Native Americans continue to carry with them the trauma of attending boarding schools. The negative consequences of attending such schools include psychological trauma due to corporal punishment, loss of identity, and health problems.

Boarding schools were created for Native Americans to teach them new rules and standards for America that would help them fit into society. In reality, however, the schools served as a place where children were restrained and could no longer be full members of society. They were not allowed to return to reservations, see their parents, or use their language and cultural aspects. The boarding schools did everything to make the children no longer feel a connection to home.

Psychological trauma is the leading group of consequences Native American children had after attending boarding schools. Schools used the practice of corporal punishment for children who disrupted routines and school rules. Whipping and beating young children and adolescents led them to avoid contact with other people as they became adults. There was also depression and loneliness because of the cruel punishments that followed any misbehavior. Teenagers grew up and became anxious and sometimes aggressive because they always sought to protect at least part of their opinions. Injuries continue to accompany many people because it is challenging to forget physical punishments and their terrible severity.

Native American children lost their identities in boarding schools because rules forbade them from using their cultural trappings. Children could not make figurines or totems, could not see their mothers, and felt increasingly lonely. Reservation seemed distant to them, and Native values were becoming modern American. The children were losing their connection to home, which was foreign to them, and the new America seemed the only way to cope with the weight of discipline that prevailed in boarding schools. They forgot the culture and struggled to return to it as adults because the school had taught them to be ashamed of their identity.

Boarding schools were brutal: they required regular prayers to God, strict diets, and the absence of any cultural burden. Abbesses used many punishments, so children grew thin and weak. They lacked micro and macronutrients, and the constant beatings and loneliness weakened them spiritually. It led to health problems: children were repeatedly injured and bruised, their arms or fingers were broken, and some severe infections were not treated. Teenagers received illnesses that schools refused to treat and died, and other children grew frail. In addition, the mental trauma was later manifested in severe depression, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. Children could not cope with the stresses, and the world around them ceased to bring them joy.

Thus, Native American boarding schools changed their childhood, adolescence, and adulthood for the worse. They suffered many psychological traumas because the severe beatings and punishments made them afraid of many other people. They lost their cultural identity because schools forbade them to show their culture and follow its rules in any way. In addition, the severity of the schools led to health problems: lack of good nutrition and punishment led to the development of psychological illnesses and poor immunity and health in general.

Pagan religions have more similarities than differences due to their indigenous character and philosophy. Their distinctions are determined by the geographical location and cultural peculiarities of the nation where they developed, but in most cases, the differences are in detail, not in general aspects. Native American and African religions are not the exception to this rule. They feature similar views on cosmology, ceremonies, mythology, and relations with animals and nature due to the common indigenous perspective. They have similar aspects that pagan worldviews share, including the faith in spirits in general and the idea that the divine presence is in the things surrounding people. It assumes that indigenous religions, in general, and Native American and African faiths have similar perceptions of the universe.

Cosmology in indigenous religions is based on the idea that all processes and things in the universe are interconnected. The circle symbolizes unity in Native American and African religions because there is neither beginning nor an end in it. This image is centered on indigenous cosmology and represents the cyclic nature of the universe and life (Fisher, 2017). The peculiar detail is that the ceremonies also use the circles image to emphasize the universes balance. The cyclical movements of the planets and the change of day and night are reflected in the ceremonial actions that follow this cyclic pattern. All people in indigenous cultures are instructed to live in peace with the surrounding reality, including nature and animals. In other words, people, animals, and everything found in nature are equal, and they deserve a respectful attitude because otherwise, the balance will be destroyed (Fisher, 2017). The mythology of African and Native American religions pays equal attention to spirits that influence human lives (Fisher, 2017). The idea that humans consist of various souls and that their ancestors influence their actions can be found in both mythologies.

Native American and African religious views share one common thing due to their indigenous character. As Fisher (2017) writes, the indigenous religion is the synonym for the lifeway, which determines the philosophy of people who follow it. In addition, pagan indigenous religions are transmitted orally, emphasizing the connection between generations following this lifeway. The discussed religious traditions feature these characteristics, showing that their essence is similar.

The main difference between African and Native American indigenous religions is connected with dominant views. For instance, African religions emphasize the importance of communicating with spirits, which supposes using magic like voodoo rituals (Fisher, 2017). Native American religions, in their turn, developed a more detailed view of balanced interaction with the surrounding nature and animals and living in peace with the universe (Fisher, 2017). These examples show that indigenous religions have unique details that make them different regardless of the common essence.

Therefore, Native American and African religious views reflect the unique ways of development of the nations. The differences in mythology, ceremonies, and cosmology show that paganism can develop in various ways, depending on the geographical location where indigenous people live, the structure of their community, and other related facts. Even though the pagan religion has common aspects, including animism and faith in spirits, that affect human lives, there are more differences than similarities between distinct faiths. These distinctions are usually the details that make indigenous religious views unique and diverse, even though the view on the surrounding reality might be similar. Native American and African examples illustrate this hypothesis about differences and similarities in the religious worldviews.

Reference

Fisher, M. P. (2017). Living religions (10th ed.). Boston Pearson.

Introduction

In the US and Canada, education was used as a tool to address the so-called Indian question by outing children from their families and placing them in boarding schools. Namely, children aged five and older were forcibly removed from their families, while only the English language was used during lessons. Some Indian children and their parents chose these schools as the only opportunity to receive an education. It should be stated that the first school was introduced as an experiment for prisoners at Fort Marion, in St. Augustine, Florida (Martinez 200). The Catholic Church created a lot of boarding schools after the Civil War, and annuities were taken from the tribes.

The paramount idea of the Indian boarding schools, which were largely closed only in 2007, was to repress all the cultural ties of children they had before. The military-style and punishment were integral parts of the system that was abusive and violent. It was declared by the government and the missionary initiative that the Indian residential schools aimed to civilize the Native Americans, yet all the efforts were devoted to making students forget their language, traditions, and families. The use of the unskilled labor force was another benefit of the boarding schools for the industries and the government.

A range of authors criticizes the Indian boarding schools, emphasizing their destructive impact on the identity of the given population. According to Child, boarding schools were yet another form of segregation in American education, and served the interests of a White majority (1). Basil Johnston stated: Bells and whistles, gongs and flappers represent everything connected with sound management  order, authority, discipline, efficiency, system, organization, schedule, conformity & but also subservience, uniformity, docility, surrender (Woolford 221).

Authors Work and Life Experiences

The author of the first quote, Brenda J. Child, was born on the Red Lake Ojibwe Reservation and educated in the local boarding school for Indians. The experience of Child is largely represented in her publications and work on the improvement of the life of Native Americans. For example, her book Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families 1900-1940 shows the memories of her family lives. She also promotes research on the Indigenous populations as the President of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association. The second quote documented by Woolford refers to Basil Johnston, a Canadian scholar, and teacher, who also criticized the Indian boarding schools. He was born in the Parry Island Indian Reserve. The experience of Johnston can be found in his book titled Indian School Days, which is about his studying at the St. Peter Claver School for Boys as a part of the residential school system.

The first quote explains the very nature of the Indian boarding schools that were designed to meet the needs of the While population while demoralizing Indians. Life outside the family and hard work were used by the country authorities as a means of imposing on them a new culture. As for the second quote, it clarifies the inside system from the perspective of a student. Sound management was used to bend children and teenagers to bend to the will of Whites and make them obedient. Such an order promoted the prevention of runaways, riots, and general self-will since people with depressed desires and attitudes are much easier to control. The monastic and military forms of discipline were declared as the way to save the souls of the Natives.

Experience of Children

The interests of the White majority were to segregate the families of the Native population to make them more obedient since they combated their rights and identity. The first quote is directly related to the fact that children were taken from their families forcibly without the opportunity to stay with their parents. In many cases, children did not face their mothers and fathers for years, which made a negative impact not only on their relationships but also on cultural continuity. The dissociated people are easy to manage and direct when it comes to governing them. One may note an example related to runaway attempts: when a student tries to escape from the boarding school, the law enforcement was used to punish him or her (Woolford 222). The overall military disciplinary means also prove the intentional and coercive nature of the educational system applied to the Indigenous tribes.

In terms of the second quote, one may claim that nomadism inherent in the life of the Natives was eradicated in the boarding schools. The bells of various types and flappers were in use to call the students to do the ordered occupation. As it is discussed by Woolford in his book, the strict schedule was set for the whole day, from the early awakening to the compulsory spiritual events (225). It was stated by the schools administration that the Natives like African-Americans could not indecently understand the value of time. In other words, the nomadic style of life practiced by the local population was regarded as an inappropriate one. Children who experienced such changes tended to adopt new behavioral patterns, thus forgetting their cultural features, which was targeted by the Whites.

Impact on Children and Native American Communities

The Native American boarding schools in the US were seen by Indians as the means for the government to achieve their assimilation into the dominant American culture. Some of their efforts included cutting their hair, forcing them to learn Christianity, speak English, and live in a strict military way. Since children experienced violence and bullying from a young age, being far from their parents, they grew emotionally closed, carrying a lot of psychological traumas from the violence they experienced (Child 26). Likewise a chain reaction, it was difficult for them to create their own healthy families and build relationships with other people. As a result, drunkenness was a characteristic sign in the Indian community. Alcohol was used to forget something and forget about inner pain and violence.

The consideration of the historical trauma theory in the context of the Indian background shows that they faced something like Jews during the Holocaust or Veterans of the war. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is another symptom that was found in many adults who studied at the boarding schools: 22% of Indians have PTSD compared to 8% of the overall US population (Martinez 201). In terms of culture, many practices were retained, including signing songs, providing rituals, and community healing. Most importantly, the generational emotional distress should be noted as even the children of those who were in the Indian boarding stress continue to feel vulnerable. During the last 20-10 years, the nation of survived Indians has gradually recovered and is being healed of spiritual and psychological traumas.

Conclusion

To conclude, it should be stressed that the Indian boarding schools represented the institutions that forcibly put Native American children and teenagers in educational settings. They disintegrated families to achieve the loss of their cultural identity and total assimilation with the White population. Launched as the experiment in a prison environment, the boarding schools were opened in many areas, taking more and more students. This argues that the experience of children was negative to their psychological well-being and cultural identification. The military order of schools, sound management, law enforcement system, forced labor, and a lot of prohibitions were the key features of these institutions. Several scholars stood against the schools, and their works help to better understand the adverse role the boarding schools made on the Indians.

The evidence observed within this paper shows that the Native American community was significantly affected by the fact that their children and teenagers were intentionally disjoined from them. In addition to the struggles faced by children during education, their psychological and emotional states were also damaged. Many survived Natives had PTSD and depression, which led to alcohol abuse and subsequent development of diseases. At the same time, the generational continuity review demonstrates that the Indians became more predisposed to psychological disorders even though they did not directly experience any negative impact on the educational system. In many cases, the events related to the boarding schools are compared to the Holocaust faced by Jews or symptoms of war veterans. In recent years, the Native American communities of the US and Canada try to revive their culture by engaging in spiritual practices and restoring the relationships with each other.

Works Cited

Child, Brenda J. Indian Boarding Schools. Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, vol. 13, no. 1, 2016, pp. 25-27.

Martinez, Donna. School Culture and American Indian Educational outcomes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 116, 2014, pp. 199-205.

Woolford, Andrew. This Benevolent Experiment: Indigenous Boarding Schools, Genocide, and Redress in Canada and the United States. University of Nebraska Press, 2015.

Native American recipes are techniques used by early American tribes to prepare foods rich in nutrition. In this case, the main discussion will focus on the Oregon native recipe, specifically, camas, a type of root used for medication and nutrition. Camas is among the most important traditional foods among the Native Americans in Oregon (Maxkii, 2020). For a meal preparation using camas, the bulb-shaped roots are dug and roasted, boiled, or eaten fresh or dried for preservation during the winter season (Show, 2011). Traditionally, families were responsible for managing camas prairies plantations using fire by aerating the soil through digging and weeding out unwanted plants such as dead camas (Maxkii, 2020). During preparation, the builds would be simmered in pits, dried, and baked before being stored for various purposes, like, medicine, sweeteners, and trade. Meanwhile, the stalks gathered together to form mattresses. Similarly, when roasted slowly for 24-48 hours, the color changes to dark and becomes sweet; thus, using them as sweetening spice before introducing sugars.

Although camas are not abundant in modern society, they remain an essential staple food among the Oregon people. Nowadays, camas can prepare various dishes such as Spring Salish Soup. In the North West coastal region, they used steam pit cooking to prepare camas by roasting over a fire, baking by wrapping food in skunk cabbage over coal (Show, 2011). Such methods are stills practiced and taught in cooking colleges such as Northwest Indian College. It is crucial to appreciate traditional foods because modern society mainly consumes canned foods containing chemicals (Show, 2011). Therefore, learning the historical background of these recipes is a symbol of cultural appreciation of our native foods, and they have become a treasure for modern backyards in Oregon.

References

Maxkii, R. (2020). Celebrate Oregons Indigenous Foods. Travel Oregon; Travel Oregon. Web.

Show, H. (2011). Cooking Blue Camas Bulbs  How to Eat Blue Camas. Hunter Angler Gardener Cook. Web.

The Native American Pipe Ceremony is the heart of the spiritual and cultural life of the native people of North America, particularly the Sioux or Lakota, the Northeast Indians, and Plains Indians. The ritual ceremony connects people spiritually and physically; therefore, it was considered to be sacred (Waabanong Centre, 2012). The sacred communicated to human beings through smoke from the sacrament that was burnt during the sacred pipe, which was revered as holy. The ascending of smoke, the narcotic effects, and the inherent symbolism are perceived to be a confirmation that the communication has reached the recipient. The pipe is decorated in a way that resembled the indigenous universe, particularly its colors, parts, and design.

During collective rituals, the pipe was smoked to individual prayer that began by acknowledging six directions: south, east, west, north, skyward, and earthward. The smoke offering was presented to the almighty on behalf of the entire community. This was done through complex pipe dancing by the native tribes. There is nothing sacred as the pipe serves as a link between earth and the sky (Waabanong Centre, 2012). In physical form, the pipe acts as prayer, and the smoke act as words that goes outside, touching everything. Life is represented by the sun, which was the same as the fire burning in the pipe. Tobacco is used to connect the two worlds because the plant roots are deep down the earth, and when it is smoked, the smokes rises and goes to the heavens.

These native people used different types of pipes, with each having distinct functions. There were personal pipes, pipes for families, and pipes for big ceremonies. Various symbols attracted spiritual energies, and the location of a given tribe determined the kind of stone used. Similarly, the tobacco using during this traditional ceremony depended on the customs of the tribe. There are essential similarities despite having specific differences; the bond between the spiritual kingdoms and earthly is unbreakable because of the relationship of the energies of the universe and the creator.

The pipe ceremonies tend to have the same agenda: to thank the six energies. Through nature, the participants try to imitate what the creator made and see him through his creations. Through the track record of the Native American people, it has worked well. Old Indians had an unblemished track record because they were honest and ethical people. They were kept alive by the pilgrims who were humanistic and taken as black slaves.

The piper ceremony is presided by an elder named the Eagle man who was responsible for breeching West power. The Eagle man started the pipe tradition by meditating about the spirit world and the rains that sustain life among the people. The eagle man prayed to the gods to provide the excellent qualities needed to walk down a good path in life, such as strength, honesty, truthfulness, and endurance. Participants got knowledge by looking at east power where the sun rose and provided knowledge. The natives believed that they could cause harm to themselves and others when they lack knowledge. Medicine, growth, and bounty were brought to the partakers by the fourth energy, the south power (Waabanong Centre, 2012). The eagle man proceeded to acknowledge the earth spirit. When making this prayer, the elder holds the sacred pipe facing up the sky since the mother earth depends on the sun to provide energy. After the line is held straight up, the eagle man chants the following words, Oh great spirit, I thank you for the six powers of energy (Waabanong Centre, 2012). This statement is intended to entreat the earth spirit for blessings.

The pipe ceremony remains relevant and widely practiced among the native people of North America today. The tradition plays an essential role in preparing and strengthening the morals of the locals. Furthermore, the practice of reflecting on the spirit world gives meaning to life in these communities. Moreover, the pipe ceremony serves as a form of preparation for overcoming struggles and challenges faced in life. Lastly, the tradition is still practiced in other settings such as healthcare facilities, nursing homes, rehabilitation and correctional centers, high education institutions, protest gatherings, and political meetings. The wide application of this tradition is attributed to its cultural and spiritual grounding.

Reference

Waabanong Centre. (2012). Pipe ceremony. YouTube. Web.