Category: Nationalism

Introduction

Since the establishment of the Australian federal department of immigration in 1945, over 6 million migrants, including more than 600, 000 refugees have been reported to be residing in Australia. The identity and nationality of the Australian migrants have changed from the traditional United Kingdom and European nations to Middle East and Asia.

According the Parliament of Australia (2006), 24% of the current Australian population is made up of individuals born overseas, and 40% of the total population has one or both parents born out of Australia.

In addition, the current Australian population is made up of almost 185 countries and more than 200 languages spoken within its borders. In the last few years, the Australian government has been greatly anxious about the increasing number of immigrants from the Middle East (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 34).

Source: Adapted from Australian Government: Department of Immigration and Citizenship.

Of particular concern to the Australian is the fact that most of these people are illegal immigrants. While the treatment of the Middle East immigrants by the Australians has been heavily criticism internationally, of particular concern to scholars has been how this particular group of immigrants to Australia considers nationalism and ethnic identity in Australia.

The objective of this essay is to provide an overview of the what Australian nationalism and identity means to the Middle East immigrants in Australia

Nationalism and Identity among Middle East Immigrants to Australia

According to Walsh (2001, 56), nationalism exemplifies the good qualities of patriotism; however, it is comprises of different characters. Kippen and McDonald (2000, 34) argues that nationalism is the way a particular group of people think about their nationhood and how they promote the interest of their nation.

In this sense, nationalists would promote economic, political, cultural and legal independence of their country (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 33). It is on this basis that the Australians have constantly viewed immigrants to their country not only as people who have no entitlement to reside within the countrys borders but as individuals out to stifle any form of independence in the nation.

The controversy surrounding treatment of immigrants especially those from the Middle East has always been informed by the argument that Australia is a country with a common culture and race, hence illegal immigrants have no entitlement whatsoever to live in the Australian community (Walsh, 2001, 78).

Despite these arguments and continued detention of illegal immigrants (also termed as boat people in reference to their means of transport into the country), the immigrants from the middle east have continuously flocked the country since the abolition of the Dictation Test in late 1950s.

According to Walsh (2001, 67), 77 per cent of the total number of third-world immigrants to Australia are of Asian origin. Why the Middle East immigrants in Australian have found it easier to adapt to the Australian nationalism and identity as oppose to English-speaking white immigrants has been greatly debated in various literatures on Australian nationalism and immigrant populations.

Kippen and McDonald (2000, 33) argues that despite the recent controversies related to the native Australians growing anxieties about middle east immigrants, this group of immigrants have always valued Australian citizenship more than immigrants from Britain and other English speaking countries.

Since 1950s, Australia has greatly transformed its population from a predominantly white to a multicultural society consisting of diverse cultural groups from all corners of the globe. This change had begun in the 1950s when the Australian government started to relax some of its White Policies that had become the hallmark of the post-independence Australia (Walsh, 2001, 89).

In the subsequent decades, the country experienced increased number of immigrants from different cultural and racial backgrounds, majority of whom originated from Asia. The country signed a migration agreement with Turkey, a non-European, which allowed immigrants from Turkey to be easily assimilated into the Australian nationalism (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 33).

When the country elected the first Labor government in 1972 since 1948, radical changes were implemented by the immigration ministry to make Australia more receptive to multicultural immigrants flocking the country (Walsh, 2001, 34). The changes brought an end to the quota system whereby immigrants were determined by their country of origin in order to preserve the Australian homogeneity.

The Labor government through its Minister for Immigration, Al Grassby, declared the country a multicultural society and affirmed that previous ethnic and/or racial discrimination inherent in the post-independence Australia had been permanently eliminated in the Australian society (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 33).

Middle East Immigrants

The development in the early 1970s led to influx of migrants into Australia in a way never witnessed before. The migrants were particularly migrating from Middle East. For instance, a huge contingent of migrants in boats reached Darwin in 1975. According to Walsh (2001, 67), over 25,000 people from East Timor, China, Vietnam and Middle East have since migrated to Australia in the last thirty years.

However, majority of Asian immigrants to Australia in recent years have been from the Middle East (Naidoo, 2007, 23). Despite declaring the country a multicultural society, the Labor government as well as subsequent governments have continuously subjected the Middle East immigrants to compulsory detention during which the government would assessed their refugee status claims (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 23).

Although the interment policy has drawn much criticism from both the Amnesty International and the United Nations, the Australian governments have never relented on this policy.

However, what astounds both Australians and scholars alike is the ease with which the Middle East immigrants have integrated into the Australian national and cultural identity. Even after undergoing inhumane treatments in the hands of Australians, the Middle East immigrants have continuously found it easier to identify with the Australian nationalism and cultural identity.

Fitzgerald Inquiry

The changes to the Australian immigration policies implemented in 1988 after the Fitzgerald Inquiry further encouraged migrants from the Middle East to entrench their foothold in Australia. Following the inquiry, the Australian government changed its migration policy from an emphasis on family reunion to one stressing business and skilled categories of migrants (Walsh, 2001, 87).

Assisted passage into the country had been stopped in early 1980s and only those ascertained to be refugees were accorded support upon arriving in the country. This was followed by increased number of illegal immigrants from Middle East claiming to be refugees with the hope of gaining entry into the Australian community (Kippen & McDonald, 2000, 54).

Naidoo (2007, 12) observes that for the first time in the migration history of Australia, the number of immigrants arriving from Britain dropped drastically below that of Asian immigrants.

This was explained by the renewed prosperity that was sweeping across Europe at the time. while in the earlier decades the British, Italian and Greek immigrants were the majority of populations migrating to Australia, migrants from China, India and other middle east countries would fill the vacuum vacated by the reduced influx from Europe (Naidoo, 2007, 14).

Numerous conflicts in the Middle East region also meant that there was increased migration from the Middle East. Australia provided safe haven for this group of people who were flocking the country in the 1990s and early 21st century as intra and inter-state wars escalated.

The Impact of Major Wars and Historical Events

For most communities migrating from the Middle East to Australia, major wars and historical events have been the influencing factors. According to Naidoo (2007, 15), the large scale movement of middle immigrants has been a recent phenomenon influenced by protracted conflicts between Arabs and Israelis, the Gulf war, 15 years of civil war in Lebanon and the emergence of Islamic fundamentalist groups.

It is against this backdrop that the Middle East immigrants have been attracted by the social, political and economic opportunities offered by the Australian immigration policies and programs (Walsh, 2001, 45).

Cronulla Riots in Sydney in 2005

Despite this increased influx of migrants from the Middle East as well as the immigrants easier integration, the issue of nationalism and identity has brought a number of conflicts and disharmony between the native Australians and the Middle East immigrants. Naidoo (2007, 23) recalls the Cronulla Riots in Sydney in 2005 which was ethnically motivated.

In a series of mob confrontations, the riots involved a group of individuals claiming Anglo ethnicity who felt that Australia should not be opened to other ethnic groups especially those from the Middle East. In effect, despite the Australian governments immigration policy allowing for multicultural integration, migrants within the countrys borders have always erected barriers between their different ethnic groups.

While the Cronulla riots erupted after a number of youths of Anglo descent were attacked by another group claiming Middle East ethnicity, the conflicts between Middle East immigrants have always been motivated by some underlying factors (Naidoo, 2007, 23).

European View with Regard to Nationalism and Identity

According to Naidoo (2007, 16), the Australian communities of European origin have always tried to portray the Middle East immigrants as others. Although the division along ethnic and racial lines have always been there, the portrayal of Middle Easterners as others was more intense after the September 11 attacks in the united states (Walsh, 2007, 65).

Consequently, this has led to erection of barriers between ethnic identities especially between those from the Middle East and those of European decency. Naidoo (2007, 12) observes that while ethnic identity has always informed the conflict between these groups of immigrants, national dominance and nationalism have been the most underlying reasons for these conflicts.

According to Walsh (2001, 67), groups of people within a multicultural society would always mobilize around ethnic and religious groupings in order to attain or claim national dominance through state power. Just like other immigrants in Australia, Middle East immigrants are rightfully exercising their own identity in order to claim a stake in the countrys nationalism.

Conclusion

In exploring the understanding of Australian nationalism and identities, the Middle East immigrants have by far been able to integrate into the Australian multicultural society, albeit with some difficulties. In the last few years, the Australian government as well as the majority white Australian communities has been greatly anxious about the increasing number of immigrants from the Middle East.

Of particular concern to the Australian is the fact that most of these people are illegal immigrants, who, based on their identity pose a great threat to Australian nationalism.

Consequently, this categorization of the Middle East immigrants has led to heightened ethnic competition between different ethnic identities in the countrys multicultural society. However, the competition between different ethnic groups has ushered in a different dimension in the Australian multicultural society whereby every ethnic identity seeks to have a stake in the countrys nationalism.

References

Kippen, P. & McDonald, P. (2000). Australias population in 2000: the way we are and the ways we might have been, People and Place.

Naidoo, L. (2007). Rupture or continuity? The impact of globalization on cultural identity and education in Indian immigrant families in Australia. Transnational Curriculum Inquiry, 4 (1).

Parliament of Australia, (2006). Australias settlement services for refugees and migrants, E-Brief: Online Only issue 9. Web.

Walsh, Kate. (2001). The changing face of Australia: A century of immigration 1901-2000, Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Introduction

Nationalism is a sense of feeling where particular groups of people identify themselves with certain cultures, beliefs, traditions, norms, and are guided by similar law. People develop deeper sense of responsibility to each other in an attempt to accomplish common objectives and aims. The nation has a certain belief towards the right to statehood.

The members of a state develop a citizenship belief with some degree of cultural identity. People dedicate their lives to developing their nation by working hard since they believe that their state is powerful to all others. Each society has its own ways of doing things, which varies greatly with those of other societies. Globalization has made it easier for people to meet and interact in politics and economics.

People compete for markets and political domination making each group to unite to achieve collective bargaining in multilateral interactions. Social struggles and intrigues are the threats to nationalism. This paper examines how Middle Eastern citizens living in Australia join hands in their quest for supremacy.

The major purpose of the essay is to understand scientific research methodologies, their use and applications in real practice. The paper uses three articles talking about nationalism among Middle immigrants. The methodologies involved in the articles are analyzed with the purpose of conceptualizing research methods.

Catarina Kinnvall: Globalization and Religion: Self, Identity and the search for Ontological Security

The article analyses how states and nations have regrouped to form a strong sense of belonging after the 9/11 attack to the world trade center. Middle Eastern citizens continue living in fear since they do not know when the Americans will strike while the Americans have established all possible measures to contain terrorism.

The article reports that the existing international system puts states in precarious conditions because of suspicion and mistrusts, Israelis are always in strategy meetings to see how they can continue surviving in the Arab dominated region. Security is always tight in western countries because of the unknown, the fear of the darkness. Travelers undergo serious security checks at termini.

Citizens have become weary of foreigners and refugees. They view refugees are threats to national security and opportunities in their societies. All these have been brought about by globalization. There is free movement of goods and services (Kinnvall, 2004, p. 24)

The markets are open to all individuals in the global society implying that liberalism is embraced by all states. This has led to increased competition where weak companies and organizations exist at the mercy of the mighty ones. Egalitarianism and democratization process have changed societal social structure where the traditional exercise of power has been abolished.

People no longer identify themselves with race, class and gender but common aspirations and values are what people hold and identify themselves with. Societies have grown to a level of complexity where they interact for some time and develop new norms and regulations.

The society is very dynamic unlike the traditional society, which was static. Norms and cultures are no longer passed from one generation to another instead; generations acquire new norms that help them to cope with the changing society. One universal law such as international human rights that operate in all states governs the modern society (Kinnvall, 2004, p. 35).

The Middle East citizens living in Australia identify the aims they want and join hands in accomplishing them. They use all means including lobbying government to achieve their goals. Their representatives in government are part of them. This is what happens in the U.S. where Israelis have representatives in government to assist them achieve their goals.

Methodology Used

The writer should have applied sampling in doing the research. The whole population cannot be used to obtain information. Instead, a small percentage of the whole population is selected in order to determine the results. The specific sampling technique used is multistage sampling where the population is grouped together and clusters selected. Individual elements are not considered in this type of sampling.

The technique is meant for large populations. The writer began by selecting continents then he narrowed down to countries and finally went to communities. This kind of sampling ensures representativeness. The samples obtained will correctly take into consideration the views of the study population.

The research being conducted in the article involves learning of behavior. The researcher should take time with the population to study their ways of life by interacting with them. Through interaction, the researcher can observe the trends of life and record. The researcher must be around for him/her to judge by him/herself the moods and tempers of the population understudy.

Facial expressions are important in research since they reveal some feelings that the correspondence might be reluctant to volunteer. Observed information does not rely on the past or future behavior. The information is directly related to what is happening currently to the population.

Because of the expensive nature of observation method of data collection, the researcher can seek the services of enumerators to assist in data collection. The enumerators are given required training and sent to the field with specific questions to guide them on the type of information to be collected. The researcher keeps on checking the enumerators to ensure that whatever they are doing in the fields are correct.

Rae Heather: State Identities and the Homogenization of Peoples

The article claims that because of increasing insecurity and state identities, governments are reasserting their positions by strengthening their armies and promoting democracies. Those in government are suspicious that the foreigners pose threats to their relatives and families.

The government officials struggle for homogenization by organizing attacks to the perceived foreigners. This has led to instabilities in most parts of the world such as Rwanda in Africa, Middle East states and South America. The unprivileged politically find themselves being pushed to the periphery by the powerful.

The underprivileged are perceived as betrayers and are therefore expected to operate from outside the state territory. This forces them to seek asylum and refugee status in other states. This has seen quite a good number of refugees arriving in Australia from Middle East. The civil wars in Afghanistan and Yugoslavia forced many citizens to seek safety in Australia.

The immigrants consider themselves people of the same needs and problems. Once they obtain Australian citizenship, they forge a working unity to realize their potentials. They establish a sense of belonging and feeling that act as a bond among them (Rae, 2002, p. 4-6).

Methodology

The research relied heavily on secondary data. The researcher visited libraries and the internet to obtain critical information about the behavior of states in the international system. The investigator identified the problem and defined it within its precincts. In social research, nothing is new. Whatever we investigate is always in existence. We only add knowledge the available ones or we provide more understanding.

Relevant articles were identified and content analysis done on them. Most of the researches should undergo literature review to determine what exists and where the previous researchers went wrong. Without visiting secondary data, it would be difficult for a researcher to get started.

This would further lead to generalization of too much information that is irrelevant. Collected information should be help in some ways such as solving social problems afflicting society, academic utility that can further be modeled to come up with theories.

Goode Eric and Nachman Ben-Yehuda: Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance

The article argues that societies are panicking about the regrouping of communities by leaders. Some groups belief that the problems in society are brought by specific groups. The communities cooperate to achieve their aspirations in life. They come into conflict with each other while trying to advance their interests.

The conflicts divide the society into groups, each group identify itself with some lifestyles such as mode of dressing and music, religion. In an attempt to outdo the other, groups brand each other. One group might be identified with some weird behaviors such as Japanese in Australia who are known for gambling. Chinese are believed to be corrupt that is, they use dirty tricks to acquire wealth and resources.

The Americans are blamed in Australia for introducing a bad behavior of resisting arrest. The Australian society does not want to come to the existing reality that social problems are caused by multiplicity of factors. The social problems are heterogeneous meaning that they can happen within any social context.

We have Middle East citizens who are murderers and at the same time, we hear of murder among Briton populations. The writers conclude by recommending that the society should come to the reality of accepting diversity and taking objective perspectives in judging problems (Goode & Nachman, 1994, p. 35).

Methodology

The kind of information contained in the article requires sampling. The sampling technique to be applied is deliberate where the researcher determines the people to interview. The investigator should first identify the problem statement. Once the problem is identified, he/she can check in the internet or available materials to determine the facts and hypothesis. Sampling cannot be random since the key informants might be left out.

The researcher chooses the most convenient place to sample since some places are inaccessible because of either insecurity or poor infrastructure. The researcher therefore should exercise objectivity since the research relies on his fairness. The data collection methods used is telephone interview and mailing. The researcher resorts to the methods because they are convenient and cheap as compared to observation.

The researcher hence knows the telephoned or mailed respondents no need of spending too much. Whatever the researcher will be doing is to survey the people not studying it in detail. The labeling theory is more utilized in the above article hence the writer must have relied also on the secondary data.

Importance of the Methods

Methods are the techniques used by researchers in undertaking research. The researchers choose carry out either a case study or surveys. Case studies are advisable in investigations involving human behavior. Human behavior is very complex to understand. The researchers need some time to learn what people like or do not like.

The way people behave is not uniform, human actions can be quantified because of its unpredictability nature. Survey studies are easier and cheap to undertake. They summarize data mathematically. The methods use in research assist in establishing which criteria should be used in collecting data. The first category of methods includes the libraries where the data available is analyzed.

The researcher records notes as he/she reads books or can as well watch/listen to tapes and analyze the information contained therein. The recorded information of books is then compiled statistically by way of manipulation. The researcher should interpret the collected information to suit the hypothesis. The investigator finally must provide references to the collected information and if possible provide abstract guides.

The second group of methods consists of techniques used for establishing some link between the known and unknown data. The techniques are statistical and it includes field research. The first type of observation is non-participant direct observation where by the researcher uses scorecards to collect information. The other way that information can be collected is through interactional recording where tapes and photographs are used.

This participant observation is preferred to non-participative because the researcher is able to observe other things apart from data. Mass observation is also applied in collection of data where the researcher interviews the respondents using independent observers in public places.

The mailed questionnaire and opinionative questionnaires are used to identify social and economic background of the interviewed population. Researchers to follow up questionnaires apply telephone surveys.

Sometimes the researchers may want to analyze a complex occurrence. Case studies and life histories are used for that matter. The method is applied to collect data for further analysis. The last data collection category is equated to laboratory research.

This technique employs devices such as audio-visual recording and use of experts in observing the occurrences. Small groups are therefore used as samples and the samples are selected randomly.

Basis of Scientific Research Methods

The research methods aim at making adequate and reliable statements about social-economic and political phenomena. The data collected relies on the methodology used. Data collected in social research relies on empirical evidence. Statements arrived at can be tested scientifically. It means that scientific methods rely on observation, testing and verification.

The empiricism of scientific methods allows logic to be applied in detecting societal problems. The methods use relevant concepts such as those derived from theories. A theory is a refined body of knowledge that scholars apply in interpreting issues. The methods do not take sides meaning that they only aim at objective truth. Subjectivity is highly discouraged in social research.

Researchers must take neutral stands in fact they should never try to interpret data to suit their wimps or wishes. The information obtained through application of methods result to probabilistic predictions. The data can be used for planning.

Relevance: Quantitative and Quantitative Research Methods

The two are most commonly used methodologies. The former uses numbers to summarize data while the latter give the exact information. Quantitative research is more of analytical, it analyses available data to arrive at conclusions while quantitative research is descriptive meaning that it gives raw data.

It the follows that quantitative research is advisable at the advanced stage of research while quantitative is to be applied at the earlier stages of research project. Researchers choose the type of research depending on the available time and resources.

Quantitative method is less time consuming and economical, it is best for surveys. It is recommended for natural scientists while qualitative research is expensive, it is recommended for case studies.

Conclusion

Research constitutes defining and redefining problems and formulating hypothesis. The research process consists of a series of actions that must be applied in conducting research to obtain good results. The research process starts with formulating the problem.

Either problems can be natural or relational that is, those that exist among people. The next stage after identifying the problem is reviewing literature; a researcher is advised to investigate on what has already been done. This enables intensive enquiry into the problem. The research should have a working hypothesis. These are tentative assumptions applied to test the hypothesis.

The researcher needs to come up with a research design. He/she should know which type of research will be best suited to the topic, will it be case study, survey, experiment, quantitative or qualitative.

Sampling is the last item in the process. The researcher should come up with the most representative sample to avoid the biases that crop up because of sampling. Research is incomplete without one of the steps. One of the objectives of research is to portray accurately the features of an individual. The researchers should be careful to arrive at this accuracy.

References

Goode, E. & Nachman, B. (1994) Moral Panics, the Social Construction of Deviance. Oxford: Blackwell.

Kinnvall, C. (2004) Globalization and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity and the search for Ontological Security. Political Psychology, 25(5), 741-767

Rae, H. (2002) State Identities and Homogenization of Peoples. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

White nationalism is a growing problem in our society today. This is because the nationalists are slowly adopting new strategies to enter into the mainstream. The group cannot defend the laws that protect their beliefs of white domination, therefore, rely on violence to achieve the groups objectives, creating more problems in society. The source of white nationalism is the belief that mass immigration of non-white individuals, miscegenation, and low birth rates among white people threaten the white races extinction. The white nationalists advocate preserving the white culture and claiming that cultures result from a race. The group seeks to protect the survival and domination of the white race and the traditional cultures of the historically white communities. They also hold that the white communities should maintain political and economic power and dominance.

A small number of people participate in the white nationalism groups. However, I think more individuals within the society advocate for the idea of white nationalism since the group has existed in global history for a long time. Its proponents are also recruiting new members further in the mainstream society. In addition, white nationalism is growing faster and spreading geographically more than anticipated. White nationalism and other groups whose beliefs are inclined towards the racial lines are growing faster in the US. The majority of Americans also believe that racial divides are harmful and could worsen by the day. However, I think that the future race relations in America will get better because the current government under Bidens administration is a strong supporter of racial equality and advocates for eliminating systematic racism in America. In addition, more ways to prevent racial crimes are put in place.

Yi Hangno and Choe IkhyOn appear very devoted to preserving the Korean culture and nation and opposing external influences. In fact, they are quite sharp in their writings; for example, Choe IkhyOn refers to the Japanese as people who have the face of human beings but the mind of beasts (Lee & de Bary, 1997, p. 241) and repeatedly refers to them as bandits. Both writers strongly oppose the religion that the conquerors are bringing them, and Yi Hangno claims that Buddhism is nothing more than a heretical sect from the remote Western Regions (Lee & de Bary, 2997, p. 140), while Choe IkhyOn, his disciple, calls the religion that the Japanese promote wicked. Overall, these writings make the impression that the authors were nationalists in a negative sense, meaning that they constantly stressed how evil and barbarian foreigners were, which suggests their certainty about the superiority of the Korean nation over other nations.

However, there is a more complicated understanding of nationalism. In addressing it, one should ask: Is nationalism about loyalty to a government (or a royal family), appreciation of a culture, or dedication to the nation as a whole? In this regard, the identity challenge is faced. Different opinions can be expressed as per what it meant for a Korean in the 19th century to be a Korean. For example, one can speculate on what was more important for Yi Hangno and Choe IkhyOn: Confucianism or the political independence of Korea? Upon reading their texts, I think the latter was more important for them despite the fact that they ferociously denied the religion imposed on them. In fact, religion and culture can be intertwined, but I think that the authors identified themselves as Koreans to a larger extent than they identified themselves as Confucian scholars.

Reference

Lee, P. H., & de Bary, W. T. (Eds.). (1997). Sources of Korean tradition. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Nationalism as a phenomenon

Nationalism is the political doctrine which means that humanity can be divided into different, separate units, that is nation. Each nation should have its own political unit that is the state. This nation also has its own culture, traditions, language, and religion. And each separate nation allows only that person to rule, who belongs to it national group.

Nationalism is something specific and ideologically weighty then the mere sense of national identity. At the base of nationalism is the idea of nation as the supreme authority, which substitutes all other possible sources and guarantors of the highest value.

Nationalism is one of the most controversial political and ideological phenomena of our time (Bulliet 347).

And such scholars as B, Anderson, E. Renan, M. Eksteins, and M. Weber gave priority to issues of nationalism as a historical phenomenon in their works. And they have some points of view on this occasion.

As Renan explains, Nationalism seems to be a clear term but lends itself to dangerous misunderstandings. Nationalism does not come about only because of race, ethnic identity, language, religion, or mountains and rivers, even though these elements may have a role in creating a sense of community (Bhabha 41). Or as Renan tells that a nation is a soul, a spiritual principle. Two things constitute this soul or spiritual principle&One is the possession in common of a rich legacy of memories; the other is a present-day consent, the desire to live together, the will to perpetuate the value of the heritage that one has received in an undivided form (Bhabha 19).

And another scholar Anderson in his book Imagined Communities proposed that nationalism filled the void left by the decline of religious and dynastic territorial control (Anderson 19). He writes, Through the general principle of verticality, dynastic marriages brought together diverse populations under new apices (Anderson 20).

As we know that nationalism took a variety of different guises from its first steps in eighteenth century, but it saved the main four features up to now.

First off all, there is a belief that every person belongs to a certain group of people whose lifestyle differs from the others, who are not included in it. The properties and characteristics of each group member are determined by properties and characteristics of this group as a whole and can not be fully understood by anyone who is outside the group.

Secondly, I must admit, that nationalism is the notion that the society is like a biological organism, because of the way of life. And the needs of this body are the main goals of society. When others values appear, nevertheless, the primacy have to belong to the main nations values, otherwise it threatens to decline and death.

The nationalist approach involves that there are some rules which must be followed, not because they lead to welfare, happiness, justice or freedom, but because they are the value of my nation.

And for the prophets of nationalism, the nations high demands to the individual based on the fact that its existence, its goals, its own history only gives life, the meaning of existence and actions of that individual. There are no values above the values of the nation, just as there are no universal values shared by all people, regardless of their membership of a particular nation.

Nowadays, several kinds of nationalism exist: civic nationalism, state nationalism, organic nationalism, cultural nationalism and ethnic nationalism.

Of course, the National Home can be a very effective way of bringing people together, when it comes to the realization of the nation as something unique and special. But it also may result the humiliation and violence, if it becomes the basis for assertion that some people are better than others (Mann 287). A great example from this selection is fascism.

In the twentieth century nationalism is really the disease of mankind (Eksteins 128) and it has been manifested in a variety of ethnic conflicts, ethnic strife: between Jews and Arabs, between Serbs and Croats, between the English and the Irish. There are a lot of angry and dissatisfied people in our difficult time. And national conflicts erupt here and there.

It is known that in a lot of countries there are more then thirty nations and ethnicities. That is why intolerance of one nation to another is simply unacceptable.

Nowadays, in most countries nationalism is perceived as a negative phenomenon that prevents the establishment of civil society, rule of the law, becoming the order. All these reasons are the goals of the development of many nations. And, sometimes, nationalism creates serious problems for their solutions.

The way I see it, nationalism is not love for the nation, it is more the hatred of the stranger. After all, the friendship between the peoples contributes to the development and improvement of the nation, and I can not say such words about the nationalism. And not in vain, in many countries a number of barriers of nationalism set out in the legislation.

Works Cited

Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. Verso; Revised Edition, 1991. Print.

Bhabha, Homi. Nation and Narration. Routledge; 1 edition, 1990. Print.

Bulliet, Richard. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. Wadsworth Publishing; 5th edition, 2010. Print.

Eksteins, Modris. Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age. Mariner Books; 1th edition, 2000. Print.

Mann, Charles. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Vintage; 1st edition, 2006. Print.

The first two chapters of Partha Chatterjees book seek to establish nationalism as an autonomous ideology. It does this by critically examining the works of early writers. The author does this by offering his views about the main arguments of the writers. The book begins with an examination of the theories of John Plamenatz, Elie Kedourie, Ernest Gellner, and Benedict Anderson. The first chapter named Nationalism as a Problem in the History of Political Ideas attempts to give a background of the notion that nationalism impedes progress. The second chapter named The Thematic and the problematic tries to distinguish between the thematic and the problematic levels of nationalist thought. Partha Chatterjee discusses eastern nationalism in the last four chapters of his book using India as an example.

In chapter one, the author identifies nationalism as a problem in the world of political discussion. To advance this argument, he examines the works of other authors and manages to identify some major themes. He argues that in order to understand nationalism it is important to distinguish between two types of nationalism; western and eastern nationalism. Western nationalism originated from Europe and is alien to the colonized world. He observes that some early writers thought this form of nationalism was good. Western nationalism accepted civilization and modernization. This led to its characterization as a progressive form of nationalism.

Western nationalism is thought to be consistent with European enlightenment. On the other hand, eastern nationalism found mainly in Asia, some parts of Latin America and Africa was viewed as the evil form of nationalism. Therefore, eastern civilization is characterized as a deviant form of nationalism. Earlier authors linked it to agitation for freedom from colonialism. However, Partha points out that there are contradictions inherent in eastern nationalism.

The author observes that the problem with eastern nationalism is its attempt to merge the characteristics of eastern nationalism with western nationalism. The eastern nationalists wished to produce a distinct form of nationalism that contained certain aspects of western civilization. He argues that this is contradictory because it imitates a nationalist model that it seeks to repudiate. The author further points out that the model sought by eastern nationalists is both friendly and hostile to the culture it imitates. He sums up his argument by stating that this model of nationalism seeks to preserve national values while advocating for the elimination of certain aspects that are retrogressive. Eastern nationalism is expected to modify the national culture and spare its unique characteristics.

In chapter two, Partha Chatterjee discusses nationalism at two levels. He argues that in order to understand nationalism as an ideology we must examine its content. He contends that early writers emptied nationalism of its content. He sees nationalism at both the thematic and the problematic levels. To adequately demonstrate this concept, he uses Saids work on Orientalism as a basis for his discussion. Similarly, Orientalism is divided into the thematic and the problematic levels. At the thematic level, orientalism is bound by a linguistic understanding of what is and what is not. At this level, a distinction is made between the west and the east.

Orientalism at the problematic level is based on the assumption that the Orient is not a passive participant. At the problematic level, the orient can alter the course of a discussion about him. The author observes that Saids work demonstrates the power struggle between the orient and the occident. The occident dominant and has power over the orient. At the level of the problematic, Orientalism is given meaning and intent.

The author transposes these levels to nationalism and makes a distinction between the thematic and problematic levels of nationalism. Nationalism at the thematic level is not different from the thematic level of orientalism. At this level, there is a distinction between the west and the east. However, at the problematic level, the orient has the power to influence his destiny. Nationalists often operate at this level. Nationalists are charged with the responsibility of liberating their countries from colonialism. Nationalist thought is used to influence the course of countries.

The book accurately points out that agitation for independence in some parts of the colonial world was motivated by nationalist ideology. The nationalists in the colonial world modified western nationalism to fit their specific circumstances. To a large extent, this argument by the author is accurate. However, it may not be applicable to all nations. Some nations may have had other sources of their nationalist ideology.

The author also implies in his writing that colonized nations have to go through three stages before becoming stable nations. First, a nation must fight for its independence. Secondly, nationalists create a discussion on what the new nation should look like. Finally, a new breed of nationalists emerges and changes the course of the discussion. The new nationalists encourage the emergence of a unified nation. However, a critical examination of this assumption indicates that it is flawed. This is due to the fact that not all nations go through all the phases. Some nations may move directly from stage one to a unified nation.

The book proposes that nationalism should be discussed as an ideology and not as a phenomenon. Early authors viewed nationalism as a phenomenon with sociological determination. This proposition has the potential to significantly change how we look at nationalism. Viewing nationalism as an ideology permits a free discussion of the matter. The subject can also be discussed in an objective manner. This is consistent with the authors observation that nationalism is a concept that people should actively discuss and modify to suit their unique circumstances. Objectivity, in turn, would guarantee future development of the subject. It enables the subject to break free of personalized sentiments.

The book also divides nationalism into thematic and problematic levels. This is abstract division may not necessarily result in a better understanding of the subject. The author also fails to adequately define the two terms in relation to nationalism.

The first two chapters of the book discuss nationalism as a problem in the world of political ideas. The author revisits the works of early writers and comes up with some important conclusions. He concludes that nationalism should be viewed as an ideology and not as a phenomenon. To effectively illustrate his argument, he divides nationalism into thematic and problematic levels. Nationalists operate at a problematic level.

The name of Nietzsche is associated with the rise of fascism. It is not a coincidence as some of the philosophers ideas appeared to provide a rational explanation of this movement. However, he is not directly connected to it and his studies were primarily based on the change in society due to the decreasing influence of Christianity on European people (Elbe, 2000). Nietzsches search for a new purpose in human life resulted in the widespread dissemination of his ideas and their consequent adoption by fascists. This essay is going to explain the impact of Nietzsches nihilism on the rise of ethnic nationalism.

Nihilism, as one of the main themes of Nietzsches philosophy, reflected the concerns of the author about the future of society in turbulent times. This term appeared in his work The Gay Science, published at the end of the nineteenth century (Drolet, 2020). It was connected to the attempts of the philosopher to find a way out of the political and cultural crisis in Europe. Even though Nietzsche became known as one of the fascist followers, he was worried about the emergence of transnational terrorism, which received support from the followers of anarcho-socialist movements in Europe (Drolet, 2020). The principal problem in their ideas was the apparent justification of their actions by ambiguous humanist ideals.

The beginning of ethnic nationalism was conditional upon the rapid development of nihilism that started with the necessity to substitute God and moral values corresponding to this belief with other values. Nietzsche expressed his views by proclaiming God is dead, and this phrase indicated a new period in history characterised by the need for a rational rather than divine explanation of human nature (Chamberlain, 2012). Such an explanation was possible only in the case of strengthening a national consciousness and fascists were eager to offer it.

The concept of nihilism was used by fascists to manipulate the minds of citizens and thereby instil their ideals. Thus, ethnic nationalism received support due to the need of people to explain the nature of everything with the help of rationality (Chamberlain, 2012. The concept of the worlds divine nature did not satisfy them anymore, and they were eager to follow the new leaders who promised to give the meaning to their lives that was lost with the decline of the church.

The philosophical thoughts of Nietzsche greatly contributed to the support of the ethnic nationalist movement by providing the scientific basis for the crisis in Europe. In his works, he described the changing world in the way he perceived it and eventually concluded on the inevitability of societal changes. According to the philosopher, the future of Germany as well as other European countries solely depended on the way such changes would be performed. In addition to those circumstances, Nietzsche highlighted the devaluation of the highest values deriving from Protestantism on the way towards progress as the principal reason for the ongoing societal processes (Elbe, 2000). Therefore, the shifts that resulted in the political and cultural crisis in Europe, in his view, were conditional upon the search for new values.

The collapse of Christian morality and the corresponding worldview required a new interpretation of human existence and turned the cultural crisis into a moral one. According to the philosophers opinion, society could not exist without a greater sense of meaning or purpose and if religion is incapable of providing it, some other powers should intervene (Elbe, 2000). Therefore, using this conception, the followers of ethnic nationalism managed to underpin their ideology with the societal need for a guiding power.

Nietzsche anticipated such an outcome of the adoption of nihilistic views by fascist activists, and this fact also contributed to the seeming normalcy of these processes. In his works, he raised a concern that the attempts to overcome the experience deriving from the reduced impact of the Christian church in terms of morals and values might have severe consequences (Elbe, 2000). Among them, he listed the scenarios of the implementation of questionable measures, which might lead to pure violence. Nietzsche wrote that the low morale resulting from the breakdown of value systems could even become a reason for a great war in search for temporary redemption (Elbe, 2000). Therefore, the consequences of these societal changes were not surprising to the philosopher.

The creation of the power capable to lead people was conditional upon citizens loyalty, which previously belonged to the Christian church as they believed in God. Therefore, fascist activists task was to substitute religious devotion with loyalty to a nation, so it became possible to manipulate them based on common ideals (Carr, 1945). As the notion of a nation is more tangible than mysterious almighty God, their intentions also corresponded to the need for rational proof expressed by nihilists (Chamberlain, 2012). This circumstance became another factor that allowed for the choice of Nietzsche as a principal philosopher, whose ideas were meant to underpin ethnic nationalism.

Another idea of Nietzsche that contributed to the rise of ethnic nationalism was his desire to find an explanation for the European crisis in genealogy. Thus, he tried to trace the emergence and development of the problem through the difference in peoples origins (Elbe, 2000). The notion of superiority and inferiority of particular groups of people derives directly from Nietzsches philosophical thoughts. Its meaning was distorted by fascist activists as the original idea that belonged to the philosopher, which described the prevalence of moral and intellectual characteristics and not ethnic or national superiority. As a result, the people in Germany were divided into strong and weak groups and the notion of a master race appeared (Drolet, 2020). In this way, the idea of moral values was perceived as the need for governance.

Nietzsches thoughts contributed to the development of the relationship between nihilism and ethnic nationalism. His works, in which he expressed the necessity to substitute the values of the Christian church with powers corresponding to the spirit of the age, were used by fascists. The situation in Germany was unstable due to the political and cultural crisis and fascist activists skewed Nietzsches ideas for their benefit. Such a new power represented by people with nationalistic views was formed and the loyalty to the church changed into the loyalty to the nation. In this way, Nietzsches nihilism and ethnic nationalism are interconnected.

Reference List

Carr, E.H. (1945) Nationalism and after. London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

Chamberlain, L. (2012) The political message of Nietzsches God is dead, The Guardian.

Drolet, J-F. (2020) Beyond tragedy and perpetual peace: Politics and international relations in the thought of Friedrich Nietzsche. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press.

Elbe, S. (2000) European nihilism and annihilation in the twentieth century, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 1(3), pp. 4372.

Introduction

Every person in any corner of the earth has a country that he or she considers as his or her motherland. Therefore, no matter where he or she moves, there is something in the back of the mind that reminds him or her of his or her country.

For example, United States of America has for along time being considered as the land of milk and honey by the immigrants from other countries especially the developing ones. However, regardless of this perspective, Taiwo (p 21) observes that such people remain attached to their country of origin in spite of the difficulties found there.

He point out that most of these people move there to look for greener pastures and that when they are satisfied with that they will return to their country of origin. He claims that to show their patriotism, he notes that the immigrants will not invest heavily in the foreign land but rather will invest in their country of origin.

As a result he portrays these kinds of people as nationalistic because they have put the welfare of their country ahead of their country. According to him nationalism is the loyalty or devotion to ones country. Gellner (p 54) claims that nationalism is solely responsible for the creation of a national identity.

In addition he says that nationalism makes a people in a country appreciate and have respect to each other irrespective of their faith, race, and even ethnic affiliation. Therefore, peace and stability in a region or a country is promoted when people learn to co-exist with others in spite of their varying cultures. He observes that as long as people have a unifying factor for example the president, then nationalism will be promoted.

Theories of Nationalism

In the contemporary world a number of scholars have come up with various explanations to explain why people feel honored to be identified with their countries. Samir (p 100) has come up with a theory which he calls the instrumentalist theory. In this theory the most striking feature is that it focuses more on the ethnic groups rather than countries or the nations.

In his discussion he observes that ethnic identity is variable as well as flexible. That is, both the content and the boundaries of the ethnic group are not rigid and therefore can change according to the prevailing conditions. He observes that ethnic affiliations are a mere way of promoting economic interests. To add on he point out that some people are ready to change their group membership once they have fulfilled their desired and set goals.

Modernization theory

According to Bellamy (p 15) modernization theory asserts that nationalism emerges as a result of the process of transition from traditional to modern society. He claims that the modernization theory proponents zero in on the spread of industrialization, political, cultural conditions as well as the socio-economic.

According to him these are some of the issues that make a people in some countries be proud of their nation. He says that in the developed countries of Europe, Asia and the United States of America industrialization and a strong economic base has in particular led to rise of nationalism in them. Taiwo (p 15) states that modernization theory of nationalism stems from the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism and more specifically in the area of scientific materialism and empiricism.

In his discussion he tends to relate nationalism with the historical, economic as well as political advancement that is necessitated by the science and its effect to politics and also social life at large. According to him nationalism affects traditional social ties in that it breaks the progress that had previously been witnessed in the market relations for instance.

Evolutionary Theories

Andersson (p 50) states that people begin by having an ethnic sought of nationalism before they can develop the real nationalism. He observes scholars have not managed to explain the period at which people change their perception from ethnic to national appreciation.

He attributes this to lack of an in depth research o how these transitions occurs and the failure to see the implication of ethnicity for todays nationhood. According to Geertz (p 115) there exists a gap between the medieval and the modern notions of a nation. As a result of this he point out those national identities has to be re invented in the modern world.

Types of nationalism

Anti colonial nationalism

Scholars have identified a number of nationalisms that are different from each other depending on their nature and the times at which they take place. According to Sukumar (p 251) there is the anti colonial nationalism. He notes that, this took place in the period after the World War II.

After the World War II many countries especially in Africa and Asia that had for a long time been under the colonial rule of the Europeans began to rise up against such rule. In Africa for example he claims that nationalism movements claimed a lot life in Algeria and Kenya as they wanted their countries from the colonial chains.

In 1952, a group calling itself MAUMAU waged a full war against the British colonial government and true to its expectation the country attained her independence in 1963 after more than a hundred thousand people had lost their life.

He observes that although the Kenyan and Algerian nationalism turned out to be bloody other countries like Tanganyika managed to negotiate with the British who had been given the mandate to run her affairs after the defeat of the Germans in the First World War.

Ultranationalism

Blaut (p 198) observes that this kind of nationalism is characterized by peoples immense support for their country. He claims that people come in their numbers to show their solidarity with the actions of their government. He says that when a country is attacked by enemies like it happened in the United States in September 11 2001, members of the public are likely to come out in large numbers to demonstrate that they are in solidarity with the government.

According to him other actions that may cause this kind of nationalism include, the government plan to control the number of immigrants entering the country, expulsion out of the country of suspects who are considered a threat to the state security, fight against drugs as is the case in Colombia and Mexico.

Other include going to war against another country that is perceived as a threat to that country. He thus argues that this kind of nationalism is normally peaceful and in many instances do not last for a long time. This is because its occurrence is catalyzed by an event that is at hand.

Ethnocentrism

Bellamy (p 22) has noted that some countries especially those that have advanced technologically have a tendency of looking down upon those countries that are poor and technologically behind. He contends that this kind of behavior people originates from infancy when a child is taught by the parents on what or who he or she should relate to.

He says that in the twentieth century, black people in the United States of America and in Europe were despised which made it extremely hard for them to co exist with the whites. He point out that with changing time, the perception has changed and as a result such people can relate and help one another during the times of need. He calls this kind of nationalism as ethnocentrism.

Civic nationalism

Civic nationalism is another type of nationalism. According to Snyder (p 102) civic nationalism shows a country as an assembly of different people who view themselves as belonging to that nation. He argues that such people consider themselves as having same political rights and allegiance to similar political procedures.

In addition, he says this kind of nationalism is meant to instill certain values such as equality, tolerance, respect for human rights, and freedom in people as they participate in the process of nation building.

Impacts of Nationalism in the modern day world

In the world today, nationalism has contributed greatly in shaping the world in its present state. Tilly (p 127) points out that, as people try to search they national identification on the international scale various events has taken place that have made what they are today. He says that one of the impacts of nationalism is the rise of new states.

According to him, prior to the Second World War, the world was literally owned by the European powers led by the British and the French authorities. In the African continent for example he states that French and British government claimed over 80 percent together while the rest of the European powers controlled the rest.

After the Second World War, most of the African soldiers taken by the British to be carrier corps returned home and demanded that the Europeans leave their territories. He points out that the Indias independence of 1947 gave a fresh impetus for these Africans to demand for their independence.

This wave spread across the whole continent and by the year 1970 more than 60 percent of African countries had been liberated from the colonial rule. This therefore gave rise to many countries that had previously not existed. He says that prior to independent Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania used to be referred to as East African Protectorate.

But with attainment of independence, each country adopted its own name with a complete government. He notes that to date there are those regions of the world fighting to secede from another country. He argues that this is all brought about by nationalism.

Furthermore, Andersson (p 54) asserts that nationalism has brought about war between one country and others. He says that the terrorism attacks on the 11^th September 2001 in the United States of America made the then president, George Walker Bush to declare war on Afghanistan that was blamed for protecting the then leader of Al-Qaeda the late Osama bin Laden.

He claims that the members of the public came out in large numbers and urged their government to retaliate by waging a war against Afghanistan. According to him, the attacks on the Twin Towers and the World Trade Centre brought together the entire American citizens. As a result they united behind their leaders and offered their support for the country to go to war as they considered it a war against terrorism.

Nationalism has also led to an increased pride among nations. Geertz (p 110) claims that as countries compete with one another, the winning one feels more superior to the other although it is the players alone involved. He says that in Brazil, their winning football culture has made the entire nation proud.

Therefore as they play another country, the entire nation is behind them so that they can continue with their winning ways. In addition he says that, countries that have progressed technologically have developed a negative attitude towards the poor and the impoverished countries.

According to him some of the citizens in the developed countries got so much pride that they cannot take or consume anything made from such a country because he or she believes that their country has the best product while the others are sub standards. Tilly (p 147) points out that nationalism have led to the fall of government in different parts of the world.

He claims that dictatorial forms of government have witnessed its own people rising against it in popular uprisings. This usually takes the form of mass action organized by the pressure groups and other activist. If this fails to work, he notes that others takes arms and uses force to topple such government. He gives an example of how the late Mobutu Sese Seko of the former Zaire was overthrown.

Therefore, a government has to be responsible to its people or else people will revolt against is and bring it down. In addition Sidwell (p 214) argues that nationalism has brought about unifications in some countries in the world today. He says that in Italy and Germany for instance, nationalism as a tool for unification.

According to him, prior to this nationalism in Italy the whole country was divided into many city states that claimed autonomy. As a result of nationalism he points out that the city states came together and managed to form the modern day Italy. He argues that once the citizens have learnt to live peacefully with one another, they are likely to cooperate and work together for the good of the country.

Sukumar (p 254) points out that nationalism have led to the emergence of a new crop of leaders in a number of countries in the world. According to him, the young people have become tired of being referred to the leaders of tomorrow and therefore want to take up the leadership o their countries now and not any other day.

He notes that in most of the developing countries the heads of government are usually old people above the age of sixty five who have been blamed for lack of vision in their leadership. As a result there has been a rise in the number of young people taking part in elections where a significant number is vying for the top seat in their country. Nationalism has increased accountability in many government institutions.

According to Hroch (p 73) many government that had previously blamed for lack of accountability are today being held accountable by the electorate. To ensure that they gain the electorates confidence and thus stand a chance of being re elected in the subsequent elections, he asserts that these government have yielded to the calls by the members of the public to increase transparency in all their transactions.

As a result incidences of corruptions have gone down significantly. Furthermore, nationalism has led to persistent conflict between neighboring countries. According to Feld (p 99) when colonial government laid their hands on the colonies they drew up boundaries without bearing in mind the effects the boundaries would have on the communities residing in those areas.

He says that, while carrying out a research in East Africa, he realized that the British government divided the Somalis from Kenya with their families in Somalia. As a result of this the Somali government that came to power after the British had left tried to annex the northern part of Kenya into Somalia. He observes that even today the Somalis in Somalia considers the north eastern part of Kenya as rightly theirs and therefore continues to cause conflict with their Kenyan authorities.

Nationalism has also led to increased democracy in a number of countries. Gellner (p 127) argues that when people stand united to demand certain things from the government are bound to get them because the government is aware of the potential danger posed by the citizens should they all decide that enough is enough.

He points out that as a result of this the government yields in to the demands of the people and allows room for more public participation in the running of the government affairs. He adds that nationalism has led to some countries looking down upon others. According to him, the developed countries have put in measures that ensure that the developing countries dont improve economically without their help.

By so doing he says that the developed nations are able to spread their influence on these nations and make them compel to their wishes. Woolf, (p 123) points out that nationalism has been responsible for the ethnic and religious clashes in some countries in the world. In Northern Ireland for example there have been for a long time clashes between the Catholics and the Protestants based on ideological differences.

According to him, these people fight with one another because of their unity in religion. That is, the believers are proud and ready to die in the name of their religion because they are proud to be associated with either side of the divide. In addition, he argues that such people will do anything possible to protect their religion from interference from other people.

Minaham (p 211) contends that nationalism has helped a lot of people to know their basic human rights. According to him when people feel attached so much to their country, they get a good chance to be taught their basic rights and therefore critic their government when such a person realizes that the government or any other state agency is not respecting human rights.

Moreover, nationalism has promoted the relationship between a country and the others. He notes that when the members of the public show their solidarity with their government actions, people and governments from other countries begin to show a keen interest in such a country and the countries may end up becoming good trading partners hence benefiting the citizens of both countries and more so those who realizes a positive balance of trade.

Hayes (p 54) has argued that if not properly looked at, nationalism can lead to degeneration to groups. He point out that, once become proud of their nation so much, they can attract potential enemies who would attack them using propagandas in order to divide them.

Once such propagandas have sunk in them, people tends to develop a sense of mistrust and with time a country that was perceived as intact may begin to disintegrate slowly and after a while some of the leaders may begin advocating for secession. He says that this was the case when the cold war ended in the late 1980s and early 1990s after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

According to Kohn (p 78) nationalism has impacted on the manner in which people conduct themselves whether in public or in private. He points out that once the people realize the importance of being royal and appreciating their country and the leaders, they develop a new attitude towards that country and begin behaving in a manner likely to suggest that they respect and honor all those in authority.

Conclusion

Being a nationalist is a virtue that each one of us regardless of age, sex, race and religious affiliation should have. Although some of our rulers have not created a good environment for us to be proud as citizens we should take that and try to ask other people to join us in campaigning for patriotism and nationalism.

People should learn that it is their noble to duty always be ready to protect their country from external as well as internal attacks. In order to promote nationalism from an earlier stage in life the government should start an awareness campaign in school for children to be taught the importance of being patriotic as they grow up.

In addition to that, the government should introduce a mandatory unit that will be taught right from the primary school to the University level. By so doing people will be in a better position to decide for themselves on whether to be patriotic or otherwise. One way of promoting nationalism is to ensure that democracy prevails in the country.

Members of the public on the other hand should learn to co exist peacefully at all times regardless of the prevailing conditions. Liah (p 211) asserts that peace and harmony are important ingredients in the realization of nationalism. This is because for people to be considered nationalistic, they must show cohesiveness among themselves so that they can get whatever they want to achieve.

As earlier stated there are certain types of nationalism that can bring hatred among people and to an extent generate into a full scale war like it was the case in the Northern Ireland between the Catholics and the Protestants. In order to avert such crisis leaders in both camps should sit down together and iron out their differences so that no blood shed is witnessed in the future.

Once people in a country have learnt to live peacefully in their own country, it is the governments obligation to establish good working relationships with other countries so that the citizens in those countries can benefit from such a relationship in terms of doing business.

Works cited

Andersson, Eliud. Culture, Identity and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008

Bellamy, Charles. Nationalism and the State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001

Blaut, Jim. The National Question. London: Routledge, 2004

Feld, Jordan. Minorities, Autonomy and elf Determination. London: Sage, 2003

Geertz, Clifford. Nationalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004

Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006

Hayes, Carlton. The Historical Evolution of Modern Evolution. London, Blackwel, 2007

Hroch, Miroslav. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002

Kohn, Hans. The Idea of Nationalism. New York: Macmillan, 2009

Liah, Greenfeld. Nationalism, Roads to Modernity. London: Penguin, 2007

Sidwell, Alex. The Age of Nationalism. New York: Harper & Row, 1999

Minaham, James. Nations without States, A Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1996

Samir, Amin. Class and Nation. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998

Snyder, Louis. The Ethnic Revival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007

Sukumar, Periwal. Notions of Nationalism. New York: Harper & Row, 2004

Taiwo, Shandrack. Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004

Tilly, Edward. Varieties of Nationalism. New York: Winston, 2000

Woolf, Steven, Nationalism in Europe from 1815 to the Present. New York: Routledge, 2003

Nationalism is freedom and the beginning of equality and prosperity. The people make a nation strong and united. China must have its people as one, in order to become one of the leading nations in the world.

The Chinese have had a long history of hardships and sometimes were rewarded with happiness. Throughout the 19^th century, the times have shown to be as difficult as ever. The moral fabric of the Chinese people has become jeopardized by the beliefs of the masses and the support of the government. The power and the control of the country do not lay with the people of China, foreign peoples and world trade and economy are the ones that have China in a tight grip. The times when there were secret organizations of anarchy and communism are recent. The Western culture has had its influence of the nationalism of China where people would want to follow the Western way of life. There are those who believe that it is possible to stay ethnically Chinese but become westernized and this deprives China of its Nationality and strength. Ethnic backgrounds are based on genetics, biology and in no way unify people in a moral sense. Nationality is the feeling of belongingness and belief in ones Nation. Pluralism is not allowed in the struggle for the common good. It is clear that the modern times are rapidly changing and China must stay together with the world that is reshaping itself and the way things are done in it. China has always been a nation full of traditions and beliefs in the unity and strength of people. The modernization of the world has created a gap between the Chinese and the rest of the world. Nationalism is the way to show how together people of China can do so much. The social support and networks must be supported and strengthened, in order for the country to develop. There must be a high level of trust in the society and the community, which allows contributing to the collective success and creates decisions in the common national problems and issues. Nationalism will also provide the basis for the assimilation of the minorities and establish an order amongst people. The collective of people is one of the major moving forces in the fight for the country and its position in relation to other Nations. The world economy has somewhat added to the strength and goals of China. It has made the market more developed, both internally and globally.

But, at the same time, nationalism can lead astray and change an individual into becoming obsessed with their nationality. Their views become distorted and they focus on their personal goals, tricking themselves into believing that they are acting on behalf of people and for the people. The key aspect of Nationalism is that the most important thing is the people. They are the ones to dictate and determine what is best for the country but more specifically, the Nation. Unfortunately, individual development and the present world, naturally lead people away from the common goal. The interests of the nation will eventually lead to the benefits for every person individually. Sometimes, there are groups of people within a society who focus on bettering China and the conditions its people face. The government of China sees a lot of positive influence in the world and global market. Thus, the Chinese world is pulled into a place that does not have the proper conditions for a person to reach their full potential. The national economy and the social sphere must be strengthened and not changed into something that was not tested before. Right now the Chinese people are faced with many laws and regulations that govern the society and pull it in a certain direction. These are the criteria which govern the development of the cultural advances and changes. The nationality of China is under question with todays moral changes and implications. The Cultural Revolution has taken people further from older traditions that were a part of life for many generations. This moving away from the ancient way of life does not mean that the nationality of the country will be lost. It is important for it not to be lost. This is where nationalism becomes extremely valuable. It is one of the highest forms of social unity and it is the primary force in the formation of a country or nation. There could be several political movements within a society that take somewhat different avenues. People will always have different ways of doing things but as long as they are fighting for the common good and the goodness of the country, it is still the same fight. The traditions must be kept intact, as they are the supportive base for any nation. People can rely and find consolation in the beliefs and traditions that have existed for hundreds of years. The history of a nation is exactly what makes it different from other nations and to forget ones roots, is to forget the nationality and the ancestors. The key to Chinas national strength was its long commitment to the forefathers beliefs. This made the goals of every generation shared, with everyone having an input into the development of social multifaceted world. The nature of the world has set certain barriers between cultures and nations. The Chinese nation is determined by the fundamentals that cannot be found in the rest of the world. The love and friendship among the Chinese people and the helping hand that they offer one another, is truly a great quality that could be observed throughout Chinese history. The person belonging to the nation and its interests, supports the legitimacy of the government and the country. It is the people that make a nation strong, making it an important and inseparable factor in the building of an effective and flexible nation.

The most unfortunate part of nationalism is that sometimes it reaches extreme methods and innocent people become involved in very harsh realities. Genocide and other ethnical cleaning are considered to be a part of nationalist movement. In such context the word nationalism becomes very hard to define. It is lost in the fanatical goals of a select few who pursue the greatness of their nation through violence and destruction. There are theories that nationalism is a dangerous thing because it leads to the buildup of cultural differences and public inequalities. Nationalism means the agreement with anything that is chosen for the majority. As the definitions are usually very strict and regulated, a lot of people are forced into a system they cannot belong with. Also, the individual development is halted when all the efforts are taken to form a nation of strong and unbendable morals. Nationalism should not be political or religious. It should be based on the moral goodness of people and their interest in making the nation strong but not at the price of individuals and cultural setbacks. There are those who believe that a strong nation cannot have several groups of people of different ethnicities or backgrounds. This separates the nation and does not add to the greater good. In reality, it would be absolutely impractical to try to root out or separate different ethnic groups from the nation. These people make up the population and have the same say in the formation of the nation. They are a great resource and their commitment to the common goal is proof enough of their interests in making the nation strong. Nationalism should be guided by highest standards. The unification of many types of people but with a common territory, will be beneficial for a national movement. The people of China should not segregate people who live on its territory and want to be part of the country. It is everyones personal choice of what they choose to believe in and fight for. It does not matter if a person is of different background but it matters what they presently believe in. If they want to be a part of the great Chinese history and tradition, they should be allowed a place in between the people who are proud to be Chinese, who are making the nation one of the greatest and richest ones in the world.

Introduction

In the study entailing nationalism, one stumbles upon four major debates that scholars tend to engage in. The first one centers on how nation and nationalism should be defined. Secondly, there is a question of the time during which nations are thought to have first occurred.

The third debate tends to explore how nations and nationalism actualized. Finally, most classic works emphasize on European nationalism raising a debate as to whether nationalism began in Europe and spread to other non-western parts of the world or whether it developed on its own in non-western countries (Eschenhagen 2 ).

This work will not attempt to exhaust all these debates but will rather concentrate on the various definitions of nationalism and its negative effects in the modern world.

Definition of Nationalism

Nationalism can be understood in diverse perspectives depending on the context. Sociologically, nationalism can first be understood from the word nation, from which it is derived. The nation is Latin in origin  nation whose meaning during the medieval era was devoid of any political connotation.

It has a similar meaning with Greek word ethnos that stands for people, nation, and country (Norbu 25). It was until the Middle Ages that the nation began attaining a political interpretation, which was vividly outspoken especially in France and Germany. In these two places, the term nation was used to refer to the ruling cadre in contrast with the word volk, which is synonymous to the common people or populace (Norbu 25).

In view of this meaning, the word nation and the nationality concept were closely attributed to both sovereignty and power to imply that this concept was only common among those who were in rulership. Rather than belong to the people who embody it, the word nation rather referred to those in political power that had more say over state related concerns and held the key to the means of production.

During the absolute monarchy, the nation was closely associated with the monarchs state. If for that matter political powers place of residence is the epitome the nation, then the French revolution was a major protest against the aristocratic class. With the increase in social communication and mass awareness, the idea of nationalism ceased from being cocooned within the aristocrats. It spilled down to the common people as well.

Rousseau (1770 -1850) who refused equating nation to the higher political class and instead equating it with the populace (Norbu 25) agitated for the new concept of the nation. The meaning of nationality and that of nationalism are closely related in that they designate a people rather than a nation per se. Nationalism is therefore a unique type of politically motivated social awareness that is people-derived and people oriented (Norbu 25).

Another perspective of understanding nationalism is to look at it from the different kinds of nationalism and then elucidating that one of them can be defended and the other kinds cannot. In this light, the western form of nationality can be contrasted against the eastern form (Miller, 1995).

For instance, western nationalization has been perceived as perspicacious and favorable to progress or reform. On the other hand, eastern nationalization has been perceived as unprogressive and cryptic, based on a seeming tribal perspective of nationality (Kohn, 1944, cited in Miller 8).

The second contrast suggests that western nationalism was for people with outstanding cultural marks, able to measure up with those of known nation states such as Germany and Italy during the nineteenth century. On the other hand, Eastern nationalism was for people whose ancient culture was primitive and hence they had to curve an identity for themselves to able to fit competently in the modern world (Arnold 1976, cited in Miller 8).

Another difference suggests that in Eastern nationalism, people who within the same territory are governed by common laws and take part in similar civic culture while Eastern nationalism is genealogically- based suggesting the notion of individuals bound together by shared ancestry. In each case, the contrast is used to draw the fact that Western nationalism is friendly to a liberal state whereas eastern nationalism tends towards dictatorship and cultural constraint (Miller 9).

Another way of understanding nationality is looking at it from the standpoint of political philosophy. This is the difference between a nationalism of a nation that interferes with the rights of other nations as it strives to uphold its own objectives and a nationalism that is sensitive to the rights of other nations and aims at enhancing equality among all nations.

For example, MacCormick differentiates between acknowledging moral tussles while striving for national concerns from an egocentric drive of desiring that ones nation should outdo others (Nathanson, 1993, cited in Miller 9).

Therefore, succinctly put, nationalism can be termed as opposition to foreign control, consciousness of being part of a certain nation and pride in the nations culture, norms, infrastructure, and achievements, awareness of shared political roles and a demand for self motivated national governance (Okoth 1).

How nationalism has been a negative force in our modern world

The 1962 Indian border war

Although the Indian border war in 1962 was not directly influenced by a western power, it elicited a rise in Chinese various nationalistic elements such as the sovereignty and legitimacy of China. When the raw over the border emerged within the mid nineteenth century, Apart from fear of losing its territorial loss, China hardened its position due to two other reasons. This was both the Tibet question and Indias non-negotiable attitude towards the borderline. Despite the known fact that Tibet has been within the Chinese territory since 1950, the Indian prime minister negated the fact that China had sovereignty over the territory. This really soured the relationship between India and China.

China interpreted the Indian prime ministers challenge of their own sovereignty over Tibet as purely imperialistic. China then resolved to respond to this through a strike of equal magnitude. The borderline war between India and China was not only fueled by Indias imperialistic approach, but also by Indias hard-line attitude regarding the McMahon line.

Due to collective opinion from the Chinese republic and Taiwanian support, China finally got victory. Although the Chinese government had achieved its objectives, the war tainted Chinas international position and was a major cause of a deadlock in bilateral associations for many years thereafter (Eschenhagen 6).

The eight islands dispute

Besides the past borderline dispute between India and China, there is also a recent nationalistic dispute between Japan, China, and Taiwan regarding the ownership of eight islands found in the East Asia Sea. Although none of the three parties would like the issue to cripple their bilateral agreements, the conflict is motivated by both domestic and international politics.

Although ownership of resources found in the islands is the major cause of dispute, nationalistic claims have blown out of proportion. Although conflict among the three parties was improbable, resolution and shared exploitation of the resources was also elusive (Huang, 1997, cited in Eschenhagen 6).

A series of international conflicts then arose leading to protests from Chinese students. This was after a bomb attack in China that was thought to have been of western origin. The students protests led not only to the bombing of an American officers residents but also to the vandalism of other U.S related premises within the Chinese streets.

The protests moved from street-based to online-based and with this, the Chinese national leadership had to intervene since the move would have jeopardized the relations between China and the U.S. The western world was greatly baffled by the protests and the U.S media apportioned blame to the Chinese government for fueling the mayhem by misleading the masses with incorrect nationalistic information (Eschenhagen 8).

The U.S surveillance plane incident

In a separate incidence, an American spy plane collided with a Chinese jet over the sea located in the southern part of China. This was after the American plane penetrating into the Chinese airspace without verbal clearance.

This came at a time when other issues like human rights and support of Taiwan by the U.S had strained the relationship between Beijing and Washington. Although the U.S ambassador to China brought a message of apology to the Chinese people after a long impasse, the Chinese jet had been destroyed and its pilot killed in the collision.

Extreme Right wing voting

The reasons behind the popularity of extreme right wing in some countries of the European Union and their absence and low influence in other parts have been of much debate (Gijsberts 157). However, they have been attributed to a diversity of country-specific features. Factors leading to these variances in the extreme rightwing voting are three-fold: sociological, economic, and political (Gijsberts 157). Sociologically, variances in the population of different countries affect the voter turnout in the extreme right wing voting.

This is determined by both the public opinion and social structure of country. Economically, the economic doldrums and rivalry between the countrys main group and the immigrants could also explain the differences in extreme right wing voting. Politically, specific factors that characterize a party and the system of its operation influences voter turnout (Gijsberts 157).

Nationalism as a cause of major world conflicts and genocide

Xenophobia and chauvinism are both regarded as products of extreme nationalism (Auer 19). This is perceived in the sense that xenophobic nationalism being the fear and rejection of a stranger is an extension of any aspect of national identity. Additionally, even though patriotism is closely related to nationalism, critics of nationalism find it quite detrimental in its extreme manifestation (Kegley 408). Extreme patriots tend to gauge their patriotism via the level of hatred and protest extended towards alien nations.

Patriotism also makes them to blindly endorse all policies and practices of their own nation. In this vein, nationalism negates the aspect of universal values that elevates the values of all above those of individual nations. This is seen as an impediment to human rights and the harmony that exists among all nations in a world without borders.

Nationalism further contradicts Christian, Islamic, and Judaistic teachings that love should be manifested even towards ones enemies. Looked at from this perspective, nationalism is therefore perceived as a cause for armed world conflicts. Nationalisms double-faced character is believed to be the main cause armed conflict.

First, it is a common force that bonds nations with similar nationalities together and secondly, it does not only bring divisions among but it also divides nationalities and this is what justifies armed conflicts with other nations (Kegley 408).

Genocide is normally explained as state organized killings that targets a given political, religious, national, or ethical group (Scherrer 69). The Bosnia genocide is believed to have its causes embedded in nationalism. Although the concentration camps were used to carry out genocidal activities, other acts entailed not just mass rape but also destruction of both Islamic and Croatian symbols (Delanty and Kumar 327).

Such acts partly involve death but also involve annihilation either fully or partly, of a given national group. For instance, the mass rape psychologically torments and destroys the reproductive potential of all the groups (Delanty and Kumar 327).

Apart from the Bosnia genocide, both world wars were direct full-scale genocides. For example during the Second World War, Hitler ordered mass murder against many ethnic groups such as the European Jews and Russians among others (Scherrer, p. 76). There were also organized killings against millions of prisoners and slave workers. The Nazi terror took away of 50 million the lives and Fascist Germany war eliminated the lives of millions of the Roma and Sinti, Russian civilians, Serbs among others (Scherrer 76).

Conclusion

Nationalism is the social consciousness of the people in a particular nation that causes them to protest alien control as they pride in their own national traditions, achievements and political rights. The extreme manifestations of nationalism have had negative impacts in the world especially manifested through armed conflicts and genocides.

Works Cited

Auer, Stefan. Liberalism in Central Europe. London, Routledge. 2004. Web.

Delanty, Gerard and Kumar, Krishan. The SAGE handbook of nations and nationalism. London, Routledge. 2006. Web.

Eschenhagen, Paul. Nationalism in China: Implications for Chinese International Relations. Norderstedt, GRIN Verlag. 2006. Web.

Gijsberts, Merove I. Nationalism and exclusion of migrants: cross national comparisons. VT, Ashgate Publishing. 2004. Web.

Kegley, Charles. World Politics: Trend and Transformation. CA, Cengage Learning. 2009. Web.

Norbu, Dawa. Culture, and the Politics of Third World Nationalism. London, SAGE Publications Ltd. 1992. Web.

Okoth. Assa. A History of Africa. Kampala, East African Publishers Ltd. 2006. Web.

Scherrer, Christian. Ethnicity, nationalism, and violence. London, Ashgate Publishing Limited. 2003. Web.