Category: Narcissism

Abstract

Narcissism is defined as the self-centered actions, and inflated self-worth conducts that individuals express. This paper answers the question of whether the narcissism epidemic prevails among young adults. There exists growing evidence on the increasing behavioral expressions of narcissism. Such evidence will be used appropriately to show that, indeed, narcissism has reached epidemic proportions. Further, the paper will reveal my opinion on whether the narcissism epidemic is prevalent among youths.

Introduction

Narcissism refers to the tendency of people to have an inflated ego and a higher feeling of self-worth in relation to other people. Narcissism is on the rise among young adults who are expressing the behavior through increased materialism. More youths are growing up with an inflated ego that has now become a narcissism epidemic. This paper confirms that narcissism has become an epidemic among contemporary adults.

Controversy Relating to Narcissism

Is the narcissism epidemic prevalent among the present-day young adults? This question has attracted support and dissidence among researchers in equal measure. In this controversial topic, on one side of the divide are individuals who claim that narcissist behaviors have increased and that are getting out of hand to epidemic proportions. The other side comprises people who believe that any behaviors are a natural response to the changing world and trends in lifestyles and that they should not be viewed as narcissist tendencies.

Those who support the argument that narcissism has risen to epidemic proportions among young adults point out to many behavioral changes in society. Such behaviors were not as widespread as they appear today. Ryan and Xenos (2011) study considers attention to seeking the most widespread behavior that the youths are expressing.

This behavior has been aggravated by the advent of social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, among others where the young adults are posting bigger-than-life updates to create an impression of superior life when they compared themselves to the others in the social circles. Further, since the internet is becoming a highly influential factor, many behaviors that people demonstrate online are being reflected in their offline personalities, thus increasing narcissist behaviors.

Another study by Holtzman, Vazire, and Mehl (2010) confirms that more young people are buying big houses and cars on credit that they cannot service. This observation is a growing concern when it comes to the motives behind such major financial decisions that can negatively affect the lives of young adults in the end. From the above evidence, narcissism is truly becoming an epidemic among young adults.

Not everyone believes that narcissism has reached epidemic levels (Guest, 2013). For instance, some researchers such as Holtzman et al. (2010) assert that what people view as narcissism is misconstrued and that it may not be the case at all. Holtzman et al. (2010) say that humanity is living in a changing world where technology has significantly increased peoples visibility more than any other time (Mitchell, Jones, Turner, Shattuck, & Wolak, 2015).

In this case, social media platforms allow individuals to share the happenings in their lives to a greater audience than what was possible in the previous generations when social media platforms were not accessible. Further, the study concludes that narcissism is increasing because it has become more visible such that it can reflect what has always been there in society. The study associates the increment with technology that is evident through the internet.

My Position

Sufficient evidence confirms that more and more young adults are keen on showing a flashy rich life. This manifestation is everywhere for anyone to see. Each day, in the news, in reality, TV shows, and/or in the social media, the political class, and ordinary citizens are increasingly expressing their desire for materialism and rich-good life-outlook to the members of the society.

Celebrity updates are always emphasizing the material things that show covetousness and affluence, such as new cars, holiday destinations, and designer materials. Such updates focus less on issues of personality, morality, and behavior. With the advent of technology and the internet, access to such information is as easy as a click away. Many young people are becoming more and more aligned with believing that a flashy life is good and that it is the only acceptable lifestyle (Guest, 2013).

According to Feldman (2014), one of the major narcissist behaviors that young adults are expressing is the strong desire to remain young, to look beautiful or handsome, and the extent to which they are going to eliminate imperfections in their bodies. In the previous generations, medical procedures such as plastic surgery and cosmetic surgeries majorly focused on youths who had serious body injuries that disfigured their faces (Twenge, Miller & Campbell, 2014).

However, today, as young as 20-year-old people have made plastic and cosmetic surgery a common and walk in the medical procedure in their search for making a perfect life and body image. Other extreme behaviors include the hiring of fake paparazzi to follow an individual who is attempting to demonstrate counterfeit fame (Twenge & Campbell, 2009). In addition, young people are posting violent videos that feature them in fights or beating their friends and viewing such behavior as exciting.

However, whether such conduct becomes a trend is a major issue of discussion in this paper. From a tender age, young people are increasingly brought in an environment that promotes entitlement. Parents who are an important part of a child from the start are increasingly pampering their children into entitlement egoistic behavior (Twenge et al., 2014).

Children are being raised, believing that they are young princesses and princes. This situation breeds extreme egos and narcissistic behaviors, which are marked by high intolerance for criticism or opposing opinions.

Increasing research shows that narcissist behavior has reached epidemic levels. Psychologists Twnege and Campbell (2009) carried one of the researches in where they studied 37,000 students. They concluded that narcissist behaviors had risen drastically over the years. According to the study, narcissist behaviors have risen as quickly as the obesity cases since the 1980s (Twenge & Campbell, 2009). This situation is a cause for alarm.

The study asserts that social networking platforms such as Facebook, Google Plus, Twitter, Pinterest, and Foursquare, among others, have only expanded the reach of the young people and, consequently, faster growth of narcissism to reach epidemic levels (Feldman, 2014). The research found that more women are scoring higher on traits, which are naturally masculine. This finding indicates the rising egos and aggressive actions, and hence the rising narcissist behaviors among the female gender.

A study by Holtzman et al. (2010) titled, Sounds like a Narcissist: Behavioral Manifestations of Narcissism in Everyday Life, the researchers investigate how narcissism is manifested in everyday life. According to the research, the scope of narcissism behavior is increasing as time moves by.

However, one of the most defining aspects of narcissists is their increasing extraverted conduct and less agreeable performance in relation to non-narcissists. Further, there are high levels of sexual language usage among narcissists and high tendencies for controlling self-esteem issues. The research supports the observation of the increasing tendencies of young adults to feel more valuable relative to others and their disregard of others as expressed through their highly intolerable self-centered behaviors.

From an early age, young people are growing up with a feeling that being the alpha, the controlling individual, or the one who is above the rest can give happiness. This feeling reveals their desire to ensure that they achieve such a flawed image at all costs. This move has led to extreme behavior manifestations of everyday life.

Sexual language usage correlates with the increasing depiction of sexual content on the media, which has acted to make such behavior normal. It is not surprising to hear young people cursing or expressing highly sexualized opinions to feel contented. This tendency is slowly drifting towards narcissist behavior as the new normal.

One of the most used platforms in todays socially networked world is Facebook. Many researches that investigate the expression of narcissist behavior on the social network have focused on Facebook, which is the worlds largest social network site. Research by Ryan and Xenos (2011) titled, Who uses Facebook? An into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage, the authors investigate the impact of the site on sociality.

The study examines the personality influences of Facebook users on non-users. The study finds that active users of Facebook are highly extraverted as compared to non-users. Further, the users are increasingly drifting towards the expression of affluence and non-tolerance for others and hence, higher narcissist behaviors.

The findings of the research support my position that indeed narcissism is on the rise and that social media sites have the next frontier through which young adults will express their narcissist behaviors. Through social media, people can afford to be extroverts without leaving the comfort of their homes or private spaces. Such a situation is slowly aggravating their intolerance for others.

However, not everyone agrees with the opinion that the above researchers have provided in support of the increased narcissism. Indeed, to other commentators such as Holtzman et al. (2010), the researchers are largely misleading since they have used the wrong approaches to studying narcissist behaviors and/or have misinterpreted the findings to indicate narcissism wrongly. Indeed, the feeling of entitlement and aggressive behaviors has been in existence for as long as civilization has been in place.

The developed social classes have fueled narcissism. On the other hand, the advent of social media does not influence behaviors. Instead, such behavior is just like a mirror that reflects the prevailing behaviors of society. In this case, social media has brought to the front and to the public knowledge issues that characterize young people. Overall, my position is that narcissism is on the rise and that young adults are expressing it in many ways, which include flashy lifestyles, extroversion, and highly egoistic behaviors that portray individuals who have high feelings of entitlement and self-worth.

Conclusion

Narcissism is indeed an epidemic as more and more young adults express highly self-centered behaviors in the quest for supporting their highly egocentric behaviors. The narcissist behaviors include the desire and ability to do whatever it is possible to show affluent lifestyles and the general intolerance for other people due to self-centeredness. The social media platforms have acted to aggravate the situation to epidemic proportions.

Reference List

Feldman, R. (2014). Life Span Development: A Topical Approach. Amherst, MA: Prentice Hall.

Guest, A. (2013). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Lifespan Development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Holtzman, N., Vazire, S., & Mehl, M. (2010). Sounds like a narcissist: Behavioral manifestations of narcissism in everyday life. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(4), 478-484.

Mitchell, J., Jones, M., Turner, A., Shattuck, A., & Wolak, J. (2015). The Role of Technology in Peer Harassment: Does It Amplify Harm for Youth?. American Psychological Association, 1(1), 1-12.

Ryan, T., & Xenos, S. (2011). Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1658-1664.

Twenge, J., & Campbell, W. (2009). The narcissism epidemic: Living in the age of entitlement. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

Twenge, J., Miller, J., & Campbell, W. (2014). The narcissism epidemic: Commentary on Modernity and narcissistic personality disorder. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research and Treatment, 5(2), 227-229.

Narcissists frequently seek out leadership roles and are picked for them by others. They achieve this by acting in their interests and endangering the requirements and interests of others. Although there are theoretical reasons why narcissism and leadership are related, it is still being determined if narcissism in leaders is beneficial or harmful for organizations and their constituents. There are two aspects of narcissism: bright and dark. Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and selfishness, known as the dark triad of personality, are among the theories on the shadow side of organizations that have received the most attention in recent years. Although those who exhibit these qualities typically are not friendly in social situations, they are not interchangeable. A lack of empathy and manipulative behavior characterizes Machiavellianism. Combining thrill-seeking with a lack of regret is psychopathy.

However, the urge for self-affirmation is what narcissism is most motivated by. The narcissists persistent desire for ongoing external self-assertion seems driven by their grandiose yet fragile self-image. This is the paradox of narcissism: to sustain solid social ties over time, narcissists must have positive relationships with their surroundings but have little concern for other people. In other words, narcissists may not have malicious intent. However, as long as their demands for self-affirmation and outside approval are satisfied, they are unaware of the well-being of others.

I have encountered a situation where I was encouraged to violate work and professional ethics. When my manager received a letter from his superiors about the necessary reduction in staff, he did not know what to do. The manager asked me to lie in my employee mailing list so that people would not suspect that the layoffs were coming soon. He wanted employees to describe what they didnt like about their co-workers, and then the manager wanted to fire someone whom the majority of the team would be against them. Moreover, he was going to fire this person not because of a staff reduction but to indicate why he was in conflict at the workplace. He thought that firing an unpopular person would get the teams approval. It was selfish and cruel of him, but more than that, unethical. I refused this and contacted the companys ethics department regarding this incident. I had no other choice because, as a junior manager, I will always choose the team and practical work over the personal fears and selfishness of the authorities.

Schumacher creates multiple valid arguments against the self-esteem movement and explains the negative effects that narcissism can have not only on individuals, but on society as a whole. In supporting the essay that narcissism creates negative individual and social outcomes, Schumacher cites multiple studies, theories, and facts. The author creates a valid and compelling argument against today’s narcissistic Western culture.

The first article explains the dramatic extent of today’s focus toward narcissism and a feel-good culture, which has been dubbed ‘the self-esteem movement’. examples of the happiness in modern Western culture unfold in the context of individualism where we are self satisfied with our own life and to be worthwhile and have no string attached.

Self-esteem movement contributing to narcissism, including a woman jogging through a park with a ‘love yourself’ t-shirt (p86); a school pasting banners on its bathroom mirrors stating that the children were “one of the most special people in the world” (p 86); and people turning to mass media to have some type of widespread recognition (p 88).

The reason for the self-esteem movement is that it been has been thought of as critical for success in life, which is why so many schools have been driving self-esteem in their students. However, this is not true. Schumacher cites several studies that have refuted this theory. Unusually high self-esteem has been identified as not giving people an edge in social skills or interpersonal relationships; instead, high self-esteem which has been linked to increased acts of bullying, aggression, hostility, bragging, being opinionated, and interrupting others (p87).

Schumacher argues that the most damaging aspect of the self-esteem movement is that it promotes narcissism, which is even more damaging than having unusually high self-esteem. The author calls narcissism “unwarranted happiness” that is unwarranted and not based on anything substantial (p 87). Narcissism leads to a person becoming shallower and losing the capacity to care for other people. In addition, narcissists feed into consumer culture with the opinion that they deserve things due to their entitlement (p 88).

Traits of narcissism are also compared to traits of sociopaths. Narcissists, like sociopaths, do not experience guilt at the same level as most people do. Because of this, they are more prone to sin. However, a narcissist does not consider sins against others to be significant. Instead, the greatest sin to a narcissist is depriving himself of what is needed for satisfaction (p89). Narcissism also destroys relationships. Schumacher argues that narcissistic people are frustrated easily, and that this can lead to changes in behaviors that harm interpersonal interactions, including hostility and approval-seeking (p 89).

However, Schumacher’s article is not without fault. At times, it makes arguments with limited basis. For example, the author states a strong opinion: “Societies that generate narcissism among their members are dysfunctional ones that have lost sight of the reciprocal nature of human happiness” (p 89). This argument is based solely on the myth of Narcissus as well as the author’s personal opinion, which has been established throughout the article. However, this is a strong opinion that may need additional factual information to be stated appropriately.

Overall the essay creates a valid argument against the self-esteem movement, primarily because it supports narcissistic tendencies and behavior. Although many think that self-esteem drives happiness and success, too much self-esteem leads to negative effects, including narcissistic behavior. Author John Schumacher warns that within the self-esteem movement, one must be careful to not fuel one’s own self-esteem to the point that it becomes narcissistic. He makes his argument against narcissism fueled by the self-esteem movement effectively and on a generally factual basis. I will highly recommend this book to everyone to read

INTRODUCTION

Aims and objective

The main objective of the project is to make a research report on narcissism. The report will explain the methodology used by researchers on the bright and dark side of narcissism. However, the research will contain an estimation of the methods chosen the background of the research report, a discussion of the discoveries, and the conclusion reached through the project.

The project will demonstrate the positive impact of narcissism and the reflection of narcissistic personality through social media and modern society. Narcissism results in either positivity or negativity in society.

The objective of this research report is to identify the characteristics and impacts of narcissism and how it affects different people. The main discoveries are present and discussed in the four part of the research report.

Background information

Narcissism is characterized as a structure with diverse faces for different purposes, which are presented varying on the situational assessment. Narcissism is a word used to describe someone arrogant, self-enhancing, selfish and egotistical, shameless, and self-regarding. The narcissist believe that is always smarter and better than others. Narcissist is often described as a toxic person, which should be avoided by society. Since the advancement of sound systems to identify the narcissistic were temperament in the early 1970s, researchers have discovered great deal about the impacts of narcissism. Narcissists tend to use others primarily trying to achieve their goals. They can make a positive impression, and other people usually find them attractive and appealing. Narcissism is a quite strange subject to be understand since narcissists face difficulties when maintaining a healthy and strong social relationship. Additionally, there are two forms of narcissism – grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. According to different research practices, the vulnerable narcissism has been often identified as clinical narcissism because of its inter- and intra-personally ruthless behavior. Shyness, low self-esteem, anxiety, introversion, defensiveness, hypersensitivity, and tendency for depression boost clinical narcissism. The major characteristics of vulnerable narcissism, as considered by the researchers, include mistrust, anxiety, dubious traits, depression, and neuroticism. However, grandiose narcissism was often recognized as subclinical since it involves comparisons that are both positive – high self-esteem, assertiveness, self-efficacy and extraversion, and negative – antagonism, entitlement, dominance, and aggressiveness. The description of researcher ratings shows that the major characteristics of grandiose narcissism include antisocialism, entitlement, exhibitionism, and manipulation. The self-admiration of a grandiose narcissist is high, while weak narcissists have low and fragile self-respect. The scholars were intended to test the hypothesis that narcissism has both a bright and dark side.

Specifically, the hypotheses were:

• H1. The negative impacts of being a narcissist
• H2. Healthy or positive impacts of narcissism
• H3. reflection of a narcissistic personality through modern society and social media

This figure shows how the extreme self-confidence, self-love, looking for approvals through social media (for example more likes on Instagram or Facebook photos), can lead a person to become a narcissist.

THE CURRENT STUDY

Methodology

The correct method of identifying and analyzing the positive and negative impacts of narcissism varies according to many factors. An online survey is done by researchers to identify the bright and dark side of narcissism. People responded to the research were instructed to a set of self-report questionnaires. Additionally, the scholars applied analyses to discover that the increased use of social networking site is connected with narcissism.

The research tools used

In this phase, the researcher planned and came up with the following sources:

• Narcissism was identified as a self-report. Researches that collected observer’s reports or group narcissism from pathetic behavior was excluded.
• The research analyzed social networking styles such as frequencies (postings), durations (time of usage in a day), intensity ratings (Facebook Intensity scale) or text lengths.
• Participants were inculcated in how to use the network application to submit records about their behavior and mood. A survey was done to identify the increased use of social media was organized and involved of two parts. The first one contained questions evaluating the time spent by individuals on social media. In contrast, the other part contained questions in which participants’ rate their degree to which they admit with the statements.
• Theoretical expressions of personality disorder traits were included as a variates to regulate general personality disorder and to separate the specific impacts of narcissism.

Problems encountered and the approach to overcome them

The scientists faced various problems when conducting the research. They did not get enough information as members recorded unclear information while others failed to take part of the research. The researcher can overcome the problems by applying a different method of identifying positivity and negativity.

How successful the research has been

The research has been successful because most participants answered the question openly. None of the participants was forced to join in the self-report questionnaires. The young aged population recorded more precise information on their social media use, than the older. To some point, the observers are important role in the research by recording clear data of their applicants.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

It is wrong to be narcissists as they use other people as extensions for self-gain. They make decisions on behalf of others to suit ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬their needs, not considering the impacts of their actions. For instance, they may use a friend to meet self needs, cover-up self-perceived flaws, or fulfil dreams. They believe they are more superior to others and can do anything, whether good or bad, without excuse to anyone. This practice of under-criticism pushes narcissism people to believe that they are free for special treatment and deserve the greater privilege more than “normal people”. Some enjoy causing pain on others and will go out of their way to make others lower and suffer. Furthermore, a narcissist has no interest for other people’s sensations and feelings. A narcissist enjoys spreading negative emotions to get people’s attention, feel powerful, and keep you feeling insecure (Back et al., 2013). Their weak self-esteem may result in conflicts between people who are quick to anger. During a disagreement, as soon as a narcissist starts to feel bad, he is likely to blame whomever he is with for the discomfort. They rush in making a quick decision that later affects them both physically and emotionally. However, they become depressed, and the solution to their problem is ending up committing suicide or can cause serious mental illness such as psychopathy.

The researcher observed that narcissism has both healthy and positive impacts. Narcissists have high self- esteem that makes them to appear stronger. Obvious narcissism people, for instance, the NPI are typical linked with higher self- esteem. This may, therefore, be identified as a mental-health insinuation of narcissism. In other words, narcissists appear healthy because they believe in themselves and don’t care about other people’s compliments about them, which in one point can be good. They never get depressed so easily because they do not allow less narcissistic people to be part of their circle (Kerig & Sink, 2010). From the self-report questionnaires, most of the narcissists have levels of life satisfaction, and it is very hard for them to be stressed by fake beliefs about their living. Additionally, the study suggests that narcissism can be developed by a combination of low expressive reactivity and high levels of a healthy life. Narcissistic people are easily recognizable due to their self-care. After participants completed a measure of narcissism, it was taken pictures of them, and observers were asked to rate if they see any narcissistic elements. Observers’ ratings of the photographs were positively connected with the research scores, suggesting that findings on the photos of narcissism can be comparatively precise (Kerig & Sink, 2010). Number of signs were surely associated with participant’s ratings, such as trendy and expensive outfits, a presence that shows proper preparation and attraction. Signs designating narcissism in men included being muscular, and, in women, the wearing of makeup helped observers to perceive narcissism. Definitely it seems that narcissists may change their appearances to match their objectives. Regular physical exercises are important to boost health behaviors, keeping people both physically and mentally stable. Narcissism was found to be related with increased levels of reported physical activities to the extent that men want to appear muscular and fit. Most participants supported positive narcissism as their behavior implied more on their social well-being posture when recording answers on the self-report questionnaires show that they have excellent communication skills.

Social media sites such as Twitter or Facebook have developed a significant part of the lives of millions of users internationally. The author argues that extensive of social networking sites is linked to users’ narcissism and that modern society mirrors narcissistic desires. Equally, the emergence and boundary circumstances of the relationship between the use of social networking sites and narcissism are a matter of organizing a debate. Perhaps, modern social impacts are considered to play a significant role in the improvement and maintenance of a narcissistic personality. Current studies that related narcissism in various regions recommends that narcissism is more widespread in Western cultures than in Eastern cultures (Gnambs & Appel, 2018). Findings show that the differences in these regions have been linked to the widespread social media culture, which reflect to narcissism. People who typically high on every characteristic can show similar social media sites behaviors. Social contrast is either rising or falling. Individual compares herself or himself to other people which they observe as better, and in the latter comparison, an individual relates himself or herself to people they observe as poorer. Data from international researches suggest that around 80% of internet users in the UK use social media. Additionally, Facebook is a field that supports narcissistic behaviour.

Social media users have the power to share their self-related information to many people and get feedback about others. The research on the link between social media use and narcissism indicates that users grandiose narcissism is related to the level of their social relationship. Narcissism is strongly associated with the number of social media friends and behavior calculated at self-presentations. Some researchers identified a rise in narcissism across a particular period, but others identified little fuel for generational deviancies in narcissism. Narcissism is strongly connected with behaviors emerging on self-demonstrations such as uploading photos and posting status. However, social media provides a increase from religious, societal, or legal customs (Gnambs & Appel, 2018). Some cultures that usually have limit gender contacts, promote open communication between women and men. About two-thirds of adults in the UK are using social media regularly. From analysis findings, narcissism was most predictive on Twitter and Face book. The relationships do not fluctuate with gender balance or participant’s age.

CONCLUSION

Narcissists are very charming and have a friendly attitude when they are communicate with other people. If someone accomplishes their desire and gives them enough attention, their relationships will never fade. Most of the narcissists are self- focused. They never change their objectives even if any barrier attacks their plan. They have a persistent attitude towards what is good and with benefits in their lives and cannot give up before they accomplish their purpose. Additionally, narcissists are most concerned with their well-being and they do not interrupt on other people’s plans. Narcissists with high self-esteem are always feeling good and never blame themselves over confused tasks, unlike normal people. Narcissists continually appreciate their effort and hard work.

Narcissism forms a big part of our everyday life and this desire to admire oneself and one’s physical appearance has been a theme in art for centuries. Art work has been inspired or influenced by the theme of narcissism in a range of different ways. The dictionary definition of narcissism is as, “excessive interest in or admiration of oneself and one’s physical appearance” (Oxford Dictionary 2010). We live in a very self-centered world, where narcissism has become more prevalent, especially within the ‘selfie’ culture of our society. With the rise of popularity of many social media platforms, physical appearance has become a priority for many as they strive towards perfection. When did we become so self-obsessed? Perhaps it is due to the rise in popularity of selfies: “A photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media” (Oxford Dictionary 2010). The portrayal of narcissism within the art community has changed as artists now have a wider variety of mediums and resources to use. This essay is comprised of two parts and focuses on my fascination with the mythological story of Narcissus and the psychology behind the use of selfies in modern art. Is using yourself as the subject for art a narcissistic trait? Or is using yourself as the subject more familiarity and accessibility?

Several artists have interpreted Ovid’s myth of Narcissus into painting. The myth of Narcissus is about a young man, son of the river God Cephisus and nymph Lyripe who was desired by both men and women for his beauty. Narcissus continuously rejected them all without any remorse. One day, whilst on a hunt, he rests by a spring and falls in love with his own reflection. Spending timeless days and nights sat by it before wasting away and becoming a beautiful Daffodil, the genus of which is “Narcissus” (Oxford Dictionary 2010). The pale flower is still reflected in the water. This obsession with his own reflection is where the term narcissism derives. Mythology has always formed part of human life and been a subject of study for millenniums, thus implying the importance of such stories and the morality conveyed through them. The first part of this essay will scrutinise three paintings by three different artists who took inspiration from the myth of Narcissus. The paintings were created in different time periods, within different movements, ranging over a span of several centuries. Comparisons will be made between the interpretations of the depiction of the story of Narcissus in the works by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, John William Waterhouse and Salvador Dali. Through analysing these works, looking for similarities and differences, an understanding of the artists’ perspectives of the myth will be gained. Considering the artists’ choice of techniques and their decisions about the composition will be analysed in order to understand the perspective of the artists. The second part of the essay will comprise of an exploration into the work of the contemporary artist Tracey Emin and discuss whether she takes a narcissistic approach to her practice through being the subject of many of her artworks.

Comparing Works Depicting the Mythological Figure: Narcissus

Caravaggio, Waterhouse and Dali’s interpretations were inspired by Ovid’s, Metamorphoses 3.5, which is a narrative Latin poem written by Ovid 8 AD. The contrast in style within each painting, Narcissus (1597-1599), Echo and Narcissus (1903), and the Metamorphosis of Narcissus (1937), demonstrate completely different interpretations of the popular myth. However, if we focus on the main elements such as the depiction of the youth, his surroundings and his reflection within the body of water within the three paintings the similarities come into view.

It could be suggested that, Caravaggio’s interpretation of the myth is more simplistic than other paintings of the myth. The Italian painter stays true to his Baroque style in a variety of ways. In this medium sized oil painting, the painter uses cool tones of blues and greens to emphasise a sense of drama and melancholy, which he is trying to convey. He uses a technique called tenebrism from the Italian word ‘tenebroso’, which is a style of painting that employs dramatic illumination with strong contrasts between light and dark. In this case, this technique is also employed to add drama and bring into focus all the viewer’s attention on the figure of Narcissus. The composition is divided into two halves, with the lower section being the reflection in the water. Caravaggio adds a higher saturation to the upper half of the painting in order to attract the viewer’s attention to the face of Narcissus. The eye is then guided down the painting, due to the figures arm, to uncover his reflection. This is showcased by an idea presented by Cahill (2018), “Narcissus’s forearms form a circular framework with his reflection, underscoring the vicious cycle of his self-love. He dips his left hand into the water and seems about to embrace his image, his longing palpable.” A sense of melancholy is manifested due the use of such contrast between the background and the figure itself. As the majority of the canvas is black it creates a void-like sense of depth, which conveys the emptiness which Narcissus is feeling on the inside. Caravaggio’s use of these compositional devices highlights the theme of narcissism within his painting. Nothing other than the man leaning over the water is important in this image, the subject matter is only that of Narcissus and his reflection.

The English painter Waterhouse is the only artist in this trio of paintings who adds the nymph Echo. Wistfully, she watches Narcissus fulfil the prophecy of the myth: he falls in love with his own reflection and she is unsuccessful in gaining his attention away from himself. In comparison to the other two artists, Waterhouse did not seek alternate means of expression, and instead adhered to strict classical themes and techniques. Mentioned in an article by the ‘galleryintell’ (2014): “Waterhouse used the medium simply to retell the well-loved stories” thus staying true to his Victorian style. Similar to Caravaggio’s work, there is a clear sense of melancholy created in this painting. This mood also expresses the devastating moment where Narcissus can’t see anything other than his own reflection. Every component of this painting revolves around Narcissus. The nymph Echo, who is madly in love with Narcissus, is deeply gazing at him which brings the viewer’s attention to the male figure. The painter added a variety of rich and textured colours, such as a soft rose, lush greens, golds and blues. These pastel tones convey a fairy-tale like mood which adds to the mythological subject matter. The vibrancy adds a layer of fantasy to the oeuvre. The use of green in this painting conveys a sense of harmony, security and balance, even though the situation in which Narcissus is in is completely the opposite. The pale pink and red coloured drapes, that both Narcissus and Echo are wearing, complement and contrast with the green very well. In this case, the red cloth that Narcissus is wearing implies a sense of danger, or threat and also brings emphasis to his figure, successfully attracting all the viewer’s attention on Narcissus. Contrary to other artists who experimented to create new interesting pieces, Waterhouse employs a palette of soft colours along with a high level of realism in order to faithfully portray the myth.“Echo and Narcissus”, 1903, John William Waterhouse (1849 – 1917)

In contrast, Dali has a more chaotic response to the myth. Known as the Surrealist master, the Spanish painter exhibits an artwork which owes little to the story as narrated by Ovid. This medium sized oil painting presenting a fantastic barren landscape lit with strong light has nothing in common with the, “hidden spot in the dark woods” described by Ovid (8 AD). The pool in Dalí’s painting is far from the crystal silvery spring of fresh water but seems more like a part of a lake; its water is strangely still and sinister. The nymph Echo does not appear in the scene nor do other nymphs mentioned by Ovid. Narcissus is not depicted as a youth whose charm attracted both girls and boys as portrayed in Ovid’s verses. Moreover, Dali introduces several elements that aren’t present in the traditional iconography of Narcissus: the fossil with an egg in the foreground, the chessboard and a group of agitated women and men. Dali accomplishes a link between the traditional Greek myth and his own interest in psychoanalysis, making him stay very true to his own style.“Metamorphosis of Narcissus”, 1937, Salvador Dali (1904 – 1989)

Although Dali doesn’t include Echo within his painting, as Waterhouse has, he does paint three figures of Narcissus within the upper half of the painting. It is almost as if the painting could be split into two. Each half represents the ‘before and after’ of Narcissus’ transformation into the flower, which can be seen on the right side of the painting. Dali also uses a variety of contrasting tones to highlight the two main figures, but the background is more vivid and busy than in any of the paintings we have previously analysed. This emphasises the fact that Narcissus is at a loss; for when sitting over his reflection he sees nothing around, he is unaware of the many hearts that he has broken. These can be seen standing in a close group in the background. These naked female figures are an important part of the composition as the artist has placed them in the centre of the painting. Their vertical pose compliments the two main verticals of Narcissus in the foreground. Dali uses a variety of tones ranging from earthy browns to light blues, greens and vivid reds. On the left half of the painting, Narcissus is leaning over the water and is surrounded by a humongous red cloud which guides the viewer’s eye directly to that side of the painting and onto the figure of Narcissus. His light and saturated body contrasts with the darker background and further emphasises his presence.

In almost all three paintings, the emphasis is not Narcissus’s reflection, but on the figure himself. It could be suggested that this highlights the insignificance of such vanity. In Caravaggio and Waterhouse’s paintings the viewer is shown an unhappy face of Narcissus. This supports the idea of how narcissism can overpower a person and how one can lose their main focus and goal. Narcissus may have thought that staring at the reflection of himself was the happiest he would be, but that wasn’t true, and the paintings bring this to light. Although all three artists have a different interpretation of the general myth, their representation of it and its effects are similar. In all three paintings, Narcissus is the main subject matter, again highlighting the idea of narcissism and the obsession with oneself. The depth created by the artists in all three works, especially in the water, makes us feel as if we could fall in just like Narcissus fell in love with his reflection.

Evidently, the artists have each adapted the myth into their own style, which is also dependent on their time period. Over time, we are able to see that Dali, for instance has swayed the most from the original story and that Caravaggio, stayed true to his Baroque style which is known for dramatizing scenes using chiaroscuro light effects whilst keeping a realistic approach to the human figure. However, all three artists decided to interpret the myth of Narcissus, which highlights its relevance over several centuries. As our view of the world keeps changing, the interpretations of myths might become more abstract and due to the increasing options of technology and materials that one is able to use, the myth of Narcissus might become barely recognisable, yet it will still for a part of certain art-works.

Selfie Culture and Modern-Day Narcissism

I am interested to consider how narcissism has a place in contemporary art. Even though selfies have become popular since the 2000s with the rise of the camera phone, the first documented selfie was taken in 1839 by an American photographer, Robert Cornelius and since then it has been used as a medium of self-expression, capturing uncharacteristically personal insights into otherwise conservative individuals. I want to consider how artists have employed the phone camera in order to express their feelings and emotions. As well as this I want to consider if selfies are the modern way of illustrating narcissism or whether they are simply evidence of self-exploration? In order to investigate the second part of my essay I analyse some of the self-portraiture of the contemporary artist Tracey Emin. 1839, Robert Cornelius (1809 – 1893)

Tracey Emin explores portraiture, using herself as her subject in many aspects of her work. One aspect is a body of work created in 2005 which consists of an enlarged polaroid snapshots conveying intimacy, exposure and rawness. In her interview with the Belfast Telegraph (2008), she goes on to admit, ‘all the works are? About me and my experiences”. It is interesting to consider whether it is brave of Emin to reveal so much of herself to the public or whether he work can be classed as being narcissistic.

Emin has produced a variety of artworks across a range of materials and techniques but it her selfies which are the most applicable. Generally, selfies show the person’s face, although in the case of “Self-Portrait 12-11-01(2005)” the face has been cropped out of the photo, leaving us to see Emin’s chin, mouth and chest. The main element of the image is her exposed chest and an array of gold necklaces and beads. These elements are both associated with sexuality, money and fame. Influenced by today’s media, people have become more and more self-conscious of their physical appearance. On one side, this photo completely supports the idea of insecurity and vulnerability as Emin is not showing her face, which enables the viewer to perceive the artist in a more realistic way. On the other hand, this photo in itself is an oxymoron as although her face isn’t exposed, her body is, supporting the idea that when presenting a photograph of oneself, one is able to manipulate it to only show the parts of themselves that they are comfortable with, suggesting that it could all be part of a narcissistic act. However, in an article by Alididh Maclean (2016), Emin goes on to admit: “I’ve always had a thing about my body, always not felt good about it. The happiest I am is the thinnest I can be,” which highlights the idea that the “naked body” that “is the subject of much of her own work, acts as a vehicle in which to consider the effects of time and the human ageing process.” Maclean (2016).“Self-Portrait 12-11-01”, 2005, Tracey Emin (1963-Present)

The lighting in this photo makes the body the main element, creating very dark shadows around it, which creates a similar effect to Caravaggio’s technique: ‘tenebroso’. This contrasts with the oversaturated focal point of this photo which in this case is Tracey Emin, which also takes up most of the square polaroid with little to no background. Furthermore, supporting the idea of credibility of importance and being the main element under the spotlight.

Sitting on a rust red floor in a low-cut Vivienne Westwood dress, legs splayed, Emin attempts to gather a pile of British currency that seems to spew uncontrollably from her loins. The title of this photo, “I’ve Got it All (2005)” contributes to the idea of power, superiority and therefore narcissism.

There are a lot of aspects within this photo which are crucial to analyse. Firstly, the position of the artist right in the middle of the photograph creates an idea of self-absorption, as previously explored, the idea of being the centre of the painting is what artists used to represent Narcissus. Emin forms a triangle shape which rests on a solid base which, according to Hugh Rees (2014) is often associated with, “stability, power, direction and energy”. In, “The Triangle in Visual Art” by Hugh Rees (2014) he presents the idea that: “Symbolically the triangle can represent a spiritual hierarchy, particularly in Christianity where the Trinity is depicted in three points of significance.” This could suggest that the artist thought of herself as someone of significance, a celebrity which is an indication of certain narcissistic personality traits.“I’ve got it All”, Tracey Emin (1963-Present)

Looking at a more obscure aspect of the photo, as described in, The Art Story (Tracey Emin Artworks), “Emin sits in front of the camera with her head down and her legs apart. A pile of money (notes and coins) sits between her legs and she seems to be clutching the money to her groin.” There are several interpretations to this photograph including, “This photograph suggests both that she is celebrating her success, and also that she is somehow overwhelmed by it”. Exposing the reality of the artist which even though is in a position of power, she feels adored and confident. She is also overwhelmed and vulnerable, suggesting that fame and money don’t truly bring you happiness. Supporting the idea that it is only truly filling a void which in this case is money and in Narcissus’ case was him looking at his reflection.

Emin has been described as one of the most controversial artists of our time. The artist is willing to expose themselves and get more involved within their art, which adds more personality to it and makes the public have a more personal connection to the artist. She touches on topics such as self-absorption, fame and everything that comes with it. Her work in the words of McGrath (2002), “is comfortingly dangerous. It is at one and the same time subversive and conservative”. This aspect could highlight a certain degree of narcissism within her work, as by being a celebrity and being such an influence on a lot of people, making the most out of the ordinary art might be your best resource to get into someone’s head and stay there, leaving them to wonder what it all means. Through analysing this work, it could be suggested that narcissism can not only affect ones-self, but it could also have an impact on your audience as you leave them wondering about your latest creations.

According to an article by Pamela B. Rutledge Ph.D. (2013), there are two ways in which people interpret selfies one of which considers them, “proof of cultural or at least generational narcissism and moral decline”, whilst the other refers to them as a, “by-product of technology-enabled self-exploration”. On one hand, selfies are associated with narcissism because they enable the person taking the selfie to be in complete control of the image one projects. They will later on upload on social media in order to get approval or “likes” from others, which may boost their ego. As stated by Megan Rogers (2013) the problem with selfies is that, “users cultivate so much of their time, effort and even money to maintain their pleasing and attractive online image”, which in itself is associated with narcissism as willing to spend a prolonged amount of time and money on one’s physical appearance is considered narcissistic. People are always going to upload photos of them looking their best, which sets unrealistic standards in society. Although the bigger problem is, “what you think of yourself does not matter and you start doing things that other people will like. It might lead to selfie addiction and narcissism” Rogers (2013). People may start losing their sense of self, measuring their self-worth in likes and becoming too fixed on the details that aren’t that significant. In a way this can be used as a modern example of the myth of Narcissus, as he spent day and night sat by the pool of water staring at his reflection with no awareness of anything around him.

On the other hand, Rutledge (2016) claims that being preoccupied with oneself is as old as mankind, whilst stating several reasons why selfies and narcissism have no correlation. The first one being”, selfies can be more about the context than the self”, which is something often explored by artists whom wish to employ technological resources. Selfies show facets of other people and enable us to learn about them and they don’t always seek validation. Most importantly, Rutledge (2016) points out that “selfies can be normalizing” as for many years people have been concerned about the quantity of images setting unrealistic standards, but nowadays there are more photos of ‘real’ people across all social media platforms. This allows people to challenge their vanity and put their personality back into documentation. From this perspective selfies are seen as a way to celebrate oneself, which can still be considered narcissistic, if done frequently.

Throughout this essay, we have been able to investigate different depictions of narcissism and how it reveals itself in Western art through the representation of the myth and reflecting on how artist can be narcissistic in their depiction of themselves. It is fair to point out that our idea of narcissism and the way it is manifested in art has been developed over time and is different to what they thought decades ago and the representations were different, although there are still a few similarities which support the definition of narcissism we have nowadays. Self-obsession, being the centre of attention, not reacting to anything but yourself are all part of the criteria which are presented in art through different techniques such as ‘tenebroso’, colour theory, use of geometrical shapes and the overall composition of the artworks. Doesn’t everyone present these qualities at some point in their life? So really everyone is a narcissist in a way.

Bibliography

1. Metamorphoses by Ovid (8 AD), written 1 A.C.E. Translated by Sir Samuel Garth and John Dryden Oxford Dictionary of English (3 ed.), Oxford University Press, 2010
2. Havelock Ellis, Eonism and Other Supplementary Studies, 1928
3. James Cahill, Flying too Close to the Sun, PHAIDON, 2015
4. Salvador Dali, Metamorphosis of Narcissus, 1937
5. ‘galleryintell.com’, “Echo and Narcissus by John William Waterhouse” (2015) http://www.galleryintell.com/artex/echo-and-narcissus-by-john-waterhouse/
6. “The first ever selfie, taken in 1839 – a picture from the past”, Karin Andreasson (March 2014)
7. Belfast Telegraph, “Tracy Emin’s work crude and self-centred? That’s missing the point” (2008)
8. Ailidh Maclean “A guide to Tracey Emin, Britain’s art enfant terrible” (September 2016)
9. Hugh Rees, “The Triangle in Visual Art” (2014)
10. “The Art Story” (Tracey Emin Artworks) (https://www.theartstory.org/artist-emin-tracey.htm)
11. Melanie McGrath, Something’s wrong (2002).
12. Pamela B. Rutledge, PhD, “Exploring Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness and Well-Being”, October 2016
13. Megan Rogers, “It’s Not You, It’s Me: The Science Behind the Selfie”, December 2013

The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether there is any relationship between Narcissism and self-efficacy , to see if participant who score high on Narcissism also score high on Self efficacy. For the present investigate a sample of 60 were selected and is segregated into 3 age group , Adolescents ( 10M 10F) , Young Adulthood ( 10M 10F), Middle Adulthood ( 10M 10F). Correlation Analysis , t-test and ANOVA was done on the data. It was hypothesized that people having traits of Narcissism will not be high on Self efficacy . From the results obtained it is observed that there is a postitive significant correlation between Narcissism and self efficacy, which means people having narcissitic trait will be high on self efficacy. The results also show that there is no significant gender difference in the scores of Narcissism and Self- efficacy.

Introduction

Narcissism is the pursuit of gratification from vanity or egotistic admiration of one’s idealized self image and attributes. Narcissism is characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a lack of empathy for others, a need for excessive admiration, and the belief that one is unique and deserving of special treatment.

Narcissism is characterized by an inflated self-image and addiction to fantasy, by an unusual coolness and composure shaken only when the narcissistic confidence is threatened, and by the tendency to take others for granted or to exploit them. The disorder is named for the mythological figure Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection. ( Rhodewalt, F )

In 2008 psychologist Jean M. Twenge of San Diego State University and her colleagues found that narcissism scores have been climbing among American college students in the U.S. for the past few decades. Although the data are controversial, these scholars argue that we are living in an increasingly narcissistic culture. Some of the opprobrium heaped on narcissists is surely deserved. Yet research paints a more nuanced picture. Although narcissists can be difficult and at times insufferable, they can also make effective leaders and performers. Moreover, because virtually all of us share at least a few narcissistic traits, we may be able to learn something about ourselves from understanding them. Lilienfeld, S.O., Arkowitz, H. (2013)

On the other hand Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social environment. These cognitive self-evaluations influence all manner of human experience, including the goals for which people strive, the amount of energy expended toward goal achievement, and likelihood of attaining particular levels of behavioral performance. Unlike traditional psychological constructs, self-efficacy beliefs are hypothesized to vary depending on the domain of functioning and circumstances surrounding the occurrence of behavior. ( Carey, M.P., Forsyth, A.D )

Since Narcissism is all about excessive self love and belief that one is unique it is thought that people who are having Narcissism trait will be high on Self efficacy since they would have a high confidence in themselves that they have capacity or an ability to complete a certain tasks. If narcissism trait people only think about themselves and considers themselves to be in a need for admiration that means they will be very particular about completing their own tasks with a lot of confidence and perfectness.

But according to the only research conducted to investigate the relationship between Narcissism and Self efficacy titled The moderating role of Narcissism on the Reciprocal relationship between self- efficacy and performance,6(2), 199-214 by APA showed the result that when Narcissism was high, performance had no relationship with subsequent self efficacy. ( Beattie, S., Dempsey, C., Roberts ,R., Woodman, T., & Cooke, A., 2017 )

Our results indicate that people belonging to middle adulthood score more in self efficacy then other age groups, and this results follows the previous study that has been taken place on Age, Socioeconomic Status, and Exercise Self-Efficacy, which also shows us the results that individuals belonging to age group of 45 years to 65 years score more on self efficacy. Clark, D.O

Hypotheses

• H1 There will be no significant relationship between the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy
• H2 There will be no significant gender difference in the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy.+
• H3 There will be no significant difference in the score of narcissism and self efficacy among different age group.

Limitations

• Due to small sample size this findings cannot be generalized to the larger population
• The sample was only restricted to Mumbai City.
• Only educated respondents knowing English language participated in the study.
• Since google forms were used there is no way that participants’ mental and emotional state could not be assessed.

Conclusion

The results indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between Narcissism and Self efficacy, which indicates that an individual who score high on Narcissism will have a high score on Self efficacy. Middle Adulthoods individuals are high on elf efficacy, this may be because of more experience in life and maturity. And the results indicate that young adulthoods are high on narcissistic trait. There is no relationship between the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy of Males and Females.

Reference

1. Ames, D. R., Rose,P., and Anderson, C.P, ( 2013 ). The NPI- 16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 440 – 450 www.midss.org
2. Ames, D. R., Rose,P., and Anderson, C.P,(2013) https://www.statisticssolutions.com/narcissistic-personality-inventory-16-npi-16/
3. Beattie, S., Dempsey, C., Roberts, R., Woodman, T., & Cooke, A. (2017). The moderating role of narcissism on the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 6(2), 199–214. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/spy0000092
4. Carey, M.P., Forsyth, A.D https://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/self-efficacy
5. Clark, D.O .The Gerontologist Vol. 36, No. 2, 157 https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article-pdf/36/2/157/1522796/36-2-157.pdf
6. General Self-Efficacy Scale by Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995), www.midss.org
7. https://docplayer.net/29758118-The-npi-16-as-a-short-measure-of-narcissism.html
8. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism
9. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-13222-001
10. Lilienfeld, S.O., Arkowitz, H. (2013) https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/scott-o-lilienfeld/
11. Rhodewalt, F https://www.britannica.com/science/narcissism
12. Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995) https://www.statisticssolutions.com/general-self-efficacy-schwarzer-gses/

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether there is any relationship between Narcissism and self-efficacy, to see if participant who score high on Narcissism also score high on Self efficacy. For the present investigation a sample of 60 were selected and is segregated into 3 age group, Adolescents (10M 10F) , Young Adulthood ( 10M 10F), Middle Adulthood ( 10M 10F). Correlation Analysis, t-test and ANOVA was done on the data using Mega Stats. It was hypothesized that people having traits of Narcissism will not be high on Self efficacy. From the results obtained it is observed that there is a significant low positive correlation between Narcissism and self efficacy, which means people having narcissitic trait will be high on self efficacy. The results also show that there is no significant gender difference in the scores of Narcissism and Self- efficacy.

Introduction

One of the main reasons to conduct this research was because if we notice in this era where people are so much just into themselves and don’t care about others, individuals are so self-obsessed. It is not bad to self-love or being self-obsessed but it can be harmful if it exceeds a particular border, and we call this term as Narcissism. I wanted to know whether being narcissists or having high narcissistic traits can lead to any positive benefits to individuals, whether their performance towards their goals increases or do their self efficacy increases, and that’s when I started to look upon different journals and site to read about the relationship between Narcissism and self efficacy and that is when I found that till date that there has being only 1 research conducted on Narcissism and self efficacy and since that research was published in APA journal I could only read the abstract and didn’t have access to the whole research. And that’s when I decided to conduct the research on this topic.

Narcissism is the pursuit of gratification from vanity or egotistic admiration of one’s idealized self image and attributes. Narcissism is characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a lack of empathy for others, a need for excessive admiration, and the belief that one is unique and deserving of special treatment.

Narcissism is characterized by an inflated self-image and addiction to fantasy, by an unusual coolness and composure shaken only when the narcissistic confidence is threatened, and by the tendency to take others for granted or to exploit them. The disorder is named for the mythological figure Narcissus, who fell in love with his own reflection. ( Rhodewalt, F )

In 2008 psychologist Jean M. Twenge of San Diego State University and her colleagues found that narcissism scores have been climbing among American college students in the U.S. for the past few decades. Although the data are controversial, these scholars argue that we are living in an increasingly narcissistic culture. Some of the opprobrium heaped on narcissists is surely deserved. Yet research paints a more nuanced picture. Although narcissists can be difficult and at times insufferable, they can also make effective leaders and performers. Moreover, because virtually all of us share at least a few narcissistic traits, we may be able to learn something about ourselves from understanding them. Lilienfeld, S.O., Arkowitz, H. (2013)

One of the research by Grijalva, E., Newman, D. A., Tay, L., Donnellan, M. B., Harms, P. D., Robins, R. W., & Yan, T. (2015) , shows us the results that Men tend be more Narcissistic then women,

On the other hand Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social environment. These cognitive self-evaluations influence all manner of human experience, including the goals for which people strive, the amount of energy expended toward goal achievement, and likelihood of attaining particular levels of behavioral performance. Unlike traditional psychological constructs, self-efficacy beliefs are hypothesized to vary depending on the domain of functioning and circumstances surrounding the occurrence of behavior. ( Carey, M.P., Forsyth, A.D )

Since Narcissism is all about excessive self love and belief that one is unique it is thought that people who are having Narcissism trait will be high on Self efficacy since they would have a high confidence in themselves that they have capacity or an ability to complete a certain tasks. If narcissism trait people only think about themselves and considers themselves to be in a need for admiration that means they will be very particular about completing their own tasks with a lot of confidence and perfectness.

But according to the only research conducted to investigate the relationship between Narcissism and Self efficacy titled The moderating role of Narcissism on the Reciprocal relationship between self- efficacy and performance,6(2), 199-214 by APA showed the result that when Narcissism was high, performance had no relationship with subsequent self efficacy. (Beattie, S., Dempsey, C., Roberts ,R., Woodman, T., & Cooke, A., 2017 )

Our results indicate that people belonging to middle adulthood score more in self efficacy then other age groups, and this results follows the previous study that has been taken place on Age, Socioeconomic Status, and Exercise Self-Efficacy, which also shows us the results that individuals belonging to age group of 45 years to 65 years score more on self efficacy. Clark, D.O

Objectives of the study

To investigate the relationship between Narcissism and Self efficacy.

Hypotheses

• H1 There will be no significant relationship between the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy
• H2 There will be no significant gender difference in the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy.
• H3 There will be no significant difference in the score of narcissism and self efficacy among different age group.

Method

A total of 60 participants participated in the study. 60 participants were divided on the basis of their age i.e 20 adolescent ( age 12-20 years), 20 young adulthood ( age 21-40 years) and 20 middle adulthood ( 41-60 years). Each age group consisted of 10 males and 10 females as respondents. And all the participant are residents to Mumbai City.

Tools used

NPI- 16 Subclinical narcissism Ames, D.R., Rose, P., and Anderson, C.P (2013) The NPI- 16 items are drawn from across the dimension of Raksin and Teroy’s( 1985) 40 items measures. Ames, D. R., Rose,P., and Anderson, C.P, ( 2013 ) .The NPI- 16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 440 – 450. This scale has 16 pairs of statements and the participants has to select the sentences which comes closest to describing your feelings and belief about yourself. The question were like Choose from the either statement that comes closest describing you.

• I really like to be the center of attention
• It makes me uncomfortable to be the center of attention

The statement which is highlighted is the statement which carries 1 marks and and other statement carries 0 marks.

Score ranges from 0 to 16, with higher scores on the scale indicate a high level of narcissism trait.

Reliability and Validity- a= .72; mean inter-item correlation = .13; loadings on the unrotated factor ranged from .13 to .66 with the first factor capturing 19.99 percent of variance; correlated with the NPI-40 at r= .90 (p< .001)

General Self-Efficacy Scale

This scale is a self report measure of self efficacy. The test is developed by Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). There are total 10 items in this scale.The 10 items scale was created to assess a general sense of perceived self- efficacy. Each question is to be answered by putting a tick mark on any of the 1 option out of 4 .

Procedure

The data was collected by snow ball technique. Google forms of the scales were prepared and were sent to the individuals, who then were asked to forward it. The Google forms also consisted of the consent form . 60 participants (30 males and 30 females) answered the questionnaire online through Google forms.

Results

Descriptive method ( mean and standard deviation ) was calculated. Correlational co-efficient method was used to find the significant relationship between Narcissism and Self-efficacy. One way ANOVA was used to collect data on significant difference in Narcissism and Self efficacy among age groups. t-test was used to find gender differences in Narcissism and Self efficacy. Mega Stats was used to all calculate all of these Statistical tests. The aim of this research was to find if there is any relationship between narcissism and self efficacy.

The findings indicate that the mean score of Narcissism of people belonging to Young Adulthood is on a higher side when compared to Adolescents and Middle adulthood, which means that Young adulthood individuals are high on narcissistic trait when compared to others.

The findings for Self efficacy indicate that individuals who are in their middle adulthood are high on self efficacy followed by individuals on their Young adulthood and least of Adolescents.

The results indicate that there is a significant low positive relationship between narcissism and self efficacy, which means that people having high traits on Narcissism will be having high self efficacy.

The results indicate that there is no significant relationship between the scores of Narcissism and Self efficacy of Males and Females. This indicates that there is nothing such that male or female for specific will have high scores on Narcissism or Self efficacy.

Discussion

H1- The first hypothesis was to investige whether there is any relationship between narcissism and self efficacy and by the use of Pearson correlation matrix we found that there is a significant low Positive correlation. This can be because people high on Narcissism means that they are so engrossed in themselves, but this also results in, they very much having the ability to complete their work. (Refer Table 2)

H2- The second hypothesis was to find out whether there is any gender difference in the score of Narcissism and self efficacy. By using t-test we found that there is no significant relationship between the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy of males and females. Though theories and past research indicate that Men tend to be at a high risk to develop the traits of Narcissism. (refer Table 3)

H3- The third hypothesis was to see if there will be a significant difference in the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy among different age groups. With the help of ANOVA we came to know that mean score of Narcissism of people belonging to Young Adulthood is on a higher side when compared to Adolescents and Middle adulthood and for Self efficacy it indicates that individuals who are in their middle adulthood are high on self efficacy followed by individuals on their Young adulthood and least of Adolescents. (refer Table 1)

Limitations

1. Due to small sample size this findings cannot be generalized to the larger population
2. The sample was only restricted to Mumbai City.
3. Only educated respondents knowing English language participated in the study.
4. Since google forms were used there is no way that participants’ mental and emotional state could not be assessed.

Conclusion

The results indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between Narcissism and Self efficacy, which indicates that an individual who score high on Narcissism will have a high score on Self efficacy. Middle Adulthoods individuals are high on self efficacy this may be because of more experience in life and maturity. And the results indicate that young adulthoods are high on narcissistic trait. There is no relationship between the scores of Narcissism and self efficacy of Males and Females.

Reference

1. Ames, D. R., Rose,P., and Anderson, C.P, ( 2013 ). The NPI- 16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 440 – 450 www.midss.org
2. Ames, D. R., Rose,P., and Anderson, C.P,(2013) https://www.statisticssolutions.com/narcissistic-personality-inventory-16-npi-16/
3. Beattie, S., Dempsey, C., Roberts, R., Woodman, T., & Cooke, A. (2017). The moderating role of narcissism on the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and performance. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 6(2), 199–214. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/spy0000092
4. Carey, M.P., Forsyth, A.D https://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/self-efficacy
5. Clark, D.O .The Gerontologist Vol. 36, No. 2, 157 https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article-pdf/36/2/157/1522796/36-2-157.pdf
6. General Self-Efficacy Scale by Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995), www.midss.org
7. Grijalva, E., Newman, D. A., Tay, L., Donnellan, M. B., Harms, P. D., Robins, R. W., & Yan, T. (2015). Gender differences in narcissism: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 141(2), 261–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038231
8. https://docplayer.net/29758118-The-npi-16-as-a-short-measure-of-narcissism.html
9. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism
10. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-13222-001
11. Lilienfeld, S.O., Arkowitz, H. (2013) https://www.scientificamerican.com/author/scott-o-lilienfeld/
12. Rhodewalt, F https://www.britannica.com/science/narcissism
13. Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995) https://www.statisticssolutions.com/general-self-efficacy-schwarzer-gses/
14. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6398294/

As indicated by the American Psychiatric Association (2013), clinical narcissism includes grandness, self-center, and arrogance. A broad spotlight on oneself is clear in the meaning of sub clinical narcissism too; explicitly, sub-clinical narcissism includes continued actions to keep up bombastic self-view, elevated levels of confidence, and ridiculously positive convictions about oneself (Carey, et al, 2015). Narcissism is especially kind of the popular expression within recent memory. Furthermore, it is miserably misinterpreted. Narcissism is especially seen as a confusion of a kind of increased confidence and self-importance. Individuals with narcissism are regularly the most unreliable individuals in the room and they’ve built up a method for showing themselves as anything besides – that they frequently seem as though the most certain individual in the room yet there’s a vacancy there (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Absence of compassion, gaudiness, a constant feeling of privilege and an incessant need to search out appreciation from others and approval from others. Those make the center of that disorder. And after ward that is combined with this kind of weakness to manage confidence – that feeling of continually hawking quicker to get the respect of others. What’s more, has even been seen especially as a confusion of connection – that powerlessness to make profound, private, associated and phatic binds to another person (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

These delusions of grandeur, and the desire for the recognition of others in it, should not be surprising, nevertheless. Indeed, of these recurring traits, perhaps the one most worthy of additional circumspection is the desire for fame.) Write that from a psychoanalytic perspective, relating to or duplicating the conduct of respected others is an essential protection of narcissistic people. Typical mass shooters want to believe they are as aggressive, as militaristic, or as “badass,” if you will, as their weapon-wielding idols. Looking for popularity keeps narcissism flawless; achieving distinction, or the assurance that one will, is a compelling neutralizing agent venom to the steady danger of the person’s low confidence or sentiments of misery leaking through the flimsy skin of narcissistic reasoning and conduct (Meloy, Mohandie, Knoll, and Hoffmann (2015).

Narcissism is a problem in the modern world and it is growing as fast as the obesity or gun violence issues in America today. This term is not just an issue or flaw in someone’s personality, but a real disorder that can be diagnosed. Technology has become widespread and Generation Y has the heaviest use of social media, compared to previous generations. The use of social media causes millennials to be narcissistic.

Social networks mislead people to believe that they are mainly available for contact with friends. The truth is that their main function is self-promotion and marketing, only then followed by connections with friends. The whole idea of „social media” is used mercilessly by marketers who write guidebooks and articles about how great it is to be on Facebook or Instagram and promote a business, and how to create a profile to have the best friends, followers, or subscribers. Facebook understands this perfectly- it helps users create the best image of themselves. People carefully select a profile picture, choose a cover and try to show their friends how interesting they are. Most social media users likely spend more time looking at their own profiles, rather than at other people’s accounts.

It is not difficult to notice a profile that is evidently self-absorbed. Millennials have a constant need to be admired and have a big sense of self-importance. They seek approval from others in the form of likes or followers, at the same time being certain they deserve the attention. Photos more often present a person alone than with friends during various activities. The “About Me”, “Interests”, etc. fields are filled carefully as a shrine to one’s self. Exaggerating talents or achievements is common to appear more successful. Much time is spent creating posts that will receive a positive response from viewers. On the other hand, there are also users with low self-esteem for whom social media is a kind of therapy. The platforms serve them not only to attract attention but also to improve self-esteem. Such users, often with symptoms of depression, are able to feel better about themselves thanks to social networking and good self-presentation. Nonetheless, both types of users have narcissistic symptoms, like the need to be noticed and admired. They have to show themselves well, have the right number of friends, and update their statuses for the public.

The environment and time in which Generation Y has been raised have had an impact on their attitudes toward social media. Parents have told them as kids that they were special, could do anything they wanted, and that they deserved everything in the world. Parents admired them from a young age giving them a sense of superiority. Instead of raising their kids’ self-esteem, they raised them to be narcissists. They go on social media to get the admiration that they are used to already from a young age.

Millennials are considered the selfie generation. Its representatives constantly promote, or show, their lifestyle – sometimes a false one. This allows them to live in a fantasy world filled with success, power, and beauty. There is constantly taking and posting pictures of themselves. It is not difficult to find Instagram accounts on which young men and women boast about their new gadgets, luxury cars, and expensive food. Kylie Jenner is a famous 22-year-old billionaire, who has a page filled with flawless pictures mostly of herself, expensive cars, private jets, and promotional pictures of her makeup brand. She is a known example, but ordinary people do this just as frequently. People post heavily edited pictures to their social media in order to present themselves in the best way possible. Seeing perfect, curated images have a negative impact on young people who view them. It puts pressure to present themselves in such a way, leading to insecurities and self-esteem issues. It becomes an obsession to appear attractive or successful even though narcissists already believe that this is true. Narcissists online are almost demanding admiration from others, and they receive it- through likes, comments, and follows. This fuels their sense of importance, like a vicious cycle. Someone who is aware of their self-worth would not feel the need to emanate it in front of the whole world online.

Millennials are over-sensitive to criticism, which goes in pair with their need to be admired by others on social platforms. The issue here is that the feedback they want is the positive kind because they are overly sensitive to criticism. Friends are less likely to criticize a post than strangers. Twitter is a platform that networks ideas instead of people, like Facebook. Anyone can read posts and comment on them publicly. Twitter is less popular with millennials than Instagram or Facebook because they do not want to be criticized. On the latter platforms, a user can share content with the people that they choose and constantly make posts about themselves. A narcissist can thrive in such a place because everything can be focused on them to boost their fragile self-esteem.

A lack of empathy is also prevalent online. It takes the form of bullying or trolling other people. Because millennials are so sensitive in general, words and images that offend them can cause hostile behavior in some. They try to raise their self-esteem by bringing someone else down. Being mean to others on social media can be a sign of narcissism because it shows that they want to attract attention.

Millennials need to realize that social media makes them vain. Excessive involvement in social media, and in particular the continuous uploading of selfies and photos in general, can be associated with the deepening of narcissistic behaviors in millennials. A balance needs to be made because it is the key to being resistant to constructive criticism as well as thinking about other people and not just one’s self to be a good, empathic person.

The psychological and social motives behind posting behavior on social networking sites (SNS) as a form of self-presentation have recently become of interest to researchers. In 2013, Oxford Dictionaries named “Selfie” as Word of the Year and defined it as “a photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media” (Oxford Dictionary; Yongjun et al???). A series of studies have sought out to analyze how we use social media for self-presentation and the relationship between posts and personality traits, most notably, narcissism. For instance, Weiser (2015) discusses how selfies may serve as channels for self-promotion and therefore, reinforce narcissistic tendencies. Some personality traits related to narcissism are grandiosity and attention seeking. This includes behaviors such as excessively referring to others for self-esteem regulation or self-definition, setting goals based on gaining approval from others, being excessively aware to others’ reactions if relevant to oneself, and having superficial relationships (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In Weiser’s (2015) study, participants were instructed to answer a survey based on their own selfie-taking/posting behavior (i.e., time using SNS, the frequency of posting on SNSs, self-posting frequency) and then completed a forced-choice survey assessing narcissistic traits in each individual participant. The findings indicated that posting frequency, narcissistic traits, and amount of time using SNSs were all positively correlated to selfie-posting frequency (Weiser, 2015). The current study focuses on the significant role that social media use, specially selfie-taking and posting, has on how individuals are perceived by others.

With the rise in selfies over the years, academic interest has leaned towards exploring not only the relationship between levels of narcissism and selfie-posting frequency but also the cognitive processes behind selfie-posting behavior. For instance, Sung, Lee, Kim, and Choi (2016) explored the motives that guide selfie-posting behavior. The experimental design involved 315 participants who confirmed they engaged in selfie-taking/posting. Participants were inquired about their own motivations for self-posting on SNSs. Then, a concise list of 38 different motivations was generated from their responses which were then used in a survey. The participants were asked how much they agree or disagreed with each item on the survey. After statistical analysis of the results, Sung et al. (2016) found four main motivations for selfie-posting: attention-seeking, entertainment, archiving, and communication. The motive “attention-seeking” is consistent with one of the criteria listed on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) diagnosis for narcissistic personality disorder. The study indicates that selfie-posting and frequency reflect narcissistic behavior and a need to promote an inflated self.

A few recent studies on selfie-taking have also explored the cultural phenomenon by applying Festinger’s social comparison theory. The theory states that humans are driven by a need to compare themselves with others and evaluate their own abilities and opinions. Studies supporting the social comparison theory also found that self-evaluation not only provides an explanation for behavior but also for group formation (Festinger, 1954). In essence, comparing oneself to others is driven by a need to belong to a group that have similar views. Moreover, Chae’s (2017) study on digital enhancement of selfies (e.g., applying filters, removing blemishes) supported the social comparison theory and analyzed selective self-presentation in individuals. In contrast to the other pieces of literature discussed, this study only used female participants under the assumption that women are more likely to feel pressured into adhering to particular beauty standards or social trends. A survey measured the frequency of selfies, average use of SNSs, overall satisfaction with their facial features, how often they compared their appearance to others (friends, social media influencers, celebrities), and how often they retouched their selfies. The study concluded that digital retouching of selfies is more common in individuals who often compare themselves to friends on SNSs and frequently use and post on SNSs. The results emphasized that social comparison does not hold an emotional level because it was not related to self-esteem, which was measured in the survey as satisfaction with facial appearance. Instead, it further supports that selfie-posting is a mean of self-promotion and a way to keep up inflated self-views (Chae, 2017). The literature, backed up by social comparison theory, provides further support for the relationship between narcissistic tendencies (e.g., referring to others for self-definition) and social media behavior.

Furthermore, the majority of recent research has focused on who is posting selfies but very few have focused on the role of the audience viewing the selfies (Taylor, Hinck, & Lim, 2017). Prior studies have concluded that individuals make judgments about a selfie poster based on available physical cues (i.e. a photograph) (Taylor et al., 2017). To explore how social attraction differs based on whether an individual includes a selfie on a social media post or not, university students were presented the same Facebook status update with a selfie attached and one without a selfie. The participants were then asked to evaluate the selfie poster on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) using statements such as “this person tends to want others to admire her” (Taylor et. al, 2017, p.611). Evidently, the study’s results were consistent with prior research, as it highlighted that people are more likely to perceive selfie posters as more narcissistic and less socially attractive than those who post status updates without a selfie (Taylor et al., 2017). The findings in this study are relevant because it gives insight into what factors contribute to the judgments that the audience viewing the selfies make.

During recent years, the selfie phenomenon has only continued to increase, bringing in more of an interest from researchers. Multiple works of literature have supported that people who take and post selfies are perceived as having more narcissistic traits (e.g., more egotistical, exhibit self-inflating behavior, and have more of a need to gain approval from others). The current study was developed to investigate how the type of photography posted (selfie, group photo, or professional photograph) on SNSs influence how they are perceived. In general, we predict that participants will rate a fictional Instagram user (Emma) as more narcissistic if “selfies” accompany her Instagram account than if “groupies” or “professional” photos accompany her account. More specifically, we predict that if participants are exposed to selfie photos, then they will believe that an Instagram user 1). updates her profile picture more frequently, 2). posts to her social media accounts more often, and 3). seems more self-absorbed, selfish, narcissistic, and egotistical, compared to participants exposed to either groupie or professional photos, though these latter two conditions should not differ from each other in their Instagram user ratings.

References

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Chae, J. (2017). Virtual makeover: Selfie-taking and social media use increase selfie-editing frequency through social comparison. Computers in Human Behavior, 66, 370-376. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.007
3. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140. doi: 10.1177/001872675400700202
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