Category: NAACP

Throughout American history, African Americans suffered a period of oppression through the unjust leadership of white supremacy groups in society, disowned of their legal rights, deprived of any voice in society, and threatened to the point of death for actions of protest for their rightfully given freedom. Medgar Evers, an American civil rights activist from the 1950s, led African Americans to believe there’s a chance to give a free and equal life for them and anyone else who has been deprived of their equal rights as a human being from 1952-1963. Medgar Evers gave a great deal of his life to give African Americans the freedom and equality he knew they deserved; through his protests, speeches and freedom walks throughout his short and memorable lifetime.

America in the mid-twentieth century was a hard place for a man of color to live, Black men and women were deprived of their legal rights and Americans and were forced to live a less free life. People like Medgar Evers gave these men and women hope for a better and freer life. African Americans were thought of as a lower class of people simply because of the color of their skin. As America reached the year 1947, we still couldn’t appreciate black men and women for their talents. For the first time ever a black man was allowed to play on a major league baseball team but still was constantly harassed because of his skin color. When Jackie Robinson joined the Dodgers baseball team nearly five players left because they couldn’t stand on a field supporting a black man. He was hurt by all sorts of players throughout the game, and many teams wouldn’t even agree to play against him. Black and white Americans who chose to fight for the freedom of the less fortunate were in many cases threatened by many people, many who were part of white supremacy groups such as the KKK(Ku Klux Klan). Anyone person who was or associated with a man or woman of color in America, during the twentieth century was at risk of being placed into an even lower class or being killed.

As America advanced into an Era were black men and women began to fight for the given rights which had been denied to them for all those years, Medgar Wiley Evers was not one to stay home and watch. Through his courageous efforts did many of the changes to give black Americans their privilege occur in their societies. At an early age, Evers was exposed to clear scenes of racial discrimination. Since he was a young boy he has seen black men and women being beaten and abused simply because of their color. At this same age, his older brother (Charles Evers) taught him about the segregation of schools in America and the change that needs to be made. Medgar looked up to his older brother for all his adolescent life and the majority of his adult life as well (Davis). Being exposed to such disturbing content at a young age Evers built up a deep hatred towards the men and women who would not think to see an equal life between blacks and whites. “Despite fighting for his country as part of the Battle of Normandy, Evers soon found that his skin color gave him no freedom when he and five friends were forced away at gunpoint from voting in a local election” (“NAACP History: Medgar Evers”). As Evers was constantly treated with no respect and many threatened when he demanded his legally given rights, he made a note and had made a list of the main changes he knew he needed to make. After being denied access to the University of Mississippi Law school he was appointed field secretary for the NAACP in Mississippi (“The Legacy of Medgar Evers”). With the position of the NAACP field secretary under his name, Evers had an opportunity to make a real change in society and possibly in his nation as a whole. Medgar Evers accomplish many different goals in his lifetime but becoming the first field secretary for the NAACP in Mississippi gave him a true opportunity to change the opportunity for a freer life for African Americans around the country.

Although Medgar Wiley Evers fought all his life to see a change in his society, to create a more equal community all throughout the country. He died before these changes were made, but his contributions to the movement made a bigger impact than words can explain. After Evers was assassinated in his front yard his story was heard by everyone and was truly not taken easily by the black community. Protests, marches, and alliances till to this day happen due to the death and impacts of Evers on the African American population in the U.S. (The Legacy of Medgar Evers). The impact Evers had on the country was astonishing. He created a new community and is now considered an American hero. Because he died so early it was hard for him to make an explosive impact while alive but since he has died he has contributed countless changes. Soon after the emplacement as Evers in the NAACP as a field Secretary, he began to take charge of his city. He did the obvious, Protests, riots and outbreaks over the media. But along with all these, he persuaded many locals all over the city to consult with him prior to becoming field secretaries in the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) (“The Legacy of Medgar Evers”). As Medgar Evers grew up through his life the risk he put forth even for a small change was unexplainable. In his head, if he could change it for the better he would. One of Evers’s first projects was the integrating of the University of Mississippi. After he was denied access to the school, supposedly because of his race he dedicated himself to ensure that it would not happen to any other black individual (Crowther). Medgar Evers Generally took every decision he made into consideration with the mindset that it wasn’t just for him but the black community as a whole. Evers Fought to better the nation as a whole no matter the risk it put on himself. Without the contributions he put forth, our schools could still be the segregated mess they were before.

The assassination of civil rights activist Medgar Wiley Evers shook America, and the legacy of his actions and his tragic story has changed our nation for generations. Medgar Evers was an iconic Civil rights activist who shot at gunpoint at age 37, he lived a life run by segregation. From the institutionalized racism, he experienced throughout his childhood, to the discrimination that killed him in the hospital bed that day. Dying from a bullet wound after being denied access because of his skin color. Segregation controlled much of his life, and because of it, he dedicated his life to fighting for change (Crowther). The death of Medgar Evers put a hole in his community, quickly filled by the many respected followers of the beloved leader in the black community of Mississippi. Evers’ death was mourned nationally. After his assassination, a procession was led in honor of his legacy. The procession leaders included other civil rights leaders like Allen Johnson and Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. (“Medgar Evers Facts”). Evers was followed by some of our nation’s most prized individuals, Men and Women all over our nation came to show their respect for the contributions put forth by Evers. “In 1969, Evers’ brother Charles was the first black man elected mayor in Mississippi. “Medgar and I said many years ago, if we ever end the violent racism in this state, it’ll be the greatest state in the world to live,” he tells Peeples. “And now, Medgar, I know you’re gone, but I’m telling you, son, it’s come to pass” (The Legacy of Medgar Evers). Evers left a legacy in his family, With his bloodline continuing to push for the rights of their race that Evers had always wanted. Medgar Wiley Evers left his mark on our country. His legacy still to this day pushes people to be better. To see our world in a more equal sense and to go constantly change our nation into the equal community we had decided upon through the constitution.

Medgar Wiley Evers, An Icon in the history our country has been remembered as a courageous young man who has fought for the bettering of others. After serving his time in the army during WWII he applied to the University of Mississippi Law school. He was denied access because if the racist backing of the school and the segregation of schools all over his country. He soon after was appointed as the first field secretary for the NAACP in Mississippi. When in this position he dedicated years of work to change the segregation of schools all over America. He died after serving as field secretary for 38 years, on June 12th, 1963. He was shot at gunpoint in his front yard after a conference meeting with the head of the NAACP looking to change the segregation of schools. He was rushed to the hospital but was denied access because of his race and died soon after in the waiting room of that same hospital. Evers was thought of in his community as a leader. A man everyone looked up to for hope to see a freer future. He never got to see the change he made in societies all over the world, but because of his efforts as a civil rights activist did we see a change in the integration of schools across America.

It was a cold morning on December 8, 1952, and I was watching the news on TV while eating a small bowl of cereal. They were talking about sports from the previous day and scrolling across the bottom of the TV was breaking news that said “The Supreme Court was hearing a huge case called ‘Brown v. Board of Education.’” They did not put a lot of information in the brief description of the case, but they did cover the main details of the case. It said that it was a disagreement over the segregated schools that were in Kansas. “What else is new?” I thought to myself. Soon after, the phone started ringing. It was so loud it sounded like sirens coming down the road. I went to go answer the phone.

“Abraham Thompson, hotel room 503, how can I help you?”

“Abraham? It’s Aaron from a couple rooms down the hall,” said the guy on the other end.

“Yes, I remember you. How are you doing? Did you fix the running water in your room?”

“Good and my water is working now, thanks. But did you watch the news this morning. There’s a big Supreme Court case that is going to be heard tomorrow?”

“How did you know? I was just watching that on TV too. Do you know what it’s about?” I replied.

“It sounds as if it’s supposed to be a big step in the right direction for our civil rights. I was planning to go to the court house tomorrow to see what they were talking about.”

“Do you plan on going alone or do you not mind if I come with you? I am interested in the details of the case just like you are.”

“Sure, you could come too. See you tomorrow morning.” He hung the phone up, and the call went silent.

When I woke up the next morning, I put on my blue dress pants and my black dress shirt with a tie. I met Aaron in the parking lot and we drove to the D.C. Courthouse. There was a lot of traffic that morning, so I thought we would be late. We made it to the courthouse with minutes to spare. When we entered the courthouse, I sat down next to Aaron while Judge was reading the background information of the case. To me, it sounded like a young girl from Topeka, Kansas was the basis of the trial. The problem started with how difficult it was for her to get to school. Every day, “Linda Carol Brown had to walk one mile through a railroad switchyard to get to her black elementary school, even though a white elementary school was only seven blocks away.” Once she crossed the railroad, she had to take an old bus to get to school. Her dad, Reverend Oliver Brown, was sickened at the fact that his 7 year old daughter had to walk a long way to get to this school when there was a school right up the street from their house. The reason for this was that at the time, Topeka, Kansas was segregated and as a result, Carol was only allowed to go to a school for black children only.

Since Reverend Brown was so furious about the situation, Reverend Brown took it upon himself to cause change so he took his case to the NAACP. They formed a plan, where they assembled a mix of 13 black parents from Topeka, Kansas and made them bring their kids to the school closest to their house. When the white-only schools refused to take in the students, the NAACP came to the conclusion that they had to take this case to the state courts. The group of students had James M. Nabrit, George E.C. Hayes, and Thurgood Marshall to speak on their behalf. They made the case that even though “Separate but Equal” was separate, it did not prove to be equal at all. Also, they argued that the white-only schools were not constructed with the same standards that the blacks were. The white-only schools were in way better condition when compared to the black schools. They were trying to make the point that having these kids work in these conditions was only breaking their bodies down mentally and physically. Even after the students made their dreadful case to the court, they supported what the schools were doing and confirmed that the schools were not demanded to admit black children. As a result, the NAACP appealed the decision and ended up getting a new hearing in D.C.

After the background of the case was read, the NAACP made their opening statements. Out of all the things said in the courtroom that day, I remember when Thurgood Marshall made a statement that took the air out of the whole courtroom. He looked at the Chief Justice and said,

“Like a cancer, segregation destroys the morale of our citizens and disfigures our country throughout the world.”

This made me change how I viewed the Civil Rights Movement. I finally started to feel like someone really understood what these people were going through. I said this because it is not easy for someone to make the statement in a courthouse when they know they will receive heavy criticism for their statement. This meant that Thurgood Marshall really believed in what he was trying to prove. It was at this moment when I realized that this was starting to become a very powerful case when it comes to the future of African Americans. This allowed me to put my trust in the NAACP to fight for these people and start the process of change for America.

The case was debated for 3 consecutive days. Aaron and I were in attendance every day. We were convinced that we were not going to miss any important information. Aaron struggles with focusing on the task at hand, so it was really funny to watch him be so concentrated, like he was watching the last minute of the NFL championship game between the L.A. Rams and Cleveland Browns. That day, the main question that needed to be answered was: does the segregation of students in public schools go against the 14th Amendment? The NAACP had very strong points that supported their case. One of them was that the education was not fair because the interactions that the other kids were having with other students while in schools only made them become smarter. This was different from how blacks were segregated from others and were severely punished if they tried to go against the law. Another argument that was made was that the process of segregation decreased the blacks’ self-esteem because it made them feel as if they were not good enough and someone else was more valuable than them. The NAACP also said that the Constitution allowed blacks to have equal facilities, but blacks were the only group affected by this amendment. As a follow up to their evidence, the NAACP asked the court to explain why blacks were asked to be treated differently even though there were other minority groups besides blacks. As a response to the question, the defense said that the “Separate but Equal” doctrine did not go against the 14th Amendment because it did allow “equal” facilities for all groups.

“That’s quite a brief response,” I said as I turned towards Aaron.

“I agree,” he replied. “You would think they would come more prepared for a huge case like this. All they do is prepare for cases, right?”

“I was laughing on the insides to Aaron’s reaction. He was never interested in topics such as court and law.

Even though the NAACP flooded the court with overwhelming facts and big arguments, at the end of the trial, the court could not come up with a decision. As a result, the case was dropped. For a long time, everyone thought the case was over and behind us. That was until a year later, when the case was tried again. On the afternoon of December 6, 1953, I was listening to the national radio on my way to work. The news reporter had just finished breaking the news about the Brown v. Board of Education case being looked at again. He said the case was going to be scheduled for the next morning. Before the news reporter could even finish what he was saying, I got a call from someone. I could not have been closer when guessing who it was going to be.

“Abraham Thompson, hotel room 503, how can I help you?”

“Guess who it is,” said the person on the other end, even though I knew it was Aaron.

“Why this must be Bob Cousy from the Boston Celtics!” I said, knowing I was being sarcastic.

“Good jokes Abraham. I think you could guess what I am calling for,” said Aaron.

“Yes, I am coming with you to the courthouse for the return of the Brown v. Board of Education,” I said.

“Well, I guess I will see you tomorrow,” he said, a little shocked that I was able to figure out what he was calling for.

“See you tomorrow then,” I responded, with a little chuckle in the background.

I was so excited for the next day. That was until the next day of the trial was completed. The background and facts were summarized again for the people that probably were not up to date on the case. The day after that was the same, and even with the NAACP pleading for a change in their stance, there was still no decision.

It was the morning of May 17th, 1954, when I was cleaning the house and watching the news. I was really into cleaning the house until the news reporter made a stunning news announcement. He said that the court had came to a decision for the Brown v. Board of Education case, and the decision would be released to the public at 5:30 this evening, at the D.C. Supreme Court. Now I am back to cleaning my house.

Around 4:45 in the afternoon, the clock got my attention. I ran out the door, got in the car, and I was on my way to the courthouse. Since Aaron and I talked the previous day, I assumed that he would be there around the same time that I got there. I arrived at the courthouse at 5:15. When I entered the courthouse, happy to be there on time, I saw Aaron in the middle of the room with very good seats. I sat in the seat right next to him.

“I see you got here early, right?” I asked.

“Very early, like 45 minutes early,” he told me with a smile on his face.

The Chief Justice started to make his way up to the stand to announce the court’s decision and as he got closer, the whole courthouse went completely silent.

“We come, then, to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on race, even though physical facilities and other “tangible” factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe it does…We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has not place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the 14th Amendment.”

After the decision was announced, nearly everyone in the courtroom was on their feet and giving the Chief Justice applause. There were cheers coming from all sides of the courtroom. I made eye contact with Aaron and he was very enthusiastic about the decision. He was on his feet clapping and yelling as if he had received the gift of his life. At this moment, I realized how this decision meant to people. The Chief Justice announced the vote and it was a unanimous decision in favor of Brown. The court said that education was required to achieve basic civil responsibilities and without this education, Brown would not be able to succeed as a citizen. The court also ordered that all opportunities provided by the state must be accessible to all people. This is the decision that finally demanded all states to end racial segregation. As a result, racial segregation became unconstitutional. From this point on, schools were mixed with multiple races. The changes were good to see.

After the decision of the case was announced, everybody started leaving the courthouse. Aaron and I were on our way to the exit and we saw the lawyers that were part of the NAACP. They were honoring each other for the excellent job that they did for the people. I was just as excited for them as I was for myself.

“I am so excited for our future as a country because I think this was meant to happen a long time ago. At the same time, I cannot argue with the final decision because it is going to be the basis for more changes to come,” I said.

Aaron responded, “This is what America is supposed to be like. The future of our country is limitless.”

In the United States, the court ruled on irrational decisions. The NAACP and legal activists for LGBT couples used legal mobilization as a strategy to prove it affected disadvantaged people the most. Legal mobilization is a strategy to use the law and courts to win social movement gains (Lecture, Sept. 25). They claimed that there were conflicts in the past and present court cases, but there were obstacles to overcome. Their claims lacked factual information and people supporting their movement. The two groups had to change their strategies and often waited for changes to be made. Ultimately, they did secure a win for their communities but not in the way they initially wanted.

To illustrate, the court ruled the ‘separate but equal doctrine’ after the 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson case (Scott 119). This case was significant because it resulted in segregation between white and black children in public schools (122). Carter represented the NAACP and used damage imagery as a strategy (122). Carter’s thesis was that segregated schools: damaged black children’s psyches, came from schools, and it affected their ability to learn (Scott 122, Lecture, Sept. 25). He supported his claim by referencing previous court rulings. For example, in the Sweatt vs. Painter case, the court found that segregation in Utah law schools violated the 14th amendment (121). The court claimed that the white and black schools were unequal in the quality of education (121). This shows that the decisions in the Sweatt and Plessy cases conflicted with each other. The NAACP argued that the 14th amendment was passed to provide equal rights to African Americans, but clearly, segregated law schools were not equal. This showed that segregated law schools were similar to segregated public schools.

Also, the McLaurin vs. Oklahoma case showed that segregation at universities also violated the 14th amendment (Scott 121). McLaurin shared the same facilities and courses as his peers, but he was segregated from the classroom and the cafeteria (121). Carter claimed that the isolation was detrimental to McLaurin’s psyche and affected his ability to learn (Lecture, Sept. 25). This shows that McLaurin was negatively impacted by segregation which is a violation of the constitution. The two cases used damaged imagery as evidence to prove that segregation in schools was not equal (122). The cases demonstrated inequality, but they lacked factual proof.

Furthermore, Carter’s thesis was difficult to prove because no one published or was studying segregation in public schools (Scott 122). Carter approached Clark for assistance because he did a self-hate study on children living in segregation, but his study was not reliable (123). Clark could not separate the school’s factors the environmental (123). This was evident in the Briggs vs. Elliot case. For example, Clark’s group claimed that black children identifying with white images might be color blind (123). They also claimed that it was reasonable for a light-skinned black to identify with the white doll because they had similar features (123). This evidence did not support Carter’s thesis, but it did suggest that southern black adults felt inferior to white people at a young age (123).

Subsequently, this stems from the court’s view in the Plessy case that inferiority was only in the minds of black people (Lecture, Sept. 25). This connects to Lawin’s self-hate theory that people feel inferior when they are close to a dominant group (Scott 124). People supporting segregation stated that segregated schools would be a safe environment for black children (124). The NAACP realized that the court would be more empathetic to children than adults, so they used that to their advantage (Lecture, Sept. 25). Segregationists tried to find an expert to counter the NAACP’s claims but failed (Lecture). Ninety percent of social scientists thought that segregation was damaging to children and agreed that black children were harmed psychologically from segregation (Lecture).

The last compelling argument was when Marshall and Carter stated that segregation violated the 14th amendment because ‘race was not a valid basis for classification’ (Scott 130). From the NAACP’s undeniable proof, the court reached a unanimous decision to overturn segregation (130). Chief Justice Warren released a statement saying the court recognized the psychological damage segregation did to Plessy but did not have the science to prove it (Lecture, Sept. 25). The court failed to address the negative implications that the ruling had on black children’s psyches. He stated that the ruling worked during that time, but laws change to fit the evolving society (Lecture).

Similarly, legal activists for LGBT couples used the same strategy of the NAACP’s. (Lecture, Sept. 25). The activists claimed that banning same-sex marriage was a violation of the 14th amendment (Lecture). They first led civil unions, then used the separate is not equal claim, and lastly conservative principles (Lecture). For example, the Supreme Court told the legislature to either legalize marriage or provide civil unions (Barnes). Hawaii chose to do civil unions and a couple of years later, the court ruled that not allowing same-sex marriage was a violation of the constitution (Lecture). Similar to the doctrine in Plessy, they used the ‘separate is seldom, if ever equal’ claim to show that separate laws allowing only heterosexuals were wrong (Lecture).

Fast-forwarding years later, Massachusetts became the first state where gay couples could marry, but it received backlash from the government (Barnes). For example, President Bush wanted to ban same-sex marriage and led to other states changing their constitutions (Barnes). The court justified marriage stating that unstable relationships of heterosexuals were a greater danger to children growing up in the household (Barnes). In contrast, the court claimed that gay couples were more responsible parents and that marriage was not needed (Barnes). This claim shows that it was not necessary for gay couples to marry because they were already responsible. This was not a rational argument, so the activists asked some people to help.

To explain, legal activists sought conservative Icon Olsen and District Judge Walker to help their case. For example, Olsen wrote an article about gay marriage from a conservative view and took the case to the Supreme Court (Barnes). The activists were afraid that the article was too soon for the Supreme Court to rule for gay marriage (Barnes). Judge Walker, however, wrote a 136-page ruling in Perry v. Schwarzenegger that Prop 8 violated the 14th amendment (Barnes, Lecture Sept. 25). However, Walker’s ruling would prove to be biased because he was gay and in a long-term relationship (Barnes).

Another obstacle that they faced was the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) which was a law that stopped federal recognition of same-sex marriages (Barnes). Activists responded by abandoning the law which resulted in President Obama disapproving DOMA (Barnes). The strategy of waiting and trying a new strategy proved to be successful. This was when the media started to play a big part in securing the win.

Lastly, nonlegal activism outside the court did aid activists for LGBT because public mobilization has a legal effect (Lecture Sept. 25). For example, the LGBT pressured Obama to fulfill his campaign promises for the gay community (Lecture). Roberts from ABC interviewed Obama during his term, and he stated his support for gay marriage (Barnes). Using the media was successful because Maryland, Maine, and Washington approved same-sex marriage (Lecture).

Finally, public mobilization helped gay rights activists, but it also aided the NACCP’s success. Public mobilization put cultural pressure on the courts to change the law (Lecture Sept. 25). Society is constantly evolving, and the law has to change with it. For example, Warren released a public opinion of the court stating that southerners are good people and they were just following the law (Lecture). Warren wanted to let southerners know that it was not their fault that segregation harmed children and that they were just following the law (Lecture). The NAACP’s way of showing the cultural changes in society made the court pay attention to previous rulings.

To conclude, both the NAACP and activists for gay couples used legal mobilization to win their cases. This was not easy because there was not much evidence to support their claims. Eventually, both groups found that waiting and trying new strategies would work in their favor. The NAACP claimed that race is not a valid classification for segregation, so the courts overturned the ruling. The gay rights activists used public mobilization to win their case. Ultimately both groups were successful, but the court failed to state the negative implications their rulings had on the law. For the NAACP, black children’s psyches were damaged, and overturning the ruling would not reverse it. For gay rights activists, the court failed to see the emotional damage it might have had on the gay couples and their children. The court does not take account of their actions and as a result, people get hurt.

Works Cited

1. Barnes, Robert. “Decades of Battles Converged for Momentous Decision.” The Washington Post, WP Company, https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/national/2015/06/27/decades-of-battles-converged-for-momentous-decision/.
2. Kohler, Kristopher. Week 6, Lecture 1-Legal Mobilization- Brown. Mount St. Mary’s University, 2019, Sept 25.
3. Scott, Daryl Michael. Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880-1996. The University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 119-136.

Introduction to the Harlem Renaissance and Its Impact

The Harlem Renaissance had a huge impact on the music, education, and the daily life of African Americans living in Ghetto Harlem. One of these Harlem thinkers was Langston Hughes, who went to college at Columbia University near Harlem. During the Renaissance, the African Americans showed their frustrations of discrimination within their music and writing, this helped them get through the tough times. Hughes played a key role in the realistic portrayal of African American lives through his writing. Hughes was famous for many of his poems including “Theme for English B,” in which he writes about how a black man is trying to be equal to a white man, even though African Americans were discriminated against. Hughes crafts a character that very much resembles himself, the character is a student in a predominantly white college, similar to what type of college Hughes went too. The narrator talks about his experience of being the only colored student in his class. Furthermore, inequality during the mid-20th century was at its peak. During that time, Hughes writing was influenced by the black oppression, the Harlem Renaissance, and the Civil Rights Movement.

The Interplay of Black Oppression, Harlem Renaissance, and Civil Rights Movement

The Black Oppression, the Harlem Renaissance, and the Civil Rights Movement changed the lives of African Americans in many good ways and bad ways. Black Oppression is giving unfair treatment and having a prejudice against other people. In the 20th century, most Americans were oppressing the black community. According to Flora Hatley Wadelington, the African American community were being discriminated against things that normal people go to, for example, “ restaurants, travel[ing], amusement [parks], and recreation facilities, libraries, hospitals, prisons, housing, and municipal services such as fire stations. Restaurants did not seat minorities in the dining room, and movie theaters had balcony seating for African Americans. There were separate libraries and hospitals, or white hospitals had a separate ward where African American patients were treated”. Little by little, all these separation rules started to change into the Jim Crow laws, this limited the freedom of the African Americans even more. The Harlem Renaissance or also known as the New Negro Movement. It took place in the 1920s after World War I. Harlem was the center of where many African American journalists, writers, performers, photographers, and scholars explored to find a place where they could express all there unique talents and hobbies. The Harlem Renaissance began when African Americans started to migrate to the northern cities and states. They started to migrate because of the horrible segregation in the south and World War I. In the North, there was a demand for more labor workers, and about 5 million black people migrated. According to Jessica Johnston, during the Harlem Renaissance, “literary, artistic, and intellectual movement … kindled a new black cultural identity. … Harlem became the center of a ‘spiritual coming of age’…The Harlem Renaissance was successful in many ways… encouraged a new appreciation of folk roots and culture”. The Renaissance influenced most of the future black artists, poets, and performers sharing all of their cultural experiences through the times. Lastly, Civil Rights are the rights that protect individuals freedom without any discrimination. Civil Rights began in 1865 and is still active today. There were groups of individuals that started a civil rights organization, like the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). According to the National Museum of American History website, in the 1920s, this organization helped lead,“ the black civil rights struggle in fighting injustices such as the denial of voting rights, racial violence, discrimination in employment, and segregated public facilities”. The goal of the NAACP was to assimilate society and make everyone equal. The NAACP helped make many big changed for all the African Americans. Overall, with the help of the Civil Rights Movement and the Harlem Renaissance, there is still black oppression today. African Americans are still being mistreated because of the color of their skin.

Langston Hughes: A Voice Against Black Oppression

Langston Hughes writing is influenced by black oppression in his poem “Theme for English B.” At the time when Hughes was writing this poem and going to school, the black communities were being treated differently and unfairly compared to the white communities. For example in the poem, the narrator says, “So will my page be colored that I write? Being me, it will not be white” (Hughes 27-28). In the quote, Hughes is using a play on words, by using the word “colored.” The narrator is explaining how his paper would be graded differently because of inequality in society. During that time, there was a difference between turning in an essay that was written by a white person and a African American person. At the end of the quote, when he says “being me, it will not be white”, it shows that the narrator, is used to feeling that he doesn’t belong and knows that he is different. The narrator also talks about how there is a lot of inequality against African Americans. For example, the narrator describes what he likes to do as an African American adult. The speaker says, “ Well, I like to eat, sleep, drink, and be in love. I like to work, read, learn and understand life. I like a pipe for a Christmas present or records Bessie, bop, or Bach. I guess being colored doesn’t make me no like the things that other folks like who are other races.” (Hughes 21-26). From the tone that Hughes uses in this quote, it seems like his classmates and teacher think that he is different, but the narrator is trying to explain that he’s not. Hughes is using ethos to show his classmates and professor that he does normal things just like they do on a daily basis. At the time black oppression was horrible, the white people didn’t even think that African Americans can do normal things as they do. According to Marcus Alexis, even in the 50s, around the time Hughes wrote this poem, there was still a lot of black oppression problems. In her journal article, he says “segregated education, housing, transportation, and public accommodations and (ii) employment discrimination, which translated into lower earnings, entry barriers to many occupations and industries”. Even after trying to show the white community that they are African Americans are the same, it is just their skin color that is different, the white people still treat them horribly.

The Harlem Renaissance: A Beacon for African American Expression

Langston Hughes was influenced greatly by the Harlem Renaissance, this is what got him through everything. According to Kristin Wood, Hughes was, “the prominent writers of the Harlem Renaissance. Although he was fiercely proud of his heritage and identity as a black man, his words crossed stubborn racial boundaries during a hostile and segregated time period, earning him a well-deserved spot in the history of literature.” The Renaissance helped Hughes open up about what was going on in his community and going on in society. His writing really shows how the horrible ways the African Americans were treated, affected their lives. He wrote about topics that other writers were struggling to write about. In the poem, the speaker goes on to explain how he travels a great distance every day just to go to “this college on the hill above Harlem” (Hughes 9). Even though this quote separates him from the other students because most of the people attending the university were white and privileged who can afford to live near the college or even dorm there. It seems like he’s proud to go through Harlem to get to school. Back in the 1920s, when the Harlem Renaissance had just begun, it was a way for the African Americans to be prideful and happy to be who they are. This is what got all the African Americans through the rough times of being hated on and being discriminated against. The narrator is happy to go through Harlem because it reminds him of all the good and happy things that happened there.

The Role of NAACP in Advancing Civil Rights

During the 1950s when Hughes wrote this poem, it was when the Civil Rights Movement and the NAACP had helped make some little and big changes in society. According to the NAACP website, “By the 1950s the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, headed by Marshall, secured the last of these goals through Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which outlawed segregation in public schools. The NAACP’s Washington, D.C., bureau,… helped advance not only integration of the armed forces in 1948 but also the passage of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1964, and 1968 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.” The NAACP made very big changes for the black communities but it wasn’t enough for them to be treated equally. For example, in “Theme for English B” the narrator talks about inequality not only in the classroom but also every day in society. In the first stanza, the speaker identifies himself as an African American at Columbia University, the narrator specifically says that he is, “the only colored student in my class.”(Hughes 10). The speaker indicates that his race separates him, physically from his white classmates and professor. Hughes uses a play on words to show that there is still segregation and that since he is the only colored student in his class, he will be treated differently. According to V.P. Franklin, when black people finally started attending college the, “African American college students not only questioned the rules and regulations that governed their lives on campus…many also viewed themselves as ‘New Negroes’ who should use their collegiate training to advance the race. To a very great extent, the black college rebellions … were generated by the cognitive dissonance black collegians experienced when they left the real world of ‘New Negros’” This shows that the African Americans wanted to learn and be educated but they never had the chance to. They were all ready to make a difference and change the way society looked at black people Even though there were new laws that allowed African Americans to go to school with white people, it didn’t make a change in how they were treated in school and in society. Additionally, the speaker describes how even though he, is a black adult, who was born on the same land as a white man, the black man has fewer rights than the white man The narrator claims that this is unfair and says, “ You are white-yet a part of me, as I am a part of you. That’s American” (Hughes 31-33). The speaker is trying to use pathos to make the connection with his professor and classmates that they are from the same country and that they are the same. The narrator is trying to say the point that they should have equal rights, they are from the country. Everybody has disagreements with each other but its American to come together and realize that differences and all come together. Furthermore, the narrator describes how a white person is treated with more respect and has more rights than a black man. The narrator says, “ although you’re older-and white- and somewhat more free.” (Hughes 39-40). This is very powerful because Hughes is using a play on words on the word “somewhat” by using that word, Hughes is trying to be sarcastic and make the situation of segregation sound better. The professor being a white man in the 50s he would have so many more opportunities than a black man.

Contemporary Reflections: The Ongoing Struggle for Equality

Still 100 years later and there is still inequality problems in today’s world. Hughes writing still relates to today’s world in so many ways. Many African Americans are still being treated unfairly compared to white people. It’s very sad to say but there is still black oppression many people mistreat African Americans all the time by, normal people calling the cops on them for no reason, by being mistreated by police officers and even being mistreated by many public officials. Many people would think that the cops are here to help our community but instead, on the news its always talking about another African American being shot. We also did accomplish some things over the 100 years, American had its first African American president. This showed the African American community that they can accomplish anything they set their mind to.

The Fight Towards True Freedom

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People also known as the NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909. The main cause of the creation of this group was a riot in the city of Springfield. The Springfield riots were the mistreatment and severe assaulting of African Americans by the white community. Another cause of the foundation of the organization was the ending of the Niagara Movement. This was a movement led by W.E.B Du Bios shared many of the same values as the organization. There were a few non- African Americans who saw theses acts of violence as wrong and unfair. Mary White Ovington, Oswald Garrison Villard, William English Walling, and Dr. Henry Moscowitz all saw these actions and called for a meeting to discuss the injustice. The NAACP aimed to get equality for all people and secure the rights of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. They also wanted to ensure rights for minority groups politically, socially, and economically. By 1910, the NAACP established their own office in New York City. The group began to grow bigger with greater support for equality. By 1913, they established offices in cities such as, Boston, Baltimore, Kansas City, St, Louis, Washington, and Detroit. W.E.B Du Bios became the only African American on the board and became a crucial part in the organization. He used his work as an editor to emphasize the need to end lynching’s and violence against African Americans. Another key leader in the NAACP was Walter Francis White who was an African American civil rights activist and used his African American heritage to advocate for people of color. He said,” I am a negro. My skin is white, my eyes are blue, my hair is blonde. The traits of my race are nowhere visible upon me…. I am not white. There is nothing within my mind and heart which tempts me to think I am.” He used his life to help brig justice and equality for all people. Due to great leadership and work by 1920, the impact of the NAACP was greatly successful. There were many successful court victories to help with the grandfather clause and segregation. The NAACP is the longest and oldest civil rights organization in the United States.

There was No Escape!

On March 25, 1911 the lives of 145 workers were lost forever. The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire in New York City is one of the worst industrial incidents in United States history and the worst part is the deaths were all preventable. The factory was located in the top three floors of the Asch building and had very poor work conditions. The company employed young immigrant women who worked on sewing machines. Most did not speak English and worked twelve hours a day. The environment was truly a sweat shop and poor safety features. In 1911, the building only had one working elevator out of four. There was only two set of stairs, one was locked and the other could only open inward. The fire escape was also not an option because it would take too long to get down. These horrible safety factors were not surprising to most because the factory owners, Max Blanck and Isaac Harris, were already seen as suspicious. The factory was already scorched twice, and their other company factory was burned twice. Some suspected that the owners burned the factories to collect on large fire insurance policies they purchased. On the day of the incident there were approximately six hundred workers in the factory when the fire broke out. Once the fire began, the manger tired to put out the fire, but the fire hose was old and rotted. The young women were rushed into the elevator but only four groups of twelve women were able to make it down. Some plunged down the shaft or were burned alive by taking the stairs only to realize that the door was locked at the bottom. Others jumped from the windows to their death. An eyewitness, William Shepherd who was a reporter at the scene retells his story. He says” I saw every feature of the tragedy visible from outside the building. I learned a new sound—a more horrible sound than description can picture. It was the thud of a speeding, living body on a stone sidewalk.”. The fire was over within eighteen minutes and 145 workers lost their lives. With the loss of so many lives, the fire brought attention to horrible factory conditions and led to multiple regulations that protect workers. By April 5, over 80,000 people attended a protest to fix the conditions that led to the fire. The fire caused a multiple of labor reforms to set in motion to effectively create change in the industry and especially to improve safety conditions of the factory. The owners of the Triangle Shirtwaist factory were indicted by a grand jury two weeks after the fire. They were sentenced on charges of manslaughter.

A Long River To End Discrimination

The Niagara Movement was founded in 1905. W.E.B Du Bios and others met secretly in Fort Erie, Ontario, near Niagara Falls to create an organization to create change for African Americans politically and socially. They had to meet on the Canadian side because the American side would not allow them to stay at a hotel. They demanded the end to segregation and discrimination in unions, public accommodations, and the courts. The name Niagara Movement was chosen specifically because they wanted to create the affect of a mighty current like the Falls. Other meetings were held at Harper’s Ferry, West Virginia, and Boston’s Faneuil Hall annually. The start of the organization is credited to The Souls of Black Folk by W.E.B Du Bios. This book somewhat attacked Booker T. Washington views and how they shifted from fighting for change to accepting the current conditions. There were few successes at the local level. Overall, the movement lacked funds, mass support, permanent headquarters, and had weak organizational support. In the end, the movement had no difference in legislation, but it did lead to the creation of the National Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP was an organization that helped crate change for African Americans in all aspects. It was different form the Niagara movement because it gained mass support after the Springfield riots. It also caught the attention of like-minded whites. With the help of white progressives like, Jane Addams, William Dean Howells, Oswald Garrison Villard, and William Lloyd Garrison the beliefs and motives of the Niagara movement were transferred to the NAACP. The Niagara movement was separated in 1910 and W.E.B Du Bios was making efforts to try to connect the two organizations. Mary White Ovington who witnessed multiple meetings covered the Niagara Falls meeting. Later she wrote,” I doubt if a more resolute, intelligent set of men and women were assembling anywhere that summer, filled the as summers are with various national conventions.” Her relationship with W.E.B Du Bios was very significant because they helped lead the movement and later on help found the NAACP.ng of alcohol. We have a huge force of support behind us and with your help we will get an amendment passed. Anyone, man or woman, rich or poor. Help us, help you by joining us in the fight for prohibition. Save your kids and your life by saying no to alcohol.

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In the 1900s many African Americans suffered prejudice, violence, and the devastating effects of racism. During the 1950s and 1960s it was a time of growing groups of African Americans speaking out against inequality and injustice. This struggle lasted for decades. Many strategies were used by the civil rights activists and organisations, and all contributed to gain constitutional and legal rights, outlaw discrimination and put an end to segregation. Most of the strategies implemented were non-violent protests like the sit-in movement, the Freedom Rides, the Civil Rights movement and peaceful marches. These peaceful protests were met with a backlash of brutally violent acts from white supremacists that lead to the death and assault of many innocents. At the same time, they achieved their desired results and succeeded in introducing new laws for true equality for African Americans.

The Jim Crow Laws were established in the South in the late 1800s. They prevented blacks from using the same public facilities, live in the same areas and towns or go to the same schools. Many blacks couldn’t vote because they were unable to pass literacy tests. Though not adopted in the North, blacks still experienced discrimination when it came to jobs, buying a house, or getting an education. In 1955 Rosa Parks, in Alabama, sat in the designated black seats of the bus as segregation laws told her too. A white man couldn’t find a seat in the white seats and Rosa was told to give up her seat. She refused and was arrested, this ignited outrage and support, inspiring mass protests to speed the pace of civil rights. In protest, Martin Luther King started the Montgomery bus boycott, only days after her arrest. King’s slogan was ‘Don’t ride the bus today, don’t ride it for freedom’. A year later they succeeded. King was inspired by Gandhi to advocate a program of civil disobedience using non-violent methods to bring about change.

NAACP leaders gained additional support when the Supreme Court ruled public school segregation unconstitutional in 1954. This was achieved with the Brown vs. Board of Education. It was an important milestone that told people that the Jim Crow laws weren’t working. They disproved the ‘separate but equal’ statement the Jim Crow laws were built on and explained that education and other services weren’t equal at all. In 1957 the formerly segregated High School in Little Rock had black students try to attend the school. These students were dubbed Little Rock Nine and chosen because of their excellent grades. The nine students were specially driven to school and escorted by military personnel. They endured a year of physical and verbal abuse from the other students. Only one graduated, after the year ended the school closed its public school completely rather than continue to integrate. Other schools across the South did the same. While not succeeding in blacks being accepted in those schools it did bring media attention to the issue of segregation.

One of the first major non-violent protests was the sit-in movement. In 1958 the NAACP Youth Council sponsored a sit-in at the lunch counter of a Dockum Drug Store in downtown Kansas. After three weeks the movement got the store to change its policy of segregated seats, soon all Dockum stores in Kansas were desegregated. That same year there were sit-ins at a Katz Drug Store in Oklahoma City, also successful. In 1960, four students sat at a segregated lunch counter to protest Woolworth’s policy. The Greensboro sit-in was quickly followed by other sit-ins involving thousands of students in Virginia, Tennessee and Georgia. While some sit-ins were just met with confusion, students sitting-in across the south were confronted by police, officials, and violent crowds. Sometimes they used brutal force to physically remove them from the lunch counters. This tactic of nonviolent protest was influenced by King, it was intended to gain attention using media coverage.

Another popular form of protest was the Freedom Rides of 1961. This was brought about because bus companies in the south continued to segregate interstate buses, trains and stations. The Freedom Riders hoped to pressure the federal government into enforcing this law in the south. They were organised by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). The 13 Freedom Riders were traveling to New Orleans, passing through Virginia and North Carolina. In Carolina a few were viciously attacked attempting to enter a whites-only area. In Alabama an angry mob of 200 white people pursued their bus, set fire to it using bombs, and then brutally beat them. Public Safety Commissioner Bull Connor worked with the KKK to organise the attack. The Freedom Riders didn’t stop and were given another bus and more members, organised by Diane Nash, an activist from SNCC. The mob attacks, allowed by the police, didn’t stop once President John F. Kennedy insisted that the governor allow the Freedom Riders safe passage. President Kennedy threatened to send federal troops once a 3000-strong mob surrounded 1200 people participating in a service honouring the Freedom Riders, led by King. The authorities agreed to protect them if they were allowed to arrest them. The Freedom Riders new tactic was to fill up the city’s jails, over 400 people were arrested. Accounts of their abusive treatment in prison gained more widespread support for their cause. They received international media reports that documented the violent responses, embarrassing the US government. Though reluctant, they eventually ordered bus companies to introduce desegregation to their buses, toilets, waiting rooms and eating areas.

In 1963 almost 250,000 people took part in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The march was organised by leaders of the civil rights movement A. Philip Randolph, Whitney M. Young Jr., Martin Luther King Jr., James Farmer, Roy Wilkins, John Lewis and the main coordinator Bayard Rustin. The purpose was to campaign for the civil rights act, get rid of the Jim Crow Laws, reduce unemployment in African Americans, and outlaw discrimination in the creation and passes of Bills. King was the last speaker as all the others wanted to speak earlier, figuring the news reporters would head out half-way through. His ‘I Have a Dream’ speech wasn’t actually planned but after Mahalia Jackson called “Tell them about the dream, Martin!” he set aside his prepared speech. King then launched into the most famous speech of the day, describing his dreams of freedom and equality arising from a land of slavery and hatred. After the March on Washington there were ongoing demonstrations and violence that pressured politicians even more to act. On the same day Kennedy spoke his race speech he was assassinated. President Lyndon Johnson broke through the Congress stalemate a passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and later, the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The bills outlawed segregated public facilities and discriminatory acts in employment and voting. This led to an African American in parliament. Though this didn’t get rid of discrimination completely it was definitely a large step forward for African Americans.

Alabama during the 1950’s tried to make the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People give up and surrender their lists which included member names and member addresses. The NAACP feared that if the identities of members were made public, then there would be a real dangerous risk for intimidation and threats to their membership. The NAACP also responded that might even be the reason the state of Alabama had in mind when attempting to get this personal information on private citizens. The Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision in 1958 that the government could not force non-profit groups to surrender their member lists. According to the Supreme Court in its ruling, Alabama’s demand restricted free association rights because it “may induce members to withdraw from the Association and dissuade others from joining it because of fear of exposure of their beliefs.” Due to this ruling, civic organizations have been able to operate without having to worry that their members will have their privacy compromised.

During the 1950’s there were many instances of state and local governments retaliating against civil rights groups, especially those with the mission of helping African American civil rights. The main group being the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. “Back in the 1950s, the public associated the NAACP with bold, even radical efforts to force an end to legal segregation. Many welcomed the political and legal work of the NAACP. But many others did not. Especially in the South, letting go of traditions of racial discrimination was painfully hard. In 1954, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in Brown v. Board of Education officially ending state imposed public school segregation” (Allen, 9). Alabama had hoped that if they could use statutes in state law that they claimed the NAACP was violating, they could force the organization to close operations in the state of Alabama. The NAACP admitted they had been in violation of the state law, as they believed that they were exempt from it, but maintained that giving up their member lists would be a violation of the due process guaranteed in the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution.

Alabama, as well as other Southern states, had attempted to think of ways to prevent the NAACP and other civil rights organizations from conducting business and being able to successful operate in their states, because of the role these groups were playing in mobilizing African Americans and attempting to combat the injustices that had been facing African Americans in these states: “Alabama conceived a clever strategy to expel the NAACP, one that relied on the state’s foreign corporation qualification law” (Allen, 7). At the time, the Attorney General of Alabama was John Patterson. “Alabama had a statute similar to other states’ requiring out-of-state (“foreign”) corporations to register or “qualify” prior to transacting business. To qualify, a corporation was supposed to file its charter with the secretary of state, designate a place of business, and name an agent to receive service of process. The penalty for transacting business without having first qualified included fines for the organization and criminal prosecution of its corporate officers. Alabama decided that the NAACP, which had been organized in New York, was a foreign corporation operating in Alabama. In 1956, Alabama officials accused the NAACP of violating the law requiring foreign corporations to register with the state. The state alleged that the NAACP had flagrantly violated the law by operating extensively in the state without taking the steps to qualify” (Allen, 7). However, the NAACP maintained that its activities within the state of Alabama did not violate this statute. Furthermore, the NAACP claimed the suit was ultimately an attempt to violate its freedom of speech and of assembly guaranteed and protected by the Constitution.

In recognizing the connection between privacy and freedom of association, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the government could not force groups to surrender their member lists. This sort of “exposure”, (NAACP v. Alabama) as the Supreme Court phrased it in its ruling, would greatly damage organizations’ ability to fulfill their missions. In the words of the Supreme Court, Alabama’s demand restricted free association rights because it “may induce members to withdraw from the Association and dissuade others from joining it because of fear of exposure of their beliefs” (NAACP v. Alabama). Today, this is described as disclosure’s “chilling effect” on freedom of speech and association. While referring to the NAACP’s involvement with the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, the state of Alabama claimed the NAACP was ‘causing irreparable injury to the property and civil rights of the residents and citizens of the State of Alabama for which criminal prosecution and civil actions at law afford no adequate relief’. In response, the NAACP, which was being represented by Robert L. Clark of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, stated that Alabama was aiming to violate its rights to freedom of speech and of assembly as guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States. Ultimately, the case ended up at the Supreme Court; however, first it appeared in front of an Alabama state circuit court. There, the court found the NAACP guilty of violating an Alabama state statute requiring foreign corporations to qualify before doing business in the state. The NAACP, which was based in New York and not in the state of Alabama, had not complied with the statute. The state suit attempted to both prevent the NAACP from conducting more business within the state and, ultimately, to remove it from the state.

Before the case made its way all the way to being in front of the Supreme Court, the NAACP had been punished by the lower circuit state courts with fines starting out with the amount of $10,000 and ultimately reaching $100,000. “Unlike its guarantees for religion, speech, press, and assembly, the First Amendment does not specifically list freedom of association as a right that cannot be abridged. Social and legal observers have long argued, however, that just as an individual has the right to express his or her own views, so too does that individual have the right to associate with others who share the same opinions” (Brown, 2). The case the NAACP was making was whether or not the freedom of association of its members being known would lead to their identities being used against them by the state of Alabama in a retaliatory manner, which would then give states the opportunity to request member lists from a variety of civil rights and civic organizations and get their rolls full of member names and member addresses. With that sort of personal data, there would be an opportunity for states to retaliate and harm people in their communities who are donors to civil rights groups or who belong to organizations the government might not approve of.

Ultimately, four and a half months after hearing arguments, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of the NAACP. Writing the opinion was Justice John Marshall Harlan II and he said: “This Court has recognized the vital relationship between freedom to associate and privacy in one’s associations’. He went on to discuss the practical effect of compelling organizations to disclose their membership lists. In the case of the NAACP, according to Harlan, the organization proved that making known its members in the past exposed them to ‘economic reprisal, loss of employment, threat of physical coercion, and other manifestations of physical hostility.’ With those outcomes expected to recur, the court believed that forcing the NAACP to comply with the state court’s ruling would likely hinder it and its members from organizing and advocating their beliefs. The court added that compelling the disclosure of the NAACP’s membership might also encourage some individuals to leave the organization and discourage others from joining” (Brown, 6).

The ruling would have a long lasting impact on protecting the rights and privacy of organizations in the United States. During the time the ruling came down, the United States was in the middle of turbulent social times. There were many day-to-day risks to African Americans. Organizations, especially civil rights groups that had operations in Southern states, were potentially at risk of being in very real danger. If the privacy of members had to be given up and divulged, that might have tragic and harmful consequences for members. In its ruling the Supreme Court would lay out three important points, “just as people have a First Amendment right to express messages to the public, so they have the right to join together in groups to amplify their messages. They also have a right to support causes they believe in anonymously, in order to avoid harassment and intimidation. Finally, the government may only penetrate this veil of privacy if it has a compelling justification” (Goldwater, 22).

There are many ways the case of NAACP v. Alabama has helped to shape the way our nation protects privacy rights of organizations and civic groups. “Prior to this case the Court supported efforts by federal and state governments to investigate organizations that were alleged to be involved in subversive and unlawful activities. The NAACP case differed because the type of activities it was involved in did not cause harm to the government or society” (Franklin, 7). In his writing for the unanimous decision, Harlan noted that the NAACP did not cause harm to the government. Also, in response to the case, the NAACP had complied with much of what the state of Alabama had requested. However, membership lists were a bridge too far and that they must remain confidential in order to protect members from potential retaliation and unlawful attacks. Also, the ruling is still used in current day cases when regarding donor identity protection. “The ruling ensured that NAACP members could donate without fear of retaliation, an essential principle that nonprofits argue must still be protected” (Blankley, 2).

Over the past sixty years, the ruling of NAACP v. Alabama has proven to be very important and crucial to maintain privacy in the United States. Whether during the Civil Rights era or present-day, there are issues that are being brought up that this case is looked at for precedent and guidance on First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment cases. The words of Justice Harlan while writing the unanimous opinion are still used to provide privacy today.

A lot of people can recall the term “slave” or “slavery”. The moment a person enters grade school they’ll learn a significant amount of the history of slavery. We are taught from a young age about African Americans being subjected to horrifying labor and conditions in the early 17th and 18th century. In reality, most of us don’t even know or try to go back and find out the real history. In this paper I hope to give a detailed view into the history and current outcomes of slavery in the United States.

Slavery dates back to early biblical times. This dates back further than the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. Slavery didn’t just consist of African Americans, Whites, Jews, Irish, and Native Americans and other ethnicties were also included. Slavery had different forms most were serfs, indentured servants, and conquered people. There were several different reasons for enslavement including judicial processes, personal gain, religion, economic need, and prisoners of war.

The first known ship of African American slaves to arrive to the United States was known as the “White Lion”. The “White Lion” was a Dutch ship consisting of 20 enslaved Africans that lost a battle with a Spanish ship. The ship had landed in Jamestown, Virginia and had traded slaves for food and supplies. Many of these ships would bring million of more slaves over to the states. Soon over half of the United States had plantations. During the transfer of slaves on ships they endured horrible conditions. Many of them were forced into ships and had to sit in their own feces, urine, blood and vomit for up to 3 months at a time. Most slaves worked on cotton gins on large plantations. Plantations were mainly in the Southern States and produced one crop and would typically have 20 slaves working on it.

Planters shared the belief that what they had for “masters” were responsible in overseeing all slaves. This idea was called “paternalism”. But as we know now, things weren’t just for economic reasons as they portrayed. Many slaves endured multiple forms of abuse. Many were whipped if they didn’t do as told. Enslaved mothers during pregnancy were forced to work under harsh conditions and sometimes until even the last week before birth. Half of the infants born to slave mothers were underweight weighing under 5.5 lbs. Most of the enslaved kids didn’t even have the oppurtunity to meet their father due to them being sold away, deceased, or having a white father due to rape.

There were a lot of revolts and rebellions from slaves trying to escape. A very famous rebellion was the “Nat Turner Slave Rebellion”. This rebellion took place in Southampton, Virginia on August 22, 1831. What led to the rebellion being formed was Turners allegations of recieving Godly visions to lead people into a battle to attempt to destroy slavery. For 24 hours there were seven people involved and they had went from house to house killing every caucausian and taking items they could use. There were approximately 57-60 whites killed with 60-80 slaves that committed the acts.

Slavery was abolished on December 6, 1865 by congress. It became the 13th amendment which states that “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any places subject to their jursidicition”. After this African Americans had more freedom but it still wasn’t enough. Whites had nicer houses and had better paying jobs. Also when applying for jobs whites were given authority over African Americans. This led later on to the formation of the Civil Rights Movement.

Prior to the Civil Rights Movement between 1909 and 1910 the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was formed. The NAACP consisted of whites and African Americans that were against any forms of racism in communities. On note the founders of the NAACP were highly educated individuals. The NAACP strived on being a non violent organization. Even with slavery being abolished, in the 1950’s there were still schools with desegration laws. There were only white and only black schools. The NAACP had fought to eliminate this. In the early 50’s they had filed multiple cases until it had reached the hands of the supreme court. In 1954 the NAACP had won the decision to segregate schools.

More decisions were made in the 1960’s including one of the most important acts of all time ‘The Civil Rights Act of 1964’. The Civil Rights purpose was ‘to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes”. This act provided so many meanings to the African American Community. Many were given the chance to purchase homes and for once live in society with less stricter stipulations based on their ethnicity.

But with all this in place, there are still some issues at bay. Today in society there are a lot of mixed feelings about race. You see it everyday whether we want to accept it or not. I could understand how blacks might feel a certain way towards whites because of the past. But for whites or any race to be acting racist, it has to stop. We are all human beings deep down.

There has been recent evidence linking racism studies that still exist. ‘According to the United States department study approximately 14,500 to 17,500 people are trafficked into the United States each year”. There are many different groups ranging from the countries of Africa, Asia, India, China, Latin America, and the former soviet states. There are even still some united states citizens subject to slavery. This is an issue we call “human trafficking”. Children are primarily a target. Slaves are estimated to be garden workers, construction workers, domestic workers and sold into the sex industry.

Since I discussed a little bit of the history of slavery and how it contributes to the factor of racism, are there ways to stop it? No. There are ways to try to prevent the issue and overcome it though. Racism within the African American culture mostly stems from our history of slavery dand how they were treated unfairly versus other ethnic groups. If we can start by educating the young and trying to influence the older generation it could make the world a better society. I have done some research on ideas considering the thought of preaching to the young. There have been studies done by professionals that show when they are exposed to positive images of different races at a younger age it helps prevent bias. Also, having kids develop friendships with all different ethnic groups help as well. Once that has been done then studies have shown prejudice is greatly diminished. It even contributes greatly for younger people to see guardians or older people in their life interacting with opposite races. In a sense, this gives children’s sense of security and to not be alarmed just because someone has a lighter/darker skin tone or differIt’s hard to change adults opinions on how they view races. Some cultures are still heavily raised upon the past of whites enslavings blacks and negative feelings are still into play. There are also sadly still jobs out there that will give whites precedence over job. If we could try to teach our future generation not just by teaching them history but that skin color is not determinant of someone’s heart we would have a better society. When kids grow up hearing mostly bad about a certain ethnic group, it tends to have a lasting impression. So once adulthood is achieved most people have a particular mindset made up. There are movements that aim to change society’s perspective such as “Black Lives Matter” and “All Lives Matter”.

In conclusion, I hope my brief history of slavery and some of the outcomes helped informed why we still have some “racial issues”. It is understandable how some people are still upset about the past but we have to look for the future. I’m certain though that as much as society tries to change the view on racism, some people will sadly be stuck in their beliefs. We can though start now with the next generation in trying to improve how everyone sees each other. After all, the color of your skin doesn’t determine you or your character as a person.