Category: Mythology

Origin Myths

In the myths of the tribes inhabiting South America, there are multiple metaphors including those depicting the role of humans, animals, and objects of nature. These figurative images reflect the social beliefs of these nations. For instance, they show the role of a man and woman in society; the attitude to educating children; and the redistribution of social roles among all members of the community. The following paper will compare and contrast the origin myths for the Kogi, Mundurucu, Yanomamo, Ona, and Yahgan to identify how humans and nature are intertwined and what symbolical implications these patterns have.

First, the analysis of myths of all the tribes under consideration demonstrates the single most common trait, which is a deep respect for nature. The Kogi, Mundurucu, Yanomamo, Ona, and Yahgan, all view nature as supreme, divine, and at times, mystical and majestic (Wilson 2011). Animals and unanimated objects of nature such as trees, stones, water are shown as the parts of something greater, celestial, and having the heavenly origin (Wilson 2011). Based on these details, a conclusion can be made that the American indigenous people of the Kogi, Mundurucu, Yanomamo, Ona, and Yahgan see the surrounding world as a superior entity of exalted origin and reflect this belief in how they organize their daily graft and lifestyle.

Next, addressing the role of religion and superstitions in the lifestyle organization of the tribes examined in this paper, the evaluation of their myths suggests that all tribes see the spiritual side of their being as the most important factor influencing their attitudes and ideas of living. For example, the Kogi see their tribal buildings for worship as the womb of the Universal Mother, a unique place, where a man can solve ones problems and receive guidance (Wilson 2011). Therefore, in all these tribes, shamans, or the representatives of the spiritual world act as the social leaders who exercise authority over others and create laws.

Further, speaking about the theme of the origin of women and their social role that is rendered through the use of symbols from nature and animal world, the myths of the tribes under consideration differ considerably with the majority of these supporting mens superiority. Review of Mundurucu, Yanomamo, and Ono origin myths has demonstrated that in these tribes, women were seen as inferior to men (Wilson 2011). Moreover, analysis of the myths characters and details representing the surrounding nature suggests that there are multiple metaphors in these myths aiming to diminish the female role and demonstrate women in the negative light. The situation is significantly more favorable for women in the Yahgan origin myths. There, women have more respect and authority and enjoy a better attitude from men. Finally, the Kogi appear in full contrast to the above-mentioned tribes, since their myths glorify women as superior creatures possessing dignity and authority (Wilson 2011).

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that the origin myths for the Kogi, Mundurucu, Yanomamo, Ona, and Yahgan demonstrate a row of common traits including the special respect to the surrounding nature seeing the godlike features in the objects of the environment and the representatives of the animal population. Also, these myths indicate the common view of the superiority of spiritual things in nature over the materialistic way of thinking. Finally, all origin myths contain considerable parts of information demonstrating an approach to the role distribution in the society with the majority indicating the womens role as inferior to men.

Works Cited

Wilson, David. Indigenous South Americans of The Past and Present, New York: Westview Press, 2011. Print.

The most attractive works for my attention in the canon of American literature were those that seemed to illuminate the entire diverse and contradictory characteristics of American culture. The myth of the Great Hare Michabou seems worthy of note as one of the most ancient and mysterious stories read during the course. In its grandiose imagery, one can sense the mythological inspiration of another culture that predates English-speaking Americans. Land development and understanding seem to be key imagery for American literature. That is why the Native American myths explaining the Earths origin look so impressive, especially being a part of it. Often, even researchers may be inclined to forget that before the first settlers, this land was reclaimed and glorified by other peoples.

The Way to Wealth, written by Benjamin Franklin, seems to me also one of the most important texts in all American literature. The book itself is a formative idea of the American spirit in its perfect and ideal form, as a hardworking person striving for honest well-being. Written in the format of messages and advice, this essay is largely devoted to the importance and benefits of hard work. It indicates the establishment of an American work ethic, that is, attention and awareness of the value of the work performed (The Norton Anthology of American Literature 209). Franklins essay provides a source of motivation and inspiration without causing a person to pursue excesses. For Franklin, wealth means securing his own freedom and independence with financial means.

In conclusion, I would like to mention another essay by Franklin, which also seems important when talking about the formation of American culture in its current form. Franklins Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America represent observations about the life of the indigenous people. Franklins main message is that sometimes people who are in the position of an alien subject can be real carriers of civilization. When describing savages in North America, Franklin notes their courtesy and politeness. Franklins message contains the idea of a tolerant perception of other cultures, which is so prized in the modern inclusive era.

Work Cited

The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Edited by Robert S. Levine, shorter 9th edition, Norton, 2017.

Genealogy is considerably more than that for native Hawaiians; it is how they communicate with one another. According to traditional views, Native Hawaiians are particularly bonded to the land, or o ka pae aina Hawaii, as the ancestral lands and the older cousin of Hawaiians. Native Hawaiians have traditionally educated their ancestry via a transformation (Marion). Wakea, the sky father, married Papa, whom he transformed into Papahanaumoku, the earth mother, according to Hawaiian legend. Hoohokulani and Haloa were their offspring, and their names represent the formation of stars in the skies and perpetual life. The taro root sprouted from Haloanaka supplied nutrition for the blossoming kid, allowing him to live on as the Hawaiian persons first surviving ancestor. Hawaiian mythology contains many things that ordinary people will be very interested in.

The Kumulipo is a Hawaiian genesis chant that describes the beginnings of the cosmos in profound darkness. It is a change chant of a Hawaiian alii or governing chiefs. Its two thousand lines, composed and passed entirely orally, present a lengthy genealogy demonstrating the familys spiritual dimension and documenting the family background from the start. This chant is a valuable resource for learning about Hawaiian folklore, culture, political organization, and mode of living. The genealogy demonstrates how inextricably linked individuals are. It is usual in Hawaiian culture to run across a member of the family or someone they know. As a result of this work, we can say that Hawaiian mythology significantly contributed to developing these people in the future, like Greek and Roman myths.

Work Cited

Kelly, Marion. Some Helpful Notes In Developing An Understanding Of Ancient Hawaiian Society: Native Planters in Old Hawaii. (2021).

Both The Iroquois Creation Myth and Bradstreets poem To My Dear and Loving Husband share a common theme of the strength of the love of a woman. The latter literary work focuses on how a wife can love her husband to the extent that they seek to preserve the bond for eternity. The myth uses more metaphysical concepts, such as the creation of stars, moon, and Sun, where it was due to the Sky Woman, there was light and life. Therefore, the common topic observable in both works is the power of love projected by a woman onto her surroundings. Firstly, it is important to note that the myth revolves around the concept of betrayal, nature, and the complexity of life. It tries to explain why earth exists and how it comes to be both loving and hostile at the same time. It describes that one of the Twin Sons, Sapling, was the good one who created everything that people enjoy and need, whereas Flint is responsible for the existence of hostile aspects of life, such as winters, carnivores, and inconveniences. However, both of the Twin Sons were brought to life by their mother, the Sky Woman, who provided the most fundamental elements of life. These include the Sun, moon, and stars, and partly the ground on which they walk and stand. In other words, despite her suffering from betrayal, she was able to persevere and make a better world beneath Sky Island. Secondly, the core idea in Bradstreets poem is the love between a husband and wife. The emphasis of poem is focused on the narrators expression of love directed towards her husband. It states: I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold, or all the riches that the East doth hold. My love is such that rivers cannot quench (Bradstreet par. 1). In other words, the narrators love towards her husband is stronger than rivers, riches, and gold. Therefore, the latter elements cannot compare to the overall strength of love expressed by a woman. In addition, the intensity of love is also accompanied by the longitude, where the narrator seeks for her bond to be eternal. She states: Then while we live, in love lets so persever, that when we live no more, we may live ever (Bradstreet par. 1). She wants her love to be present long after she and her husband pass away. Thirdly, the shared idea of womanly love is present in both works, but with differential accentuations. For instance, the myth focuses on womanly love independent of her partner since she was betrayed by her husband. In addition, there is an emphasis on motherly love towards her children, for whom she created habitable and hospitable earth. In the case of the selected poem, love of most about the familial bond between a husband and wife. Both cases present and demonstrate how strong such a womanly love can be in the context of motherhood and wifehood.

The American College Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the adjective blind as: 1. lacking the sense of sight; 2. unwilling, or unable to try or understand; 3. not controlled by reason: (blind tenacity); 4. not possessing or proceeding from intelligence; 5. lacking all awareness: ( a blind stupor); 6. drunk  hard to see or understand (blind reasoning); 7. made without knowledge in advance: ( a blind bargain). (The American College Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1952:54).

What the reader gleans from stories about Oedipus was not that he became blind only in middle age after he had gotten married and had four children. After close reading, many readers tend to believe otherwise. True, Oedipus became physically blind when he gouged out his own eyes upon learning that he had committed the crime of incest; but it is hinted in many versions of the story of Oedipus, that he had only himself to blame for the unfortunate circumstances in his youth because he acted of his own free will. It can be said, therefore, that Oedipus was blind without his knowledge even before he was, physically. This would especially conform to the last definition of the ACD  made without knowledge in advance. This paper will endevour to prove the truth of its title  that Oedipus was blind in more ways than one and that the unfortunate circumstances in which he found himself later in his life could have been avoided had he been more careful and less stubborn and impulsive.

This is the story of Oedipus in a nutshell: It is a Greek legend about the son of Laius and Jocasta. Reared by the King of Corinth, he killed his father involuntarily and solved the riddle of the Sphinx, thereby becoming the King of Thebes and unwittingly winning the hand of his mother in marriage. When the nature of his deeds became apparent, Jocasta hanged herself, and Oedipus tore his eyes out.

The story of Oedipus at length is presented here for purposes of analysis, and to give credence to the statement that Oedipus could have been master of his own fate, had he chosen to be so. King Laius of thebes was third in line from Cadmus. He married a distant cousin, Jocasta. When their reign began, Apollos oracle at Delphi began to play an important part in the familys fortunes.

Apollo was the God of Truth. Whatever the priestess at Delphi predicted would surely come to pass. Any attempt to act in such a way as to prevent the prophecy from taking place would prove to be fruitless. Laius persisted to go on even against fate despite the oracles warning that he would die at the hands of his son. When the son was born, he tied his feet together and had it exposed on a lonely mountaintop where it would surely die. His heart now felt no fear. He was confident that he could foretell the future better than Apollo. He never realized his folly. Indeed, he was killed by a man he thought to be a stranger. He never realized that Apollos prediction would come true, for he was slain by his own son, Oedipus.

He was away from home when he died and a long time had passed when his baby son had been left on the mountain. What was reported was that a band of robbers had attacked, killing him and his attendants, except one who escaped and reported the matter home. The matter was not carefully investigated because Thebes was in a state of emergency. The city was in the clutches of a monster, The Sphinx. By this time, Oedipus had already become a man. Another report was that Laius was killed in a drunken brawl. Oedipus must have been intoxicated when he killed his father. In this regard, he was blind. According to the ACD, drunkenness is a kind of blindness. Since he did not recognize his father at the time of slaying, he would also have been undergoing a different kind of blindness. This situation could have been avoided if Oedipus grew up away from drinking sprees and getting into brawls.

Going back to the Sphinx, she was a creature who was with a body of a lion, but with the breast and face of a woman. She waited for wayfarers going to the city and whomever she caught, she put a riddle to him. If he answered correctly, she let him go; if not, she would devour him. This went on until the city was in a state of siege. The terrible monster devoured man after man until the seven gates of Thebes remained closed and famine threatened to lay waste the citizens.

It so happened that a young man, with great courage and intelligence came upon her. It was no other than Oedipus himself. He had left home in Corinth where he was the son of its king  Polybus. The reason for his self-exile was purportedly another Delphian oracle  that he was fated to kill his father. Like Laius before him, Oedipus wanted to go against fate and make the prediction fail. Hence, he resolved to leave, never to see Polybus again. He really thought that Polybus was his father.

Surely, Oedipus as he was growing up, had heard whispers going around about his being an adopted son, but he chose not to pay any attention gossip, so he became blind to the possibility that he was not a bona fide son of Polybus. Had he not blinded himself, he would not have left home at all and most importantly, Oedipus would not have committed the crime of killing his father.

Oedipus heard what was happening in Thebes there. A man, homeless and friendless and to whom life meant so little. He decided to find the Sphinx and attempt to solve the riddle. This instance can be another one where Oedipus showed his blindness. He should not have valued his life more since life is too wonderful as to lose sight of its worth. Had he not left home, the hideous crime would not have happened since it was committed far from Corinth.

The Sphinx asked Oedipus, What creature goes on four feet in the morning; on two in the noon; on three in the evening? Oedipus answered, Man. In childhood, he walks on all fours; in manhood, he walks erect; in old age, he helps himself with a cane. His answer was correct and the Sphinx killed himself, thus saving the Thebans (Sophocles: n.p.).

Oedipus gained a great deal by using his intelligence. The grateful citizens crowned him King. He sought the hand in marriage of Jocasta and married her. Perhaps he was so affected by his success as a hero that he never bothered to look into the past of Jocasta. He was blinded by his victory, otherwise he would have not married her and spared himself the catastrophe that was waiting to happen.

For many years, the royal family lived happily and it seemed that Apollos words amounted to nothing. But when their two sons attained maturity, Thebes was visited by a terrible plague. Those spared from disease faced death by famine. He sent Jocastas brother Creon to Delphi to implore Apollos help. Creon arrived home with the news that Apollo declared his intention to stop the plague on one condition  that the murderer of King Lairus must be punished. At first, Oedipus was relieved. Surely, the guilty ones could still be found even after all these years.

Oedipus sent for Teirisias, the old, blind prophet and asked him who the guilty ones were. At first the seer refused to answer. But when Oedipus went so far as to accuse him of keeping silence because he himself had taken part in the murder, the prophet was angered and the words fell heavily from his lips  You are yourself the murderer you seek. (Sophocles: n.p)

Jocasta, too, treated this assertion with scorn. Neither prophets nor oracles have any sure knowledge, she said. She told Oedipus how the priestess at Delphi had prophesied that Lairus should die at the hands of his son and how she and Laius had seen to it that this should not happen by having the child killed. She concluded that Laius was killed by robbers. Where three roads meet on the way to Delphi. When Oedipus asked her when it happened, she replied, Just before you came to Thebes. (Sophocles; n.p.)

He told Jocasta the following,

I went to Delphi just before I came here because a man had flung it in my face that I was not the son of Polybus. I went to ask the god Apollo. He did not answer me but told me horrible things  that I should kill my father and marry my mother& I never went back to Corinth. On my way from Delphi, at a place where three roads met, I came upon a man with four attendants. He tried to force me from the path; he struck me with his stick. Angered, I fell upon them and killed them. Could it be the leader was Laius? The one man left alive brought back a tale of robbers. Jocasta said, Laius was killed by robbers, not by his son 0 the poor innocent who died upon the mountain. (Hamilton, 1942:259-260)

As they talked further, a messenger came from Corinth to announce to Oedipus the death of Polybus. Jocasta cried,

O oracle of the god, where are you now?.. The man died but not by his sons hand. The messenger smiled, Did the fear of killing your father drive you from Corinth? Ah, King, you were in error. You never had reason to fear  for you were not the son of Polybus. He raised you as his own son but he took you from my hands. :Where did you get me? Oedipus asked. A wandering shepherd gave you to me. was the answer (Sophocles in Kennedy & Gioia, 2007: n.p.).

A look of horror was on Jocastas face. She broke away and rushed into the palace. At that moment, an old man entered.

The very man, O King, the shepherd who gave you to me. The messenger told the old man, You must remember. You gave me once a little child you had found  and the king here is that child. The shepherd muttered, Curse you. Hold your tongue. The king said, There are ways to make you speak! The old man wailed, Oh do not hurt me. I did give him the child, but ask me no further. If I have to ask him a second time where you got him, you are lost, the king said, Ask your lady, the old man said. She can tell you best. She gave him to you? asked Oedipus. Oh yes. I was to kill the child. (Sophocles in Kennedy & Gioia, 2007:1313)

Within the palace Oedipus wildly sought for his wife that was his mother. He found her in her chamber. She was dead. When the truth broke upon her, she had killed herself. Standing beside her, he too turned his hand against himself, but not to end his life. He changed his light to darkness. He put out his eyes. The black world of blindness was a refuge; better to be there than to see with strange shamed eyes the old world that had been so bright. (Sophocles in Kennedy & Gioia, 2007:1316)

In 468 B.C., Sophocles, not yet thirty, submitted a tragedy that triumphed over the play submitted by Aeschylus, an older playwright favored to win. Sophocles victory was attributed in part to his willingness to take risks and to break old conventions.

The story of Oedipus is handled in two great plays by Sophocles, Oedipus, the King deals with Oedipus discovery, after he has become King of the fact that he has killed his father and married his mother. Aristotle considered it the masterpiece of Greek tragedy. Oedipus at Colonus deals with the later years of his life after he has found refuge on Attic soil, accompanied by his faithful daughter, Antigone.

Most unhappy much of his life, he was happy at the end. The oracle which once had spoken horrible words to him comforted him when he was dying. Apollo promised that he, the disgraced, the homeless wanderer; would bring to the place where his grave should be, a mysterious blessing from the gods. Theseus, the King of Athens, received him with all honor, and the old man died rejoicing that he was no longer hateful to men, but welcomed as a benefactor to the land that harbored him. (Grolier Society of Canada, 1961:115)

References

Grolier Society of Canada, Ltd., Vol. 15. New York: Grolier Inc.,1961, p.115.

Hamilton, E., Mythology. 1942.

Sophocles. Oedipus the king. Literature An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Tenth Edition. ed. J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia.

New York: Pearson/Longman, 2007: 1285-1322.

The American College Encyclopedic Dictionary, Vol. I Spencer Press, Inc., 1952.

Introduction

Werewolves are one of the most recognizable types of monsters in modern culture. They are almost constantly featured in both mainstream and niche fiction, and the number of interpretations of the same creature grows every year. While the details of the stories vary, the core idea of a werewolf is a man or woman becoming a beast when the full moon appears in the sky. They lose control of their body and are prone to harm their loved ones or anyone else in the close vicinity.

At times the rules of the story allow for a different type of behavior but the core idea of transformation into a more animalistic form is always present. Despite the simplicity of the idea, it is tied to unexpected origins and carried different significance to people throughout the ages. This paper will outline the background information on the monster as well as explain some of the more unique interpretations of werewolf stories.

Background Information

The idea of people changing shape into wolves goes back deep into the Middle Ages. While instances of shapeshifting into animals were common in Greek mythology, the origin of modern beliefs lies close to the Slavic belief in vampires. Originally, there was no clear distinction between the two monsters but with time, the beliefs diverged, and they became separate. The exact reason for the deviation and formation of the modern myth is unclear, as a variety of Germanic and Scandinavian influences are also present in the idea of a werewolf. The modern definition is closer to the ravenous vampire/werewolf vlkolak from the Slavic myths than other, more magical types of wolf-men (Ginzburg 111).

In modern history, the idea gained popularity after a string of cannibalistic murder cases in 1500s France. At the time the idea of werewolves was associated with heretic behavior, but these events caused it to revert to the concept of a beastly human. While no actual werewolves were ever found, it did not deter people from believing in their existence as new murders and animal attacks occurred.

In some cases, people were accused of being werewolves during witch trials and sentenced to death or imprisonment. As years passed, folk beliefs stopped being taken seriously, and the idea of werewolves became only a myth. Werewolves and vampires are still often paired up in modern stories, but the connection between them became almost intangible, and currently, these monsters have very distinct mythologies attached to them (Walter 167).

Fear of the Beast

One of the primary fears that werewolves represented in their original incarnation were the fear of powerful and uncaring beasts. Wolves, foxes, bears, and other woodland predators used to periodically attack villages at night. Peoples cattle would be left mutilated, someone could be mauled to death, and children could be killed or taken by the beasts. Larger creatures that were not afraid of light and people, such as those that were sick or ravenous, posed a great threat to people and their unusual behavior gave an impression that they were originally human.

The lack of understanding of animal behavior, coupled with the distinct possibility of harm and death made those fears extremely potent. In areas where people had to live during invasions of various tribes, the idea became even more believable, as wearing wolf skins and howling was not uncommon among some cultures (Walter 169).

Fear of People

With time, the idea of werewolves transitioned from being based on humans that were beastly to common people becoming monsters. People were always afraid of other people who wanted to cause them harm, but at times even a close friend may behave in an aggressive fashion. Cases in which a seemingly upstanding member of society commits a horrific crime began to be associated with a transformation into both a metaphorical beast and a literal one.

These ideas would eventually lead to some of the most iconic portrayals of werewolves in fiction. The idea that a decent person is completely aware of their transformation but is incapable of stopping it allows for a strong sense of tragedy and pathos. At times they try to hide from the world as a hermit would, or chain themselves in a basement, but sooner or later, they are unable to control it, and tragedy strikes. This interpretation of the monster became especially popular in modern myths, as it creates a sympathetic protagonist or antagonist for a story (Schwalb and Romero 146).

The modern interpretation also holds a number of connections to real-life issues. A person who turns into a werewolf and harms their loved ones may be seen as an alcoholic or drug addict that becomes violent under the influence. People with anger management issues also may be represented as werewolves due to their quick turn to violent behavior. Before the age of psychology, mental illness also reminded people of werewolf behavior as one of the original terms used or mentally ill was lunatic meaning a person who is either obsessed or behaves weirdly during the full moon (Ekman 452).

Nazis and Werewolves

A relatively modern addition to the idea of werewolves comes from World War II. Due to the Germanic origins of the word werewolf the military command of Nazi Germany utilized this term in two key elements. One of the main headquarters of Adolf Hitler was named Werwolf. It was located in Ukraine and was active between 1942 and 1943 during the German invasion of Eastern Europe. The name was chosen due to Hitlers codename of wolf, and all the other headquarters held similar wolf-related names.

The more notable use of the term came from Operation Werwolf which attempted to create an elite armed force behind the lines of allies who were advancing through Germany. The idea held no supernatural element. However, the idea of Nazi scientists or occultists creating werewolf soldiers became common in modern folklore. The same idea can be seen in both western media as the dream sequence of American Werewolf in London, and eastern media with various Japanese novels and comic books portraying secret Nazi werewolf forces (Melchior 35).

While it may seem that this representation does not have a connection to real fears or anxieties of the modern world, it can be interpreted as fear of people holding dark beliefs under the surface. With the recent rise of nationalistic movements across the world and the reemergence of neo-Nazi groups, it is clear that people are still capable of following inherently evil ideas. In the first years of the war, Nazis were unstoppable and committed almost inhuman atrocities. However, they were human, and this notion is terrifying. Nobody would have imagined that a person who was a normal mechanic in 1938 would be involved in a massacre only a year later, but such cases were common. The werewolf in these stories represents the terrifying ability of a person to become a monster.

Conclusion

The core idea of a werewolf is a person becoming a beast. This idea was explored in a great number of iterations over the centuries and is still relevant today. At times people are afraid of their friends, family members, and even themselves because they do not want to harm anyone. Thankfully, real life has a number of support groups and rehabilitation methods to help such people, while there is no cure for being a werewolf in fiction.

Works Cited

Ekman, Stefan. Urban Fantasy: A Literature of the Unseen. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, vol. 27, no. 3, 2016, pp. 45269.

Ginzburg, Carlo. Conjunctive Anomalies: A Reflection on Werewolves. Revista de Estudios Sociales No.35, vol. 60. 2017, pp. 11018.

Melchior, Ib. Order of Battle: Hitlers Werewolves. Open Road Media, 2014.

Schwalb, S. R., and Gustavo Sánchez Romero. Beast: Werewolves, Serial Killers, and Man-Eaters: The Mystery of the Monsters of the Gévaudan. Skyhorse, 2016.

Walter, Brenda S. Gardenour. Our Old Monsters: Witches, Werewolves and Vampires from Medieval Theology to Horror Cinema. McFarland, 2015.

Introduction

A comparative study of mythology is essential for understanding the specifics of cultural and historical areas in the ancient world. Mythology was not only an arsenal for literature but also a direct predecessor of religious and philosophical thought. Moreover, the evolution of myth-making reflected the main stages of ancient societies development. The creation and use of mythology helped people conceptualize the surrounding reality (Agee 4). Thanks to it, they could explain any phenomena and events of the world. In addition, myths about the creation and death of the universe helped people fight a sense of uncertainty. They could be guided by life principles that could benefit their afterlife. The purpose of this paper is to compare Norse and Indian myths about universe creation, death, and rebirth.

Main body

Norse mythology seems to be slightly more straightforward than Indian. According to the Norse myths, at first, nothing existed, and later two worlds, cold and hot, arose immediately. After their creation, giants, gods, and then people were born. All these creatures are of different sexes, which probably indicates the desire of people to create complete mythology. In Indian mythology, the world is also a product of two opposing elements: water and fire. Nevertheless, the very origin of water (the only matter that existed initially) is not explained. When the two elements collided, the Golden Egg appears. This is the egg that gave birth to Brahma, who created all other living beings. Interestingly, the mythology of India gives motives to his actions: realizing that he is alone, he decided to create a company for himself. This explains one of the universal human feelings: the fear of being alone.

In Norse mythology, much attention is paid to the end of the world: Ragnarok. Various characters were invented for it, and the entire course of the battle between the gods and the forces of evil is described. People who believed in these myths knew precisely who would kill whom and what the consequences of the battle would be. Undoubtedly, the last war cannot pass without a trace, so its result will be the destruction of the Earth. However, after it is destroyed and plunged into the sea, it will be reborn and become as prolific and pure as it was before the settlement of people and gods. It is likely that this myth reflects the awareness of the harmful human influence on the planet. Probably, ancient people already understood this tendency at that time.

In the mythology of India, the end of the world is presented in a completely different way. The main idea is that everything that happens on Earth is Brahmas day. At this time, the creator of the universe does not sleep; he is just reflecting. His day lasts thousands of human years, so people have time for life. However, when Brahma goes to bed, the night of Brahma begins. At this moment, the entire existing universe disappears until Brahma wakes up and recreates everything. One can note a clear difference between the two mythologies: in the Norse events develop more linearly, and the Indian is very cyclical. Norse mythology does not provide knowledge of what will happen after the rebirth of the Earth, and in Indian, everything is predetermined.

Conclusion

Thus, in Norse and Indian mythologies, there are both common features and significant differences. The difference between them is due to the radically different cultural characteristics of countries. However, they partly converge in some aspects that help people better understand the world around them. The presence of myths gives human life meaning, and people look more calmly at the past and the future of the world.

Work Cited

Agee, Jennifer. Systematic Mythology: Imagining the Invisible. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2018.

A hero strikes one as an individual whose personal attributes elicit admiration both before and after their death. Mythology presents a hero as one with great strength and courage, one who is widely celebrated for bold exploits. Making such a unique character entails a process as Joseph has explained in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces. His book has summarized the fundamental structures shared by a majority of myths that have been in circulation for years. The outline contains an acknowledgment of the fact that all storytelling, whether done consciously or not, in part follows the ancient patterns of myth, which may be in form of jokes, childrens literature, or even novels (Vogler 352).

The stories may not encompass all stages outlined by Campbell, but most fall in one or more of those stages. The book has influenced the professional lives of artists such as musicians, poets, and filmmakers in the contemporary world, forming a basis for their storylines. While following the steps, one has to do it prudently to avoid attracting attention to the structure itself, thus avoiding excessive predictability (Spiritual Emergency par 3).

The twelve stages involve the hero starting in an ordinary world, followed by a call to adventure, which is the unusual world. If the hero accepts to join the adventure, he faces challenges and probably gains help along the way. Survival of the hero at this stage may earn him a gift-boon, after which he decides to return home with his gain. He again comes across challenges on the return journey and in case he achieves this successfully; the gift is utilized to improve his world. These stages can be reduced to three major phases being: departure, which is the separation from the ordinary world to adventure. Second is the initiation phase which entails the heros adventures in the alien world, and lastly the return, which entails the heros return to his home, having earned vital knowledge or powers in the course of the journey.

The monomyth of the heros journey in The Hero with a Thousand Faces, puts more emphasis on the masculine journey, although not entirely as exhibited in the princess of the Grimms,  The Frog Prince and Inannas Descent into the Underworld (Campbell 23).

This paper seeks to discuss how the stages outlined in The Hero with a Thousand Faces are utilized in the film Finding Nemo.

Finding Nemo is an American computer animated movie written by Andrew Stanton and produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney pictures. The movie hit the market in 2003, even though its preproduction had been done in 1997. It has a record for being the highest sold out in the opening weekend for an animated feature.

In a recap, the movie revolves around the life of fish, a neurotic Marlin who is overprotective towards his son Nemo. At school, Nemos friends have teased him of his fathers over-protective attitude towards him. Nemo goes out to prove to his friends that he can swim without his fathers aid. He is however captured by a scuba diver and his widowed father, Marlin, has to trace him with the help of Dory a fish experiencing a short-term memory loss. They both set off to Sydney, Australia, and everyone else in the oceans is willing to help them in whatever way, as news of their search has spread rapidly. In the meantime, Nemo is taken to a fish tank by the diver who happens to be a dentist. The other fish in the tank learn that Nemo is to be given to the dentists niece Darla, who is known to kill her pets. They try to devise ways for Nemos escape, where they even soil the tank with the hope that they would be taken out of the tank to facilitate the escape. The dentist however installs a high-tech cleaning filter while the fish are asleep rendering their efforts futile.

In the meantime, Marlin and Dory have arrived in Sydney and are taken by a friendly penguin, Nigel to the dentists office, just as he is about to give Nemo to Darla. Nemo pretends to be dead, something that his father Marlin assumes to be true, and causes commotion in the dentists office. This state of tumult buys time for Nemo. Gill, the leader of the tank fish helps Nemo to escape through a drain.

Meanwhile, Dory and Marlin separates when they get back to the sea. Dory then meets Nemo and though experiencing some memory lapses, she remembers what Marlins objective was, and guides Nemo back to his father. In the end, they are reunited although Dory is later caught along with a group of friends in a fishing net. Nemo helps them out using a trick taught by Gill and other fish in the tank. The three go home with Marlin less protective towards his son, more so because he is now aware of his sons abilities. He is also praised by the fish community, for being an outstanding father. Nemos adventures are a delight to the other children and they are now more receptive of his personality (Rotten Tomatoes 1).

The first step of the hero journey is being present in the ordinary world. Others will put it as birth. Special circumstances in the heros life at conception, birth or their childhood define their pedigree which greatly makes up their monomyth cycle. In the ordinary world, the hero lives within his normal surroundings which later provides a basis for contrast when he or she goes to the alien world. In the film Finding Nemo, we will consider the heroes as both Nemo and Marlin. The first thirty minutes present Marlin in an ocean which is his ordinary world. He loses his wife and a number of their other eggs after an attack by a shark. The one egg that survives makes him so protective of it in a bid to honor his mates wish of taking good care of their only son.

Nemo, on the other hand, is born to a single father who is overly protective. This information is spread to his school mates who make fun of his circumstances, and Nemo is determined to prove them wrong. The ordinary environment of the heroes is that of an ocean, consisting of dangers to be overcome. This however, does not hinder Nemos zeal to show his capability in swimming and independence.

The second outlined stage is the call to adventure which again is depicted in the lives of Nemo and Marlin. The heroes are presented with a challenge, adventure or a problem. They may choose to join the adventure willingly or reluctantly. Similarly, they may choose to tackle a problem or challenge because they have an obligation to do so. Marlin goes through the trouble of rescuing Nemo but the latter is blown back into the boat by the divers. Marlin has no option but to follow after his son. Nemo on the other hand ventures into unsafe waters willingly, to simply prove his friends wrong. His adventure starts with the divers trap, something he was not prepared for. These two stages encompass the departure, under which we meet the heroes ordinary world and their invitation to adventure.

Third, hero Marlin meets the wise woman/man. The special helper is meant to give the hero power, maybe through a protective amulet or weapon for the journey. A mentor is introduced who perhaps disappears at some time. Finding Nemo has Dory as this special woman. She brings encouragement to Marlin and offers to swim along with him. Though she experiences memory loss, her reading ability is invaluable. She also plays a vital role in the return journey where she leads Nemo back home after she is separated from Marlin.

The fourth exemplified stage is meeting with helpers, enemies and tests alike. In the new world, the hero is forced to make friends and enemies who define how successful he is going to be in the tests that might follow. Marlin meets Bruce who is in a group of recovering fish eaters. He however reverts to his old ways and Marlin and Dory have to run for their lives. They again have to run away from an angler fish who also threatens to eat them. They meet a friendly moonfish who directs them to Sydney, when they are lost, and have to evade some deadly jellyfish. Marlin finally meets a resourceful pelican, Nigel who leads him to the dentists office.

Nemo also meets good friends in the aquarium who are willing to help him escape. Gill is one of them, and he eventually leads him out. As for tests, Nemo almost dies while trying to disable the water filter in the tank. His live was also threatened by Darla. The last two steps entail the initiation stages that lead to them to obtaining their goal.

Fifth is the resurrection phase. Heroes in this stage come off their ordeals transformed by what they have gone through. Marlin, having been an overly protective father meets Crush who gives his children freedom to do what they wish, an opportunity to learn from their mistakes. He also learns the essence of trusting those willing to help other than being cynical of their motives. Nemo learns how to break traps from the tank fish, and ultimately becomes independent.

Last but not least is the return with the elixir. Heroes here come back to their ordinary world with some treasure or boon without which their adventure would have been wasteful. It may be knowledge, love or a treasure itself, which differentiate him from his initial personality. Marlin has learnt his lesson; he lets Nemo free having recognized his abilities. Nemo has acquired the most valuable of lessons. He comfortably saves Dory and the other fish trapped in the fishing net, an antic he learnt from Gill while in the tank.

In conclusion, the films we have today are only an upgrade of the steps outlined by Campbell, a way of story telling and more particularly story making. The outline is so flexible; it can be applied by all genres in all classes, and yet entertain and educate.

Works Cited

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Novato: New World Library. 2008. Print.

Rotten Tomatoes. Finding Nemo (2003). Web.

Spiritual Emergency. The hero with a Thousand Faces. 2010. Web.

Vogler, Christopher.The writers journey: Mythic structure for writers Studio city: Michael Wiese Productions.1998. Print.

Introduction

Indian mythology is rich in legends and stories about the lives of various tribes. One such example is The Story of Asdiwal, which was told by Tsimshian Indians, natives of the Northwest Pacific coast of Canada. The story provides the reader with a detailed overview of the lives of indigenous people, as well as Indian symbolism and traditions. The character of Asdiwal serves as a guide to the Tsimshian world, whereas he does not necessarily represent the typical and authentic member of his tribe. The treasure of the myth is that its story is universally human and might be understood by anyone regardless of ethnicity or social status.

Main body

To fully understand the story in question, it might be useful to investigate the geographical and economic background with its influence on the Tsimshian Indians lifestyle. The Skeena valley area is the central location of the narrative, where several critical events take place from the beginning to the final lines of the story. The local economy is characterized by the absence of agriculture, which is compensated by wild fruit and vegetable foraging in summer. To avoid the dearth of food in winter, the Tsimshian people have to rely heavily on hunting bears and goats, as well as fishing cod and halibut (Levi-Strauss, p. 2). Such harsh conditions turned these aboriginal people into a migrating community that moves between villages in the Naas and the Skeena and temporary fishing locations scattered around the Canadian wilderness.

Despite all efforts of brave hunters and skillful fishermen to provide food for the tribe, winter famine is still a prevailing theme in the myth. The main character, Asdiwal, for example, tragically lost his grandfather to the disaster and has to fight against it himself. Throughout the story, he demonstrates the extraordinary ability to survive by hunting and fishing, even though it is only possible with the help of his supernatural gift, rather than his talents or training. The creature called Hatsenas, or the bird of good omen, saved the lives of Asdiwals family and eventually married his mother.

It might be assumed that Hatsenas hoped that his son would use the gift to become a savior for the Tsimshian people, the only human able to fight against the ruthless forces of nature. Just like any legendary character, Asdiwal is expected to serve as a universal hero, a positive image of a person who would overcome obstacles on his way to justice and prosperity. However, overwhelmed with power, the young man uses his abilities only to impress others and earn their respect.

Traveling from one village to another, he always finds new encounters and potential love interests. He manages to marry every girl he likes and win every contest available to him. At one point in the story, Asdiwal even gets a chance to climb the ladder to heaven, where he meets the Sun, asking him to complete some impossible quests and offering his daughter, Evening Star, as a prize (Levi-Strauss, p. 5). Every time there is a trial or a problem, Hatsenas helps his son in need, so Asdiwal grows overconfident and proud of himself and his magic powers, feeling almighty.

Despite his success and popularity, Asdiwal constantly feels nostalgia and yearns for his home village. Even his multiple marriages and wives cannot make him happy and fulfilled. He never feels complete and is always looking for new adventures and, sometimes, new trouble. It might be regarded as the characters search for his calling that he ignores or does not understand. The gift from the above might not merely be a sign of fatherly love, but the duty that a father shares with his son. Towards the end of the story, though, Asdiwal probably realizes his true purpose and shares his magic artifacts with his son, sharing at the same time, the great duty with him. The story ends here and does not tell the reader about the events that follow. It is now up for the son to choose his path and destiny, not only for himself, but for the Tsimshian people too.

In this respect, it might be reasonable to draw a parallel between the aforementioned story and real life. It does not matter which part of the world a person lives in or when, the concept of humanity and the concept of duty remain universal and unchangeable. By default, most people are born with special abilities or talents of some kind. On the one hand, they might be evident and even extraordinary, requiring no time or effort to manifest. A person having such abilities is often called a genius and starts attracting attention from childhood. Being gifted with magical artifacts and their powers early in life is similar to being a child prodigy. Asdiwal from the story is an example of such a person who might be compared to a wild tree, requiring no care or effort to blossom beautifully and bear fruit. One might enjoy it for free, paying no regard to the value of this perfect gift of nature.

On the other hand, talents and abilities might be subtle or obscure unless enough time and attention are given to them. They might be likened to a precious tree that a person is trying to grow in the garden, taking care of it and waiting patiently for the fruit and flowers to appear. The slow and steady development of talents teaches people discipline and responsibility as they learn that the positive result does not have to come easily.

Ordinary people of the Tsimshian, for instance, are not the most prominent characters of the story, but they still play a crucial role in the existence of their tribe. They risk their lives every winter, trying to feed their community despite having no unique artifacts or talents. They have to practice and work every day as it is their duty. The fish and hunt as it is their only way to survive and put some food on the table of their families. In contrast, Asdiwal denies his responsibilities and uses his magic powers only to his benefit. Therefore, being the main character in the narrative does not always equate to being a hero and a positive force behind the story. The real heroes are humble hunters and fishermen who made the further existence of aboriginal people possible.

Conclusion

The Story of Asdiwal is not only an entertaining old myth but also an educating tale, which taught me the importance of being diligent and modest. Indigenous people of the Tsimshian might have a lot in common with hard-working people today, while Asdiwal symbolizes confidence in those who waste away their talents. The greatest lesson we learn from the story is that if a person is gifted with some special ability, it is worth using it for the common good, to help others and grow personally. All in all, I believe that people as social creatures need to work together and do their best to make the world a better place for everyone.

References

Levi-Strauss, Claude. The Story of Asdiwal. The Structural Study of Myth and Totemism, edited by Edmund Leach, Taylor and Francis, 2013, pp. 1-47.

Mythology is a term derived from Greek and can be broken into two terms, mythos which means narrative and logos which relates to speech or in other terms; argument. Mythology can then be defined as the act of studying myths, which are stories that are held to be true by a given culture, and the use of supernatural to interpret the normal events and explain nature of universe and even humanity. Mythology can thus be said to mean gathering of myths that a given society used, for example we can talk of Greek Mythology. In this approach it means a form of myths which have been used by given society at some given time of human history. Still mythologies can be grouped in other categories. For example classifying some geographically (Stein, p. 89).

Historic events simply refer to major events that have occurred in the years back. Due to poor form of documentation it was very hard to keep proper records of the procedures that led to their occurrence. It is in this sense that mythology came in place to try and shed light on what led to the historic events. Mythology can be used in artwork to represent actual historic events in the world.

In essence myths and even mythologies intend to rationalize and give explanation of the world and all it contains. One can say that they play more less the role of science, religion, theology and history in current societies. Myths have given a better historical framework to the societies that never had a sophisticated knowledge given by the current science and even past investigations.

Through the following discussions it can be shown clearly how mythology can be used to show actual historic events. Some of the historic events that we are going to consider include: creation myths, diver myths and Egyptian myths.

Creation myths help in expounding in details how the world was formed and also its complexities. Most of these myths start with birth as the main theme. For example in creation myth of the Japanese, it is believed that initially all things were mixed together within one germ that had life.

The germ mixed things resulting in heavier part sinking and lighter one rising. This led to the creation of muddy sea that covered the entire earth. Then there grew a green shoot which went up to the clouds and then formed a god which after growing lonely created more gods.

Of the god created there was Izanami and the other Izanagi which were last the gods to be created. One day as Izanagi was walking, he threw his staff on the ocean and upon retrieving it, the Japan Island was formed. The two gods then settled there on the island and caused crops to grow. Later they were joined together and had two children a girl whom they found very radiant and pretty and decided to take her to the sky and she was the sun. The other became what is now the moon.

Their third child was an unruly son who was thrown into the sea in which he causes storms. Later, they had another child Amaterasu that had a son who later became Japans emperor. All Japans emperors have since then traced their origin from him

Another myth is that regarding Iroquois of Northern America. It tries to explain why the Iroquois people do respect animals so much. It talks of a sky woman who after a harmonious living in an island in the sky became pregnant against the husbands wishes. The husband out of rage threw the out of the island. The woman came falling into sea that was under the sky (Daniel, p. 54).

The animals that lived on the earth gave her a timely rescue. They had to dive under the sea to get mud that they piled onto a big turtle. The mud grew into size like that of North America. The Sky Woman then stepped onto the land that had formed from the mad. She then went ahead to create not only the stars, but even the sun and later the moon.

She then bore twin sons, Sapling who created good things and Flint who always tried to deform what his brother had made. War eventually arose between them and Flint was overpowered. Since he was a god he could not be destroyed so he was compelled to stay on the huge turtles back. Once in a while he expresses his anger in form of a volcano. Iroquois people of Northern America have ever since respected animals due to the crucial role they played.

The other example is the Egyptian myth that talks of Osiris, the wise king who brought civilization to Egypt and his unscrupulous brother Seth. Osiris was tricked by his brother to enter into built chest in which Seth shut him in it before throwing it into the sea. Isis, the wife Osiris later retrieved the body.

But since Seth was determined he traced the chest and chopped the body into fourteen parts. Undeterred by the actions, Isis searched for the parts and upon finding them she gathered the pieces together so that she could keep Osiriss body intact. This would help Osiris in getting his way to the underworld.

After Isis was done with the task, she together with the help of gods Anubis and Thoth embalmed the whole body of Osiris and mummified it. They created the first form of a funeral rite. Isis then changed into a fowl and gave her husband gulp of air of life through flapping her wings. Though Osiris was born afresh, he had to claim another throne to become ruler over the dead (Nietzche, p. 91).

The changes of weather were extreme in Egypt. One could not escape powers of natural world, life and even death. All this is clearly reflected in Egypts mythology. The most profound was the Egyptians cult relating to death. The Egyptians were ready for an afterlife that could relate to the present life that they lived. Osiris was king over the dead, god of both the death and also god of rebirth. He turned to govern a big area underworld.

Through the above examples we then can appreciate why the communities hold on the beliefs that they have. This is because of the logical explanations that the myths do give.

The ancient history of mythology can be summarized through stating that the first flowering of scientific rationalism in Greece till the revival of scientific rationalism, figurative mythology of one form or another was the only single way that was used for studying myths. As much as myths can be used in justifying actual historic events that have shaped the world they can not be very much be relied upon. This is because their validity can not be tested. We however do appreciate them in the sense that through them we can have a rough idea of our past.

Works cited

1. Daniel, Marcel. The Creation of Mythology. The international Journal of the inclusive museum 28.4 (2008): 43-65.
2. Stein, Margaret. The Myths Analyzed Journal of Geophysical Research 6.8 (1998): 61- 93.
3. Nietzche, Albert. The Egyptian Myths Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social 1.67(2005): 91