Category: Muslim

Introduction

With the development of globalization processes, there is an intensification of ethnic, cultural, and religious mixing, which in turn leads to the emergence of multicultural clashes. One such basis for the development of conflict is the extrapolation of the Eastern experience to a Western environment in which the wearing of the hijab by women may be perceived by Westerners as provocative or threatening (Freedman, 2007; Eid, 2014). An obvious consequence of this is the discrimination of Muslim women in Western communities, leading to the denial of their rights to wear the hijab in public places (Masih & Shih, 2022). This pattern requires attention because, in democratic societies, there is a paradoxical disadvantage to women with different religions (Alimahomed-WilSon, 2020). Thus, the hijab as a covering of a Muslim woman’s head leads to a multiplicity of interpretations, the results of which become a manifestation of discrimination — for this reason, examining the reasons for and perceptions of the wearing of hijabs by Muslim women in Western communities has essential research value, enabling a deeper examination of the cultural framework of the hijab in both Eastern and Western environments.

This literature review examines the causes and dualities of perception that the wearing of the hijab creates; it provides a two-pronged view of the hijab issue, namely multicultural and intersectional. Both paradigms assume that the hegemonic values of Western centrism ignore the cultural frameworks of traditions that are foreign to them and instead tend to view them in a negative way (Göle and Billaud, 2011). The literature review concludes with a largely hypocritical view of the hijab, in which the hijab as a symbol is encouraged or forbidden depending on the needs of a particular community.

A Multicultural View

Many writers studied faced a problem understanding the meanings women placed on wearing the traditional hijab. While some writers were inclined to postulate only dichotomous meanings, others, on the contrary, actively criticized this approach and offered many reasons. Safdar and Jassi’s (2022) work, based on an evaluated factor analysis unique MOTH scale, is most appealing in this regard, showing that the reasons for wearing the hijab should be looked at from a multicultural paradigm. Safdar and Jassi’s work uses the survey of 442 Canadian Muslim women to determine why respondents choose to wear the hijab. Some of the specific factors the authors cite are as a symbol of worship to God, as an indicator of a political statement of faith, as the desire to attract respectful attitudes, and as a factor to protect against unnecessary stares. The latter seems particularly worrying because other authors, including Freedman (2007) and Eid (2014), have reported that wearing hijabs does not save Muslim women from unwanted actions but rather provokes them. Safdar and Jassi point out that wearing the hijab can be considered in terms of identity theory (2009). By wearing the hijab, they may invest it with a sense of reinforcing their sense of belonging to a particular culture, which satisfies their demands. In continuation of Safdar and Jassi’s thought, one should quote Bilge (2010), who showed that human subjectivity, and thus patterns of perception of reality, are conditioned by ideological considerations, the consequence of which is their behavior. Bilge uses poststructuralist critique to contradict common patterns of hijab perception and define the role of female agency. In other words, women choose for themselves what they want to wear, which is motivated by the Muslim woman’s explanations.

However, not all authors are as verbose about explaining the reasons for wearing the hijab, although this does not mean that some works are superior to others. An intriguing thought was published in a religious essay by Rahman (2020), who argues that wearing the hijab is primarily a symbol of chastity and a dress code to be observed based on Sharia law. However, Al-Kazi and González (2018) point out that the face is not haram, so its covering is social rather than religious symbolism. Rahman’s work, different from the other sources of this literature review, tells the reader about the Qur’anic social construct that encourages women to cover their heads traditionally; the term “traditionally” was not used casually because the author, unlike Safdar and Jassi (2009) or Bilge (2010), advocates depriving women of autonomy in their choice of hijab and openly criticizes trends toward fashionable hijabs. It is worth mentioning that the hijab has indeed gained increased popularity in the last thirty years, resulting in the gradual losing its indigenous religious symbolism (Al-Kazi & González, 2018). This makes this essay extremely interesting to place within the framework of a literary review, as it allows for the exploration of alternative research opinions.

The Symbolic Perception

Few works discuss the specific reasons for wearing the hijab, as most focus on the symbolic perception of the act by the Western community into which Muslim women are trying to integrate. Bilge (2010) points out that the Western community often perceives wearing the hijab as a sign of women’s imprisonment: this conclusion is prevalent in both academic and public sources, but it is difficult to say that this is entirely true; rather, the deprivation of liberty through the wearing of the hijab contradicts the idea that Muslim women tend to have self-determination (Janmohamed, 2021; Göle & Billaud, 2011). Meanwhile, the Western agenda has often positioned the hijab through a negative paradigm. Several authors point to the unbreakable association of the hijab with terrorism, which has been reinforced since the tragic events of 2001 (Alimahomed-WilSon, 2020; Freedman, 2007). This does not seem surprising, especially in the context of the ease of visual perception of the hijab, as reported by Safdar and Jassi (2022). Safdar & Jassi do not specify the reason for this association, but it can be found in Eid (2014), who accuses the media of inflating the agenda. The researcher believes that this negative perception of the hijab is blamed on the media, which tends to portray the hijab as a threat in the name of political Western-centric motives.

It is common for authors to mention threats in the context of the hijab. At least Bilge (2010), Paz & Kook (2021), and Freedman (2007) write about the threat as a factor in the perception of women wearing the hijab. The authors point to the same idea: wearing the hijab is perceived by the Western community in a dualistic way, either as a factor of subjugation or as a threat. In terms of subordination, the hijab is closely related to the patriarchal traditions of the East, in which a woman must submit to her man (Akporherhe & Oghenerioborue, 2022; Bilge, 2010). This idea echoes a more liberally written article by Safdar and Jassi (2022), who pointed to the modesty factor as one reason for choosing the hijab. From a threat perspective, Bilge (2010) points out that wearing the hijab can be perceived as an open protest against Western hegemony. Thus, wearing the hijab may indeed be seen as some form of active protest. Although several sources have pointed to the countervailing aspect of hijab-wearing, none has answered why a Muslim woman in another culture needs to protest and whether this protest makes long-term sense or becomes a cause for developing confrontations. In turn, confrontations against Muslim women are more frequent than the promotion of cultural self-determination: acts of physical violence, misrepresentation in the media, and persecution are regularly reported (Eid, 2014; Freedman, 2007). For example, 75% of Muslims surveyed in the United States said they regularly feel discriminated against for religious and cultural reasons, with half of the sample saying that being Muslim in the United States has become more complicated in recent years (Pew Research Center, 2017). In this context, the hijab is also referred to as a subject of gender oppression, but these views apply to Western perceptions of Eastern traditions (Eid, 2014). In other words, where the Western hegemonic sees oppression and inequality, the representative of the Muslim community perceives it as the norm for their culture.

Thus, academic discourse does not present a unified view of Muslim women’s reasons for and perceptions of hijab-wearing in the Western community. There is a clear tendency to liberalize the act, and the driving forces behind the decision to wear the hijab are explored differentially, from the religious to the ideological and political. At the same time, wearing the hijab is often interpreted negatively by the Western public and associated with oppression, gender inequality, and threat. However, there are positive aspects, including self-identification and resistance to Western hegemony.

The Intersectional Paradigm

What several authors claim is actively overlooked by the public when considering both the causes and consequences of wearing the hijab is the intersectional perspective. In their research paper based on a literature review, Göle and Billaud (2011) reported that the problem with Western centrism is the refusal to place a particular phenomenon within a historical context. It is much easier for an individual unfamiliar with Eastern traditions and not ready to accept the fact that a Muslim woman’s self-determination is possible to associate the hijab with a threat to herself than with the culture and traditions of another ethnicity. Such a community fears that “outsiders” will destroy the identity of their culture and introduce atypical traditions and patterns (Schwarz, 2017). Notably, the name for such traditions is found in two works: Göle and Billaud (2011) and Alimahomed-WilSon (2020) have chosen words to describe this invasion. Alimahomed-WilSon, in his work based on semi-structured interviews, labeled invasive traditions barbaric, whereas Göle and Billaud called them archaic. It is unknown how much the authors themselves agreed with these terms, but, more importantly, the fact that such emotional adjectives are used demonstrates the high egocentricity of Western communities.

It is impossible not to classify the treatment of Muslim women as hypocritical. From the perspective of multiculturalism, Muslim women are a marginalized group, which in European countries seek to get out of this position. Göle and Billaud (2011) report an increased presence of Muslim women in political groups and activist movements in recent years. The hijab, in this sense, is used as an easily perceived symbol of diversity — to see a woman wearing a hijab in parliament is tantamount to understanding the practical measures that the government uses to demarginalize this community. Meanwhile, the hijab was openly and officially used to symbolize gender oppression when the U.S. Army decided to enter Afghanistan (Göle & Billaud, 2011; Ahmadi & Tariq, 2022). It turns out that, on the one hand, the hijab is a tool to demonstrate governmental liberality, especially in multicultural communities, and on the other hand, it is a tool to pressure society. Both examples can be called hypocritical since wearing the hijab is not seen from the perspective of women and their choice of self-determination but is used at convenient moments for the authorities.

Ambiguity is also noted in feminist agency movements that address social agenda issues. While it seems that feminist movements are supposed to fight for women’s rights they stem from the most popular tendencies in the West toward these rights (Okech, 2020). Alimahomed-WilSon (2020) calls this phenomenon homonationalism, in which Western cultures are seen as more progressive. Eid (2014) continues these thoughts when he says that Muslim women in feminist communities are seen as needing help and protection. On the other hand, feminist communities are heterogeneous, so some members understand the importance of intersectional consideration; this leads to the development of divisions within such communities. Göle and Billaud gave an illustrative example when, during a parade to draw attention to the problems of the oppressed, Muslim women were placed alongside prostitutes, leading to a wrong perception of this cohort: “All veiled girls are whores!” (Göle & Billaud, 2011, p. 126). This example demonstrates the degree of respect that Muslim women can receive in Western countries and the internal attitude of the feminist community towards this group.

Although the intersectional paradigm should treat each case of oppression carefully, it creates uncertainties. These uncertainties cause the development of an unfriendly perception of women wearing the hijab. Eid (2014) states that Muslim women are outsiders to Western culture, so locals need to rally to protect their identity: concrete measures can be banning the wearing of hijabs (Freedman, 2007). The French conflict is the most revealing in this regard because it raises liberal multiculturalism and coercive discrimination issues. The French hijab controversy is known for its ban on traditional Muslim dress because of the assumption of gender discrimination experienced by Muslim women (Bilge, 2010; Göle & Billaud, 2011). Even in recent years, French Muslim women have been harassed, including in the electoral arena and at sporting events, because of wearing the hijab (Lang, 2021; Woodyatt et al., 2022). France’s experience was extrapolated to other countries, leading to the banning of hijabs in swimming pools, parks, and universities (Göle & Billaud, 2011; Masih & Shih, 2022). Similar strategies are discriminatory to Muslim women, and to the progressive reader, this would indeed be wrong since the implication is that any modern woman has the right to self-determination. Not all authors agree with this: as Bilge (2010) writes, there is a phenomenon in which the oppressed individual tries the hardest to defend their oppressed position. Faced with sexism in their families and gendered Islamophobia, these women are victims of sexual harassment, unfair law enforcement, and surveillance (Alimahomed-WilSon, 2020; Bilge, 2010; Eid, 2014). However, Göle and Billaud disagree with the thesis of Muslim women being forced to wear the hijab, pointing out that “in the search for their own identity, veiled Muslim women experiment and look for their voice by… creating new ways of being female in public” (p. 124). The intersectional paradigm does not demonstrate a unified approach to the problem of the Muslim woman but instead creates opportunities for pluralism of opinion.

Thus, the intersectional prism must be applied whenever the phenomenon of a woman wearing the hijab in the Western community is discussed since examining cases without the individual context is meaningless. However, this paradigm is not standardized for the whole society, including the feminist community, which creates conditions for fragmentation and slows down the pace of solving this problem. Wearing the hijab is simultaneously seen as a freedom of self-determination for women in the practice of inclusion and as a threat to cultural identity, leading to its prohibition in the most progressive countries. Consequently, a practice of social cynicism is formed, in which the hijab is somehow seen as the quintessence of the Muslim world.

Conclusion

The problem of the wearing of the hijab in Western communities remains relevant and unresolved. A plurality of opinions has been shown, in which the hijab is viewed based on the author’s subjective experiences: this plurality of interpretations proves to be confusing but describes well the state of the current agenda. Without critical understanding, a Muslim woman wearing a hijab continues to be perceived by part of society as an extension of the terrorist husband. Despite the dynamics, women continue to face gender racism and femonationalism. However, this perception is slowly changing over time.

References

Ahmadi, B., & Tariq, M. O. (2022). How the Taliban’s hijab decree defies Islam. ISIP. Web.

Akporherhe, F., & Oghenerioborue, P. U. (2022). Ritual of circumcision, mood disorders and management in Camara Laye’s the African child. Zango: Zambian Journal of Contemporary Issues, 34(1), 52-68.

Al-Kazi, L. A., & González, A. L. (2018). The veil you know: Individual and societal-level explanations for wearing the hijab in comparative perspective. Social Compass, 65(5), 566-590.

Alimahomed-Wilson, S. (2020). The matrix of gendered Islamophobia: Muslim women’s repression and resistance. Gender & Society, 34(4), 648-678.

Bilge, S. (2010). Beyond subordination vs. resistance: An intersectional approach to the agency of veiled Muslim women.Journal of Intercultural Studies, 31(1), 9-28.

Eid, M. (2014). Perceptions about Muslims in Western societies [PDF document].

Freedman, J. (2007). Women, Islam, and rights in Europe: beyond a universalist/culturalist dichotomy. Review of International Studies, 33(1), 29-44.

Göle, N., & Billaud, J. (2011). Islamic difference and the return of feminist universalism. European Multiculturalisms: Cultural, Religious and Ethnic Challenges, 116-141.

Janmohamed, S. (2021). Choosing to wear a hijab or not is a personal choice. Opinion.

Lang, C. (2021). Who gets to wear a headscarf? The complicated history behind France’s latest hijab controversy. Time.

Masih, N., & Shih, G. (2022). Indian court upholds ban on Muslim headscarf in classrooms in Karnataka state amid religious tensions. The Washington Post.

Okech, A. (2020). African feminist epistemic communities and decoloniality. Critical African Studies, 12(3), 313-329.

Pew Research Center. (2017). U.S. Muslims concerned about their place in society but continue to believe in the American dream. PRC.

Rahman, M. M. (2020). Why hijab must be enforced [PDF document].

Safdar, S., & Jassi, A. (2022). Development of the meanings of the hijab (MOTH) scale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 227–236.

Schwarz, J. (2017). Why do so many Americans fear Muslims? Decades of denial about America’s role in the world. The Intercept.

Woodyatt, A., Bashir, N., & Mawad, D. (2022). French lawmakers have proposed a hijab ban in competitive sports. The impact on women could be devastating. CNN.

The catastrophe that took place on September 11, 2001, in the United States took the lives of many people and caused serious damage to several buildings (Aguirre and Turner 275). This terrorist act was conducted by the members of Al-Qaeda which escalated the racialization of the people of Arab ancestry and Muslims by Americans.

In fact, the relationships between the United States and the terrorist groups of the Middle East had not been easy before the Twin Towers were damaged and an attempt to destroy the Pentagon was made in 2001 (Aguirre and Turner 275). For example, in 1993, there was an attack the purpose of which was to blow up the North Tower of the World Trade Center (Aguirre and Turner 275). However, the events of 9/11 were so tragic and terrifying that they will be long remembered.

The catastrophe caused a wave of hatred and fear of Islam followers and Arabs in the US. Immediately after 9/11, the number of hate crimes increased drastically; even individuals who did not belong to the Arab community but looked like Arabs were targeted. Apart from physical violence, people of Arab descent experienced high psychological pressure though they were not to blame for the attack.

There is long-existing prejudice against the representatives of the Middle East. For example, in 2010, campaigns like “Check it right, you ain’t white” that aimed at counting the number of Iranian-Americans in the US were conducted (Shams). Hence, it might be concluded that Americans tend to perceive Arabs as suspicious and foreign people of color.

In my opinion, any sign of discrimination is wrong; despite the impressive progress achieved, people still need to learn how to respect and understand others. It is understandable that Muslims’ worldview and culture seem strange and foreign to Americans. The terror and anger caused in people by 9/11 are also justified; nevertheless, the US is a multi-national country and it is important to eliminate discrimination and prejudices. No nation should be regarded as wicked; in each country, there are evil people.

As shootings in schools and other incidents have shown, among Native Americans, there is a large number of terrorists, too. That is why, to sum up, I would like to say that although people’s feelings might be understandable, racialization is not the best way to solve problems, it just creates new ones.

Works Cited

Aguirre, Adalberto, and Jonathan Turner. American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of Discrimination. 7th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2010.

Shams, Alex. “Are Iranians People of Color? Persian, Muslim, and Model Minority Race Politics.” Ajammc. 2019. web.

Southeast Asia is a region that has been generalized as a Muslim region and yet Indonesia is the only country with a large population of Muslims. There has also been a perception that this region is a threat to the international security because it is known to harbor terrorists and encourage recruitment and training of terrorist. The generalization and perception has caused problems for people with no links to terrorism and Muslim origin; the region is targeted by the international community for terrorism.

The September attack which took place in the United States of America changed the world view of terrorism and Muslims; the experience made states to see terrorism as a reality (O’Neill 90). This attack raised so many questions regarding international security and the relationships of one state to the other. The issue of the relationship between Muslims and terrorism was also a question which many people still have no answer about.

Southeast Asia, being a Muslim dominated region has also been affected by the 9/11 attacks; Muslim dominated regions were seen as the source of terrorists and masterminds of international attacks (Peters 42). Southeast Asia is seen as a threat to international security; this is because it has harbored terrorists, and this is the region where the recruitment of world terrorist and training took place (Ressa 56).

This paper will seek the understanding of Muslims in Southeast Asia region and the world generalization of Muslims as terrorists, and discuss why the world views Southeast Asia as a security threat.

After the 9/11 attacks, Muslims around the world were confronted with a lot of questions about their religion as well as their religious identity. The Muslim belief system was subjected to extensive discussions both in public forums and in the media. There were questions of whether Muslims were possible in a secular environment; another question was whether the Islam region was in-line with democracy (O’Neill 178).

It is believed that Muslims were faced with these issues before the 9/11 attacks; for instance, in 1970s and 1980s urbanization, mass education together with telecommunication developments pluralized religious authority and raised questions on the meaning and Islam’s social relevance.

These issues which were faced by Muslims around the world were refreshed by the 9/11 attacks. Southeast Asia being a Muslim dominated region is not exempted from the processes as well as tensions that are faced by the other Islamic dominated region in the world. Conflicts are developing between the Islam religion and the United States and the same applies for Southeast Asia, and the United States leads the war on terrorism in this region (Ressa 67).

The war on terrorism is focused on controlling the region in order to eradicate terrorist threats and to do this eradication, the region should not be generalized as a terrorist region, first, the world should understand the dynamics of Southeast Asia to understand the Southeast Asia Muslims and the evolution of Muslim politics.

After the September 11 attack, Muslims in Southeast Asia were worried that they will be involved in the attack; this is because of the generalization of Muslim communities as terrorists.

The leaders of Islamic organizations together with leaders from countries with majority of its people being Muslims such as Malaysia and Indonesia showed the difference between Muslims in Southeast Asia and the Muslim terrorist groups whose leaders subscribe to terrorist activities (Ressa 102). The Southeast Asia Islam is generalized with the other Muslim groups in the world because of the ignorance of history of Muslim politics in the region.

Southeast Asia has 260 million Muslims, which is almost half the population of this region. The 260 million of Muslims is about 20% of the total population of Muslims in the world. Each country in this region has Muslims with 90% in Indonesia, and 6% in Malaysia. The rest of the countries in this region have Muslim minority population; these countries include Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and Singapore (O’Neill 304).

Indonesia being a country with a big number of Muslims in the world and in Southeast Asian, it has led to the generalization that the Southeast Asian region are purely Muslim and any issue concerning Muslim in the world is generalized to Southeast Asia. Terrorism has been tied to Muslims and countries that are in Southeast Asia are not exceptions; they are affected by the fight against terrorism because they are generalized as Muslims.

Southeast Asian Islam is diverse; the region has different approaches to Islamic practices and beliefs. The world should understand that Southeast Asia is also a home for non-Muslim communities; therefore, Muslim communities in this region are influenced by non-Islamic religious and cultural traditions (Linden 198).

The region is in contrast with the Middle East region; the Middle East is predominantly Muslims, therefore, Southeast Asian Muslims are considered as tolerant and the most moderate when compared to Muslims from the other Muslim regions.

All the same, Islam is a political and social force that has mobilized anti-colonial struggles especially in Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Radical elements in the region clashed with the federal governments; this was at the time they were pushing an Islamic state to be established (Ressa 234).

This shows how diverse and pluralistic the Islam is in this region; the politics of Muslims in this region has never produced benign outcomes. Therefore, violent activities that are championed by Islamist groups are evident in the history of Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia is considered as an Islamic region; Islam came to this region through Persian, Indian and Arab traders, who spread it through elite conversion. The spread was not even in the region; some countries such as Indonesia were influenced greatly by the traders who spread Islam to most part of the country, other countries were not influenced greatly, therefore, there is a small percentage of Islamic people.

This region is represented as an Islamic region because of Indonesian Muslim population. The traditional cultural beliefs together with the practices influenced the spread of Islam in Singapore and Malaysia, for instance, Sufi beliefs and Islamic beliefs mingled. Islam in these two countries were homogeneous, this was as opposed to Indonesia (Ressa 306).

The development of Islam in Southeast Asia introduced groups and practices that subscribed to terrorist activities. This justifies the generalization of Muslim communities to terrorist attacks; also the small groups of terrorists have grown because of the support from terrorist groups outside the region.

Southeast Asia is seen as a threat to the international security because of it is dominated by Muslims; it is also known to support terrorists in many ways. This region is known to harbor terrorist organizations; these terrorist organizations have adapted to this region and have become resourceful in a way that they have rendered the counterterrorism strategy devised by those against them ineffective (Ressa 467).

Southeast Asia also harbors expansive network terrorist actors; these actors operate from Mindanao as well as from the neighboring islands found in the south of Philippines. This region is a major operation center for Al-Qaida; there is the connection of the Afghan to the Middle East extremists.

The Southeast Asian Islamic grievances opened ways to international terrorists; Al-Qaida being a network with Islamic charities and the spread Islamic banks in this region together with a friendly environment for doing business attracted them. This made them to strongly be established in this region. They recruit and train their members in this region and as the world tries hard to fight and these terrorists, more people are absorbed through this recruitment and training.

This issue influences the way the world views Southeast Asia when it comes to fighting terrorism; this region puts down the efforts made by the international community to fight terrorism (Peters 45). If they were an anti-terrorism region, they would not have allowed the training and recruitment on in the region.

The presence of the Al-Qaeda in Southeast Asia has made the world to believe that this region is the future terrorist. The arrival of Al-Qaeda has changed the regions view of terrorism; the region is now recruiting terrorists (Linden 213).

The Al-Qaeda, when it arrived in this region it helped in the creation of regional terrorist networks, this networks were used to plot attacks against the Western countries; one of these networks is Jemaah Islamiyah, which is believed to have bombed Bali in 2002. This shows that terrorist are not only harboring in this region, but also growing and expanding in the region; this why this region is seen as a threat to international security.

Al-Qaeda cells worked together with the radical Islamic groups in Southeast Asia; they provided these groups with money and training, and the training took place in Indonesian, Malaysian and Filipino camps. This shows that the region has militants who are followers of Al-Qaeda and collaborations with the international community to fight the terrorist group cannot be achieved, unless the followers denounce the group (Rashid 352).

The Southeast Asia region has been presented as a corrupt region with military organizations and government administrations being corrupt; they make the plan of American military to engage the terrorist difficult, they do not offer assistance so that the engagement does not create a human right abuse.

Also, Indonesia being a Muslim Dominated country, it offers resistance on any attack made on terrorists; this also justifies the generalization of the world on relations of Muslims and terrorism. This resistance is interpreted as support for terrorism (Rashid 234).

However, the world should not attack the whole region in the name of fighting terrorism; this is because, there are other countries in this region such as Philippines, which welcome assistance from the international community to fight terrorist who plan their terrorist activities while in this region.

The world knows the threat of Southeast Asian region to security, however, it is difficult to fight the terrorists in the region; the region has 11 countries and the kind of borders present in this region is porous maritime (Peters 98). There are short distances separating countries in this region; this gives way for transnational terrorism and therefore, it is difficult to maintain border security.

There is also a problem in developing effective counterterrorism strategies to deal with terrorist organizations; these terrorist organizations require capabilities that are beyond the military mighty (Linden 345). For any anti-terrorist group to win this battle, they must get support from the Southeast Asian countries, which is very difficult because of the resistance the Muslims have towards anti-terrorism groups.

The Southeast Asia is a region with a large population of Muslims and this means that the political forces are influenced by Islam religion and their practices influence even the minority religions in the region, and fighting they practices is not easy, unless they cooperate.

The generalization of Muslims in relation to terrorist attacks can have a lot of consequences to the world security. When a certain group of Muslims engage in terrorism, it does not mean that each and everyone is a terrorist. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is the only country with a large population of Muslims; also, this does not mean that all of them are terrorists.

In the country we have Muslims and non-Muslims who are not terrorists as well and any generalization would be unfair to those who are not terrorists (Ressa 503). In case of war against terrorism, attacking the whole region of Southeast Asia might kill the innocent people. Indonesia is just one country in Southeast Asian region, and it being a Muslim dominated country does not mean that other the whole region is purely Muslim.

The generalization might cause more problems; some of the people who are not Muslims might choose to defect to Muslim and the join the terrorism groups against the anti-terrorism groups. This might be to seek defense and revenge against the non-Muslim groups. The war will now change from being against terrorism to against religion (Rashid 286).

If Muslims in Southeast Asia join other Muslims against other religions then there will be no safe region in the world. Also, if all anti-terrorism groups declare war against the Southeast Asian people, then the region will be left without people and the innocent will also be affected.

The Southeast Asia is also seen as a threat to international security; this claim might be because it has been a home and a harbor for terrorist groups and network. Also, the region has recruited and trained some groups, which have engaged in terrorist attacks some parts of the world (Peters 112).

However, the fight should be against terrorism, and not against a region where terrorist are harboring; this is because this region live other people who are not terrorist. The generalization might cause lead to human right abuse and committing crime against mankind.

Generalization of issues when an incident happens like in the case of the 9/11 attack in the United States is not good, and should not be encouraged; there can be evidence to proof so, but as long as the issue involves a group of people, then there is a possibility that not all of them are guilty of the offense (Linden 467).

Therefore, the world should always find suspects and target to deal with the issue for example, the world should target terrorism and terrorist and not a group in which the terrorists belong. In the case of Southeast Asia, terrorism should not be generalized to all people in this region, despite the fact that terrorist harbor in this region.

The world should devise ways of identifying the suspects and capture them without involving the innocent people (Rashid 408). Also, the innocent people should also find ways of conveying useful information to the international community to help them fight terrorism or any issue. They should not cooperate with the offenders like in the case of Southeast Asians. This world belongs to us and we should all make it a safe place to live, and avoid generalization.

Works Cited

Linden, Edward. World Terrorism. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2002. Print.

O’Neill, Bard. Insurgency and Terrorism: Inside Modern Revolutionary Warfare. Virginia: Brassey’s Inc, 1990. Print.

Peters, Ralph. Beyond Terror: Strategy in a Changing World. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 2002. Print.

Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. Print.

Ressa, Maria. Seeds of Terror: An eyewitness Account of Al-Qaeda’s Newest Center of Operations in Southeast Asia. New York: Free Press, 2003. Print.

Do Muslim women really need to save? Anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others by Abu‐Lughod explore the theme of Muslim women, feminism, and a narrow Western view of the Muslim world. Abu‐Lughod shows how historical colonialism has shifted to ethnocentrism and currently transforms into cultural relativism. The article raises awareness of the necessity to accept differences and builds an understanding of colonialism, ethnocentrism, and cultural relativism.

Colonialism is the cultural and political domination of one society by the other. Abu‐Lughod relays the topic using French and British colonial histories as an example. British colonialism was justified by colonial feminism, which mostly revolves around the notion that colonized countries’ women need to be saved from their domestic cultural practices (Abu‐Lughod, 2002). Similarly, French colonialists were obsessed with Muslim women and unveiled them, believing they saved said women from barbaric customs (Abu‐Lughod, 2002). The author then proves the absurdity of such colonial rhetoric, showing that colonialism is nothing more than a cultural and territorial conquest.

Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s culture is better than the other, is common to many Western influencers, feminists, and politicians. Abu‐Lughod (2002) states that they constantly try to impose Western culture on Muslim women without questioning their cultural views. The rhetoric that Muslim women need to be saved is ethnocentric in nature and comes from the idea that Western culture is somehow superior while Muslim culture discriminates against women.

Finally, cultural relativism is the idea that one’s culture should not be used as a ‘benchmark’ of other cultures. Although relativism is much better than colonialism and ethnocentrism, it does not consider Western “responsibilities for the situations in which others in distant places have found themselves” (Abu‐Lughod, 2002, p. 789). Abu‐Lughod (2002) argues that it is too late for relativism, while a more personal approach is needed: respect for differences and consideration of how the Western world can help Muslim women. Cultural relativism is a bystander approach to the issue, while people should strive to create a peaceful world without imposing their culture on others.

In conclusion, Abu‐Lughod’s article proves that Western colonialism and ethnocentrism are partially responsible for the situation in the modern Muslim world. As such, cultural relativism is not an answer to the problem. The Western world should embrace Muslim culture with respect for its beliefs, traditions, and practices. Then, and only then, people can make the world a better place for everyone, regardless of country or cultural background.

Reference

Abu‐Lughod, L. (2002). Do Muslim women really need to save? Anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others.American Anthropologist, 104(3), 783-790. Web.

M. Umer Chapra works at the Islamic Research and Training Institute of the Islamic Development Bank. His book, Muslim civilization: the causes of decline and the need for reform deals with the downfall of the Muslim nations throughout history.

The book encompasses the multitude of aspects of the phenomenon, including economic, social, educational, scientific, and cultural. The book has a very broad chronological scope, viewing the Muslim civilization in its entirety rather than focusing on a single historical period. However, it does not adhere to chronological order. Instead, it is divided thematically into three distinctive parts. The first, comprised of the first two chapters, describes the rise of the Muslim civilization. The second, encompassing chapters three through six, details its decline and its various aspects. They are economic, which, according to the author, occurred because of the authorities’ unwise policies and unfair taxation (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 89); educational and scientific, which is attributed to the decline in financial support, the subsequent inability of the private sector to sustain the education and the unacceptable views forced on the public by rationalists (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 99); and social, which is caused by straying from the absolute moral law contained in Qur’an, but is arguably universal (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 137). The third part laid out entirely in the final chapter, describes the proposed solution – the political reform that will, in turn, lead to positive changes in other fields, triggering the cultural and spiritual development inhibited by the current state of events (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 171).

Umer Chapra clearly emphasizes the theological and philosophical side of the problem, stating that the central reason for the decline is the abandonment or distortion of moral and social principles laid out in the Qur’an (Umer Chapra 2008, p. xx).

The methodological part of the book is finely crafted, with reliable sources for all the presented data. The Qur’an is used not as a religious item, but rather as a set of guidelines which, if properly addressed, can potentially avert future crises like that described in the book. The author even emphasizes the negative consequences of using the Qur’an as a literal set of instructions (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 160) and provides examples of positive outcomes of adherence to its philosophy (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 38). The author also makes some strong points to support his claims, like drawing convincing parallels between democracy and Khilafah (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 56).

However, some of his other conclusions are of questionable validity and a somewhat utopian nature, like the suggestion to radically change taxation without proposing a valid method to do so (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 89). The final chapter is speculative, theorizing on the possible outcome of suggested changes rather than providing hard data or a conclusive summary. Besides, the reliance on a religious text in the discussion of a scientific matter can serve as a warning of potential bias, especially when backed with an emotionally rich and subjective tone used by Umer Chapra.

The book notably lacks the geopolitical aspect of the question. The description of the complex situation in the world during the period of the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, which is commonly referred to as the period of the decline in question, is described in the broadest strokes (Umer Chapra 2008, p. 91). Meanwhile, some scholars argue that the inner tensions between the Gunpowder Empires, as well as the pressure from the neighboring countries, played a crucial role in the process. Martin Sicker, in his work The Islamic world in decline: from the treaty of Karlowitz to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, makes a thorough argument in favor of such suggestion, detailing each major event and actor, like the exhaustive inner conflicts between Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals (Sicker 2001, p. 12), the emergence of Russia as the imperial power (Sicker 2001, p. 78), tensions in Western Europe (Sicker 2001, p. 102) and the adherence to Jihad as a fundamental cultural and political principle (Sicker 2001, p. 5). Sicker actually uses the term “theopolitics” to emphasize the equal importance of both the religious and the political aspects in shaping the history of the Muslim world (Sicker 2001, p. vii).

Instead, Umer Chapra’s book offers a multidisciplinary approach, covering the culture, worldview, science, and economy of the Muslims. The skeptical inquiry into the argument presented by the author reveals several weak points, including his attempt to narrow the complex matter to a single cause and using the reverse approach of backtracking from the conclusions to the suggestions. His proposed outcomes after the changes in the political system also lack solid argumentation, being essentially one possible outcome but presented as the most likely one. When viewed as a solid analytical work, Umer Chapra’s book is unconvincing. On the other hand, it offers a good base for a theological study on the effect of the Qur’an on Muslim civilization, especially its influence on economy and sciences. Keeping all this in mind, we can conclude that Muslim civilization, while not consistent in terms of the scientific method, still offers valuable information for students of social and economic studies, history students, and people who seek to broaden their scope on Muslim nations, or even those looking for an introduction to the topic.

References

Sicker, M. (2001). The Islamic world in decline: from the treaty of Karlowitz to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.

Umer Chapra, M. (2008). Muslim civilization: the causes of decline and the need for reform. Markfield, Leiscestershire, UK: Islamic Foundation.

Umma refers to community or nation in Arabic. When used, it means the Arab world or collective nation of states. In Islamic context it refers to Diaspora of believers; the Muslim world. Modern-day Islamism when using the term Islamic Ummah is referring to the everyone in those lands and countries resided in by Muslims and which at one time were controlled by the caliphate. Islamic law (Shariah) applies to the citizens of these cities while non-Muslims are subjected to Dhimmi limitations (Mandaville pp4, 2001).

The idea of Muslim Diaspora brings with it such things as travel and a desire for home. In addition most Muslims not living in their homelands are a minority group in the places they have traveled to. This for the Muslim means a necessity to familiarize oneself with unfamiliar circumstances while engaging in new cultures that may cause adjustments to one’s traditions, beliefs and values (Mandaville pp 115, 2001)

The fact that most Muslims are minorities in the Diaspora can be a stigma of foreignness. It can also be an avenue for discrimination especially with the focus on terrorism where in some cases having a Muslim name is associated with acts of terrorism. While this association is not always correct, the Muslim Diaspora has sometimes been used as a means of perpetuating terrorism since many of the terrorism attacks are creations of fundamentalist Islam movements.

The presence of Umma has enabled new information and much larger information reaching Muslim and non-Muslims alike through the various new communication media available. This is helpful to the Muslims because it provides an avenue for staying in focus with their Muslim beliefs and values even when the environment does not make it easy to stay so. It however has been used in negative ways to harm and destroy by those with anti-Western ideas.

Islam travels in many regions of the world especially the west (Europe and North America) and in these areas there is an increase in literature on Islam in the west and there is generally high translocal space. The social and political environment of the west is also one that provides for and is conducive to debate. These areas have been used by Umma to propagate various Muslim political agendas and ideas. For example in the early 1950s the Hizbut Tahrir/al-Muhajimum movement whose origins were in the Middle East traveled around British University campuses promulgating anti-Semitic ideas. This group was formed by strict advocates of the caliphate political system.

The young Muslims UK is another group whose aim is to create Islam teachings that are in line with the needs and circumstances of Muslims in the Diaspora in the UK. The Tablighi Jamal-founded in India, involves itself in activities that focus on traveling ‘missionary’ work among communities of Muslims worldwide. Their emphasis is on the importance of collective harmony and purity at a personal spiritual level (Mandaville, Pp 116, 2001).

These are important organizations for the contemporary Muslim since most Muslims in the Umma due to migration to new social and cultural environments begin to have Islam redefined for them. Further, being removed from an environment where Islam is the main feature to an environment where it is a minor issue heightens the awareness of Islam and fellow Muslims also become more important (Mandaville pp 117, 2001).

It also provides an opportunity for the Muslim to really scrutinize and think about Islam and the social relevance of Islam in light of other happenings around the world. The Umma also provides a window or point of interface for the Muslim society and the non-Muslims in the society where they (the Muslims) are found. The mosque in the Netherlands is more than a place for prayer it has found significance in mediating between the Muslim Diaspora and the larger society. The mosque offers instruction in the Dutch language, financial aid and other social services aimed at being an interface between Islam and Dutch society.

The Iranian-exile media in Los Angeles serves a similar purpose. Though many Iranians living in Los Angeles left their land to flee Khomeini’s Iranian Revolution. With time the religious, symbols have lost their negative connotations and become a source of nostalgia for Iran. This has led to a type of discourse where the Islamist polities of Khomeini can be attacked in one program and the next can focus on the beauty of the call to prayer (Mandaville pg 118, 2001). Umma is therefore very significant in Muslim contemporary affairs and can be used as a tool for understanding Islam and dealing with anti-Islamist views.

Works cited

Mandaville PG, 2001. Transnational Muslim Politics: Reimaging the Umma. Routledge ISBN 0415246946 pp. 4, pp. 115-118.

The word ministry is from a Greek term diakomeo which means to serve. In the New Testament, ministry implies service to God and to people in the name of God. The New Testament further declares that the Lord came to this world to serve and not to be served. Christians are therefore encouraged to serve other people with love and humility just as Christ did. They should minister to God’s people with dedication and it does not matter whether the people believe in the ministry or not. They should minister for the sake of other people and the ministry should be served unconditionally. (Freedman)

Today the ministry is using more of a professional meaning in the sense that pastors are referred to as “ministers” this means full time service to God. The pastors devote their lives to serve others in the ministry but they are not the only ones who are concerned with the ministry. In the New Testament and even in today’s world, every Christian is given the opportunity to help others in the service of God. The ministry does not deal with practical issues only but it concerns itself with spiritual matters. The ministry should make great efforts to help people accept Christ in their lives as well as sharing the word of God with everyone. Christians are brought together by the fact that they are universally devoted to Christ. They are dedicated to the work of Christ by helping others find their way to Christ. The church is supposed to help Christians to express their gratitude and love to God. (Samuel)

The work of the ministry is through the free will of an individual and no one can force a person to take up an office in the ministry. The work should be taken seriously and no one person is greater than the other. In many Christian societies there are different positions in the ministerial office for people to be appointed. This however, does not mean that the people are different when accepting the work of priesthood to serve God’s people. It is important to realize that when an individual accepts the work of Christ, one does not get away from the duties he is meant to fulfill even if he was not meant for the work of God. One has to the work with devotion to the work of God who appointed him to do so. When one is a minister in a certain religion he or she does not become superior or inferior Christian to the rest but rather he is there to serve God. A person has to accept and realize their purpose in life in order to achieve fulfillment in life. (Freedman)

Those who are called to spread the word of God are given the spiritual calling that they feel in their life. Others feel that the society demands that they give their life to the service of God as a follower of Christ. This is largely supported by the need to maintain order in the society by these individuals. In the early days, people set aside time for worship thus creating the need to have someone elected so as to lead the others. This led to the realization that some people should be selected to help others in the contribution and engagement in religious matters but they were not superior to other people. The need to spread the work of God, helping the poor in the society, healing and comforting the sick has led to the creation of the ministry. Through all these issues that affect the society the word of God has been able to spread throughout the world. (Day)

The ministry is closely related with the field of the learned professionals. This can be illustrated in the case where the medical field is mostly related with the work in the mission taking care of the sick and disadvantaged in the society. There are situations where the head of a school is seen as the minister of the word to the school. It is important that the ministry is not perceived as a profession which an individual must choose but rather as a calling which one follows. In order to be able to spread the word, the Church must be in close relationship with the pastors and scholars so that it is much easier to reach more people. This is because religion has been in existence for a long time with many books being written in foreign languages thus one needs to strike a balance between the two. (Gregory 1)

The society as a whole is changing drastically with the role of the ministry also changing. Western civilization played a great role in the changes in the ministry in the way it has led to high rate of specialization in various fields. In the past, priests had the responsibility to protect and care for the community. Priests played the roles of physicians, scholars to enlighten people as well as the authority to lead the community. Today so much information both religious and secular needs to be mastered within a short period of time. This has led to a division between the religious leaders and the secular professionals. The church ministry has many obligations that need to be fulfilled thus it should not be abandoned. (Charles)The church leaders are responsible for helping people do their work effectively thus it should not be taken for granted.

Religion needs the educated people in the society and they in turn need religion and thus various intellectuals should not feel that education is more important than religion. The church is isolating itself from the ministry work. This is mostly due to the pressure from professionalism that seems to be embraced in the society by even the church leaders. The ministry is bound to collapse without the word of God which forms the cornerstone of religion. When the right principles for the minister of the church are neglected, the ministry deteriorates. The pastor is left without any form of work to do thus this change the role of the ministry in the society. (Freedman)

Today, many Christians have misunderstood the meaning of the ministry. The pastors and the clergy in the contemporary society have the illusion that they are at a better position than the rest of the Christians. They are more concerned about managing the church resources and its culture rather than putting the word of God as the priority. In some situations, the religious leaders are given special attention and executive names within the domination. They are perceived as high people in the society instead of having the simple role of working for the service of God. A wide range of video tapes and other forms of entertainments have taken a centre stage in the church. The people are forgetting that God’s work and practicing discipleship is more important. (Charles)

The pastors crave for the moments when they are not referred to as reverend or preachers. Their families also do not like the moments when they are being referred to as the preacher’s children or family. They yearn for situations where they would be free of these obligations even if for a short while. In other situations, many people do not want to take any public office especially when associated with religious or holy matters. Christians’ today feel they can be able to have their work done even when one is in the middle of personal issues like divorce. The church ministers also feel that there some matters that are more important than others thus they put more emphasis on such and neglect others. A church leader may step in and out of his duties just as simply as entering the church premises. The church ministers feel that they are the role models when it comes to matters of worship and that they are selected by God to characterize the work of the worshipers. The church requires true followers not just better performances. (Braestrup)

The work of the minister who once was the most powerful person in the community is now affected by lack of confidence. In the early days in a country like New England, the minister had the power to make religious laws and also directed on the way of life for the community. The church was highly respected and its policies were adapted in the society thus the minister’s office was very powerful. This however is not the case in the modern society as the ministers do not have any authority in the community making them look inadequate. This is because they minister to highly learned individuals in the society who have crucial positions in the community and they are used to being their own bosses. The ministry is also affected by serious competition from other leaders who seem to give the congregation what a normal preacher can’t. They present their message in a way that leaves the minister looking rough in comparison. (Freedman)

The Muslim community is faced with the challenge of maintaining the Islamic identity as well as the changes in the social and political field according to the policies of the Qur’an. Muslims are faced with problems that affect them both socially and personally like any other families in the West. These problems include high rate of divorce cases, domestic violence, child abuse as well as teenage pregnancies. In the Muslim culture, people try to seek solutions through negotiations and also through preventing any form of violence in the family. Many Muslims practice intermarriages with other communities in the West. Young Muslims experience problems while looking for a partner in marriage due to the intense problems of ethnicity and Islamic culture. The Islamic culture tends to divide the people rather than unite them as stated in the Qur’an. (Palmer)

Marriage couples are faced with economic problems and thus both parents have to leave their children in day care centers. This deprives the children of the parental guidance that molds them both emotionally and spiritually. This thus leaves the children with no conviction to build a strong social standing in the community. The Muslim families have the obligation to build stable society and enhance societal values. A family that is not able to provide stable religious and social standings for the development of the children means that the society also suffers. Parents should not ignore their roles in educating their children as well as serving as role models to them. (Palmer)

The other major challenge in the Muslim society is the oppression of women. The Muslim community values men as they are considered more important than women in the community. The Muslim society is faced with the issue of equality among the people and it generates opposition in their culture. The Qur’an seems to imply that a man is entitled to polygamy and that fairness between men and women cannot be possible. Women have no freedom to marry the man of their choice and cannot terminate a marriage that is not fulfilling. The women rights are virtually not included in the religion and culture of Islam. It is important that women rights are protected in order to create a conducive environment for all. (Palmer)

The Muslim society is seen as advocating for terrorism especially in the Western World. This is controversial because ordinary Muslims who do not have anything to do with terrorism feel that it not appropriate since they are given a label just because they believe in Islamic faith. These issues have created great friction with other religion and culture who view Muslims as dangerous people. (Samuel)

In the Western society they believe that prayer is something that should be done in private while for Muslims religion is out in the open, on the streets and is done five times a day. The Westerners believe that democracy and human rights should be at the fore front in any society. This for instance can be illustrated by the fact that when an individual comes out in the open about any personal or cultural problems they are experiencing they are warmly embraced by the society. Muslims however feel that private or personal matters of an individual should not be put in the open. When a Muslim comes out and narrates the problems with the taboos in their culture that are cruel and oppressive they are shunned from the community and as they are believed to bring shame to the Muslim religion. The Muslim culture is based on protecting the honor and modesty of their society and religion. The Westerners feel that the Muslim veils are unnecessary in the contemporary society. (Charles)

Muslims are facing a lot of discrimination in the world especially in the West. In Europe, religious discrimination toward Muslims has been on the rise over the years. The young Muslims are treated unfairly because of the stereotypes they perceive about the Islamic religion. Students in schools are also facing discrimination issues both from their fellow colleagues and the teachers. The teachers do not feel that Muslim students can perform well in class and in most cases they fail them their exams even when they have performed well. These students are also faced with the problem of unemployment once they complete school. Most organizations do not employ the Muslims in their companies leading to a large number of Muslims unemployed in the West. These people are forced to live isolated lives in Muslim slams on very poor conditions of living. (Palmer)

The media analysis of the Muslim issues has created a lot of stereotype and unfairness in many European countries. The media and especially the movie industry has in many cases been accused of bringing about negative opinions towards Islam by putting the idea that Muslims are evil, violence and dangerous to the society. This has led to the Muslim community isolating themselves from the rest of the community. The media do not even report on challenges and issues that are affecting the Muslim community. They publish negative information about Islam creating more problems. (Thompson)

The government should make policies that allow for equality in the society without discrimination. This equality should be portrayed in religion, cultural practices and peoples’ freedom of choice. The government should ensure that all communities have equal opportunities in sharing the resources available in the country. The housing sector should ensure that all people including Muslims have good housing facilities that are secure. There should be programs to help all people in the society to respect each others culture and way of life. Cultural differences should not be used to divide people but rather to unite people to work together in building the society. The resources available should be shared equality among all communities. Services should be provided to all citizens despite their race and skin color. (Samuel)

The ministry should be preserved and those who have been called to the service of God should ensure they protect the ministry. Christians should not forget the role of the ministry in the society and everyone should work for the good of the community. Every society should be able to respect other religions with their cultural practices for the common good of the society. Both Christians and Muslims have the duty to lead their congregation based on the moral values they believe in. It is also important that all communities and individuals live and preach peace in the world.

Works Cited

Braestrup, Kate. Here if you need me: a true story, Little, Brown and Co., 2007.Print.

Charles Freeman. The Closing of the Western Mind. Knopf, 2003.Print.

Day, Dorothy. The long loniless: the autobiography of Dorothy Day. Harper, the University of California, 2009.Print.

Freedman, G.Samuel. Upon this rock: the miracles of a black church, HarperCollins, 1993. Print.

Gregory 1, Pope. The Pastoral Care, (Ed) Almqvist & Wiksell international, the University of Calfornia, 1978.Print.

Palmer, H.E. The Quran. BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009.Print.

Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order 1996.

Thompson, William; Joseph Hickey. Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2005. Print.

Abstract

Fatima Mernissi is an analyst of Islamic Feminism, whose presentation is an argument regarding the situation of Islamic women, the problems they face and possible solutions on to common problems. The hitches they face concerns issues regarding sexuality, politics and evaluation of the current approaches of major laws. What is the current view of Muslim women by others?

Introduction

Various critiques especially from modernized countries have very different view of Islam, with numerous misunderstanding of the culture and hence heavy criticism. Fatima aims at gaining an outside perspective of Islam as a benchmark to evaluate and expound various aspects that assist in evaluation of Muslim women.

She provides a better indulgence of the religion as a measure of fighting for women rights especially in connection to the Moroccan Law. Her overview raises concerns from a generally orthodox position thus portraying her as a liberal feminist who has to face challenges from the Muslim fraternity and other contrasting religious movements.

Although various writers and fellow feminists such as Katherine Bullock criticize Fatima’s approach for failing to contextualize disappointments regarding endorsement of Islam at different times and places, they still acknowledge her efforts to depict cultural, religious and political rights of Women in Islam.

Due to the challenges experienced in Harem, Mernissi finds the motivation to search for reason regarding powerlessness of women particularly in Morocco. This paper therefore presents a critical point of reference for analysis of religious, political and global impact on Muslim women.

Religious effects on Muslim Women

In line with Fatima Mernissi, women feel venerable to fear and powerlessness and will seek spiritual guidance by ensuring they follow the Islamic practices and gain the honour of patronage from the religious faith. Their fear subdivides into that of shame, powerlessness against transcendent powers and fear of rejection by the male counterparts.

Most Islamic women bear a common focus on emotions and respond to them as spiritual prerequisites. There is a major role of prayer among Islam women and therefore evangelism within provides them with an ultimate relief. Dependence on the folk Islam is equally common among Muslim women since they believe in relationships with the supernatural beings, as worldly mediators especially during powerlessness.

According to Mernissi, the association of Muslim women with supernatural being acts as a therapeutic procedure to overcome emotional impact. From a Christian point of view, the practiced rites control women in Islam and they base their fears mainly upon lack of proper practice of the faith.

These women therefore lack awareness to direct anger to its challenge. The source of challenges is mainly the injustice from the worldly situations. They antique religious practices by embracing formal control through modernization.

The magnificence experience of affection among Muslim women allows them to express each other’s feelings with kindness and concern such that they are able to consider a number of emotionally related actions. Islamic faith is therefore an ambiguous ubiquitous relation, that binding these women together in different formats.

They are able to expressed faith in various ways. Fatima Mernissi found out that everything and everyone has the ability to expresses spiritual love if there is an ability or concern to nurture feelings.

Political effects on Women in Islam

There are various political effects on Muslim Women but the main ones have a link to Laws and customs. Considering various states around the world, a Muslim woman must remain suppressed by the male authoritarian status. This situation compromises human rights that fight for equality in marriage.

The traditional Muslim law also referred to as “Sharia”, fails to govern such rights of equality and therefore modern demands are in conflict with the traditional religious practices. People in developing countries have a negative view of modernization as a way of adopting westernization.

Unless feminists initiate proper enlightening programs or strategies, the reaffirmation of the traditional status of women in Islam as an important step of realistic laws might fail to occur. Mernissi points out the negative impression created by colonialism, and thus the undesirable psychological responses that foreign powers get when they try intervening Muslim legislature.

The “sharia” is a symbolic identity of Muslim and therefore women political or social struggle to enact changes faces a negative response due to the assertion that, there engage plans to change Islamic distinctiveness to modern world enactments. She constantly advocates for revision or legitimate transformation of these medieval system of governance implemented within the estimate of seventeenth century.

Conflicts with Globalization

There is a significant change in the modern working environment. More women as men are within the Arab countries and civilization at the workplaces remains balanced. However, men’s attitudes towards women engagement at the work force remain governed by the traditional medieval standards and laws.

Men lack to consider women as viable assets to the economy and therefore masculine jobs are strictly a monopoly for men. According to them, a woman who works outside the home setting is a potential marriage charlatan or causes the husband to appear as an economic failure to others. The Islam law therefore compromises globalization due to these Islamic ideologies that hinder acceptance of reality.

Globalization depends on knowledge gain and self-sufficiency. The advancement of women educationally causes a reduction on birth rates, development of more effective micro-enterprises and lower mortality rate especially among children.

This is because modernization enables women to consider viable projects in support of life sustainability. As Fatima Mernissi would put it, there is need to consider the Islamic woman as an equal party and liable person. Women in Islam are important resources to develop and nurture as key elements of the economic growth.

Values constitute an essential metric for evaluating the importance of things, actions, and behaviors in human lives. Each culture has its own perception of ethics, and contradictions may result in violent escalations. The modern world bear witness to such outbursts on a religious basis. Rapidly growing Islam makes many Europeans anxious about its influence. The Muslim population in Europe is likely to continue increasing in the future, which propels researchers to explore Muslim and native European values.

Values is a broad term, which has a unique meaning to every group. For the purpose of the study, it was essential to choose the explanation, which would apply to drastically different religions. Czymara and Eisentraut (2020) use Schwartz’s definition of values as “desirable transsituational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person or other social entity” (p. 2). In essence, notwithstanding the current circumstance, every individual follows a set of principles, which comprise their values.

Anytime diverse group identities interact, a conflict of values emerges. Czymara & Eisentraut (2020) provide a critical evaluation of the demographic situation in Europe. The immigrant exodus from the Middle East combined with the natural high Muslim population growth rate have substantially amplified the presence of representatives of this religion in Europe. The researchers state that disagreements in moral viewpoints lead to aggression and hate crimes, thus justifying the need for ascertaining the compatibility of different identities.

The aim of the study is to compare Muslim values to those of non-Muslim groups by studying the moral considerations of 50 000 respondents. The geography of the research includes Belgium, France, Germany, and Sweden. All of these countries have accumulated significant experience of integrating immigrants. Non-Muslim identities are represented by Christian natives and Europeans with atheistic worldviews. Ultimately, the goal is to establish the influence of differences in religiosity and economic conditions on differences in moral values.

The major findings of the research underscored two primary correlations. The more people are religious, the more they are likely to share conservative views and conformity. The second tendency is that Muslim hedonistic values are more in line with atheists than Christians. A peculiar observation was made concerning the relationship between socio-economic status and security. The better the conditions were where respondents lived, the more secure they felt regardless of the religiosity.

The implications of the study relate to finding the optimal balance of religious groups living together for peaceful coexistence. Firstly, the discovery that Muslims and Christians have similar attitudes to conformity implies the possibility of non-hostile interaction between more conservative members. Secondly, the similarity between hedonistic Muslims and non-religious people suggests that it is better to allocate these two groups together. Overall, the higher the socio-economic status is, the easier the communication between the groups will be, while poor conditions precipitate hostility.

Based on the results of the study, the researchers have produced several recommendations to governments of countries with high religious diversity. Czymara & Eisentraut (2020) argue that “integration politics should encourage minorities to invest more into the social and cultural capital, ultimately leading values of immigrants to a converge to those of natives” (p. 12). Another recommendation is to use Sweden as an example of a policy, “granting immigrants an easy access to equal rights” (p. 12). The researchers observe a far lesser gap in social values between religious groups in Sweden than in other countries.

The authors acknowledge the limitation of their study, which is the sample size. Some of the targeted countries do not have a sufficient number of Muslims to make adequate conclusions. For instance, Sweden has only 2.29 percent, while Belgium has 4.97 percent. It is a small quantity in comparison to France and Germany, where conflicts are much more evident. Although by no means do they devaluate the findings of the study, the limitations showcase the demand for larger sample sizes.

Reference

Czymara, C. S., & Eisentraut, M. (2020). A Threat to the occident. Comparing human values of Muslim immigrants, Christian, and non-religious natives in Western Europe.Frontiers in Sociology. 5(538926).

Introduction

There are several similarities relating to the experiences of the Jewish communities in Europe in the past, and those of the Muslim communities in the present. The similarities can be traced back to history and they relate to culture as well as religion. The medieval experience presented the existence of opposition between the ‘Christian self’ and the ‘Muslim other.’ Later due to the sharp differences came the distrust towards Islamic society. The Jews comprise a nation and ethnoreligious group of people with a common origin in Israel or Hebrew. The Jewish religion is a lifestyle because most followers are of the Jewish ethnicity and nationality. The converts who join Judaism are equal to those born into it; they are therefore absorbed into the faith without any problem (Goldstein 121).

The Jews experienced persecution in the early times while in Diaspora that is especially after the destruction of the first temple. Emerson, Amghar & Boubekeur (45-52) argue that due to the persecution their numbers and distribution have fluctuated over time making them a minority at a given point in time. Islam as a religion has also greatly contributed to the shaping of Europe’s identity. It has influenced the development of European knowledge in the sciences and arts and that includes philosophy, architecture, and natural sciences. Despite that there was an expulsion of Arabs affiliated to the Muslim religion from Spain and Europe at large did not embrace Islamic values or laws into its social and juridical system, a clear sign that Europe was opposed to the Islamic religion and way of life (Dassetto 12).

Similarities between the experiences of Europe’s Jewish communities in the past, and of Muslim communities in present-day Europe

The Jews in Diaspora during the early times were not accepted in the European communities because it was widely believed that their belief was a cult. They were segregated and lived in isolated neighborhoods. Paul (51) agrees that this influenced the reaction of EU member states when Turkey presented its candidature for membership, the country apart from becoming a constitutionally secular republic in 1923 is believed to be culturally Muslim and a die-hard defender of the Muslim practices. It is a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, an intergovernmental body that was established in 1969 to represent the interests and speak on behalf of the world’s Muslim Ummah.

The EU member states are skeptical in accepting the candidature for fear of infiltration of Islamism in the operation of the organization. Islamism is interpreted as the use of religion for political purposes so European countries fear a scenario where the Islamist country will use its membership to influence decisions that may hurt the organization’s interests. The EU shows that it is not partner with Islam because there are cases where Islamist thinkers and militants have justified violence. The bottom line is that the EU aims to promote peace and understanding such violent ideologies are bent to hurt the core purpose of the organization therefore the EU will do anything within its means to prevent such vices. It is also well noted that in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries Europe was faced with violence believed to originate from political Islam and this was registered as a great challenge to Europe (Silvestri 14-18).

These kinds of challenges have led to discrimination and segregation of Muslims in the European countries, they are viewed as security threats and war agents. According to Silvestri, 2007, most European countries are Christian Christianity is regarded as crucial because it is and has been a central factor of political and cultural unification. Christianity has shaped Europe as a force for internal unity and at times as a factor of conflict and opposition, on the other hand, it has preserved classical culture through the establishment of educational institutions such as Cambridge and Oxford Universities which are the centers of civilization and integration. This is antagonistic to the popular belief by Islam in radical war and supremacy rift.

The belief in war by Muslims originates from the fact that the prophet Muhammad fought against the pagan and Jewish tribes who did not accept his rule. To this day, the Islam religion is associated with political wars and the desire to control certain empires. Muslims experience prejudice and certain unfavorable conditions just like it happened to Jews in medieval Western Europe. The Jews were persecuted in the name of Christianity especially during the crusades; actually, Jews all over Germany were massacred while those who lived in England, France, Portugal, and Spain were expelled during the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Paul 62-64).

The experience may not be the same as that of Muslims but it is very clear that there is similar discrimination and segregation as European nations endeavor to fight terrorism which is believed to be largely perpetrated by Islamist terrorism. Goldstein attests that there are travel bans and sanctions imposed on Islamist nations by European nations because Europeans believe that Islam equals immigration. The bans are supposed to act as a shield against any immigrants with ill intentions like terrorism (92).

Europe is far from establishing a concrete relationship with the Muslim religion because even within the continent there is a competing force to unravel the degree of separation that should exist between religion and politics. The Muslim religion is doctrinally fragmented and has a unique and transnational character that raises suspicion in Europe. One such doctrine is the fact that Muslims all over the world are identified with a global community of Islam believers known as the ummah.

According to Goldstein the Jewish immigration to Europe was because of the desire to take their religion to the continent as well as seek a better life. The population growth of Muslims in Europe has been growing since the 90s, however, the trend has suffered several setbacks. One major setback is the fact that since the September 2004 attack in Madrid which was linked to Islamist terrorists, the anti-terrorist police have intensified operations especially in Muslim neighborhoods (112-115).

European Islam being well linked to the rest of the Islam world poses a danger to all Muslims in European countries since they are viewed as troublesome and likely to be used by their allies to execute terrorist activities (Silvestri 24). The Muslims in Europe has however been noted to violent take of their faith to Europeans especially the youth, their efforts have not been fruitless since this group of people is faced with challenges in a fast-changing world, and therefore they crave new things and quick solutions to their problems.

Bassett argues that despite the challenges the Muslims face, they are making progress towards popularizing their belief and demystifying the myths that have over time surrounded the existence and practice of the same religion, actually according to the Qur’an the Muslims claim that they better die taking the message of Muhammad to the world than die doing nothing (49-52). The other thing that shook the relationship between the Muslims and Europe is the issue of the cartoons that surfaced in the year 2005, it revealed the slow pace of the evolution of Islam in Europe (Silvestri 27).

The cartoon images of Mohammed brought out a sharp reaction by Muslims not only in Europe but all over the world. The controversy can be interpreted to mean that there are increasing disparities between the west and the thriving of the Muslim population in the continent. All the reactions leveled by both parties tend to create a conflict in the co-existence of the two sides. The other theory put forward to explain the protests surrounding the cartoon issue is that they represented a moment of tension which is inevitable in any society that is warming to the existence of a new phenomenon that the society is yet to adjust to and devise methods of control (Paul 112).

In another view, the conflict may have caused a positive impact because it initiated a dialogue that will serve to clarify the point of view held by each side. The kind of situation presented was viewed as likely to cause mutual incomprehension and further be taken over by social groupings where sympathizers will use it to advance their agenda to the public through riots and attacks. The conflict also elevated the fact that the world is now global, simple matters of a magazine can be used as a tool to disorder the whole world. According to Silvestri, Muslims have learned to come face to face with persons and groups that have different perspectives both in Europe and the world at large (28).

The Muslims for that matter could be establishing a stage to project their religious beliefs to the whole world without fear of being silenced. They are pluralizing the religion among all nations and they stand unopposed, the fact is that they are likely to succeed because they have many compromisers who may not necessarily be religious partners but people with diverse interests and intentions such as control and supremacy. The challenge arising here again is the fact that Muslim leaders, preachers, and intellectuals give a rather fragile argument based on the cartoon issue, especially given the technological capacity of the means of communication they seem to ignore the existence of their religion in a global context. The intellectual fraternities of the Muslim faith are adamant about contemporary realities which should serve to shape the peaceful co-existence of humanity (Emerson, Amghar & Boubekeur 112-115).

The transformation in the recent past of the relationship between Europe and the Muslim world has revealed the power of imagination, especially in religious and cultural terms. The role and power of the written and spoken word has also been slowly translated to video image and multi–media communication in the 21st century. These two tools can be used to change the reaction towards certain phenomena. The world is seen to be more interested in creating a mutual relationship between religious groups and people of the world through mutual inclusion, therefore both religious groups need to change their hard-line positions to accommodate other groups (Goldstein 125).

Europe is quickly reshaping into a fairly globalized and international continent unlike in the ancient times when the Jews experienced horrendous scenes of rejection based on religion. The experiences of the Muslims in the face of a changing Europe could be termed as manageable since they can mobilize support from other nations which advocate for freedom of worship and that of expression. The Jews in the past were faced with a tougher situation since most European countries were conservative and therefore adamant about accommodating any new religion or culture (Paul 136). Muslims who are believed to have moved from their countries of origin to go and work in Europe temporarily during the 60s gave up on going back to their dream to go back home in the 80s. The Muslims have fought for their rights since they had settled in Europe by sending their children to schools there and establishing mosques to worship. During this period there were struggles against all forms of religious discrimination that existed, for instance in the year 1983 Muslims organized a march in Paris against racism and they advocated for inclusion in the political, economic and social life of the host country. They wanted to be given voting rights, to co-exist equally with the natives, and to participate in economic activities like a business without discrimination (Silvestri 28).

After the struggle, the demands based on European and Islamic citizenship compelled the European policymakers to consider Islam as an integral part of the political, social, and economic landscape in Europe. This milestone suffered a major setback in the face of what was termed as ‘Islam in crisis’ which was fueled by the rise in radical Islam, the headscarf controversy, and the terrorist attacks witnessed in New York, Washington as well as Madrid. This scenario has led to a change in the immigration regulations from Muslim countries due to security issues. Since the problems were started by the Muslims, it will be upon them to solve the problems as they endeavor to restore confidence from the European countries in which they reside. The policymakers in the attempt to restore relative tranquility, foster the practice of moderate and controllable Islam to prevent jihadism and fail because the solution is viewed as actually artificial since it underestimates the strength of political and social life that are the root causes of riots and jihadist violence which are undertaken in the name of Islam (Emerson, Amghar & Boubekeur 119-121).

Europe is slowly becoming the forum of choice regarding devising norms and principles related to Islam religion, this can be revealed by the exchanges between European Islamic actors as well as policymakers. The kind of complexity that faces most European countries about the Muslim issue has changed how policymakers handle any volatile matters relating to Islam. In the recent past, European countries have dwelled on the issue of establishing good relationships with Muslim countries for fear of attacks. The quest by governments of some European countries to resolve the controversies encompassing the recognition of Muslims has been complex since there is no policy outlined by the European Union on matters relating to religion (Paul, 165).

Conclusion

Some European countries are moving towards an active policy of a kind of recognition of the Islamic religion as well as providing more inclusive citizenship as a measure to the dangers of racism and Islam phobia. Goldstein 2007 proposes that Islam being a religion means that it is not a state affair to solve any problems relating to its existence and practice but it is very difficult to dismiss Islam as just one of the cultures or traditions because its presence elicits an enduring bother to the smooth life of individuals and states.

In conclusion, the Jews in ancient times were predisposed to suffering; persecution in Europe was not based on any concrete issue but rather on religious prejudice, stereotyping, and lack of protection from any particular group. In the same manner that the Muslim fraternity has since the fifteenth century suffered due to their religious stand; it is clear that they have faced discrimination in terms of security policies set up by the European countries. They have had to stage protests to defend their religion when it is under attack. Muslims have also faced persecution due to generalization, stereotyping, and prejudice. The only relief is that the fight is becoming gradually fruitful since the world is coming to terms with the existence of multi-ethnic and multi-religious countries. The fact that the world is globalizing and co-existence has to be embraced at all levels across the universe (Dassetto 158).

Works Cited

Dassetto, Felice. The Jolt Evolution of European Islam. Center for Interdisciplinary research on Islam in the Contemporary World, Universit’e catholique de louvain, 2006.

Emerson, Michael, Amghar, Samir. & Boubekeur Amel. European Islam: Challenges for Society and Public Policy. Centre For European Policy Studies. Brussels, 2007.

Goldstein, Joseph. Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex: Sussex Academic Press, 2007.

Paul, Johnson. A History of the Jews. New York: Harper Collins, 1987.

Silvestri, Sara. Does Islam Challenge European Identity? Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity. Standards Ltd. France, 2007.