Category: Muslim

Introduction

The selected work of art for this discussion is the Alhambra (also called the Red One). This fortress complex appears to be combined with a superlative palace. The building is found in Granada, Spain (Garcia-Pulido, 2017). This paper begins by giving a formal description of this spectacular piece of art. The discussion describes the period and style associated with it. The essay goes further to analyze the architectural attributes and uniqueness of the artwork. The importance and meaning of the structure to modern scholars is described in details. The conclusion gives a succinct summary of the paper and the relevance of this building to contemporary society.

Image of the Selected Work

Formal Description

The Alhambra is a splendid palace characterized by distinctive structures and artistic attributes. To begin with, the buildings length is around 750 meters thus making it enormous. This work of art appears to resemble a palace with a castle appearance. Visitors can see a residential apartment in the building. The Royal Complex has three distinctive parts. These include the Harem, Mexuar, and Serallo (Curl & Wilson, 2015). The Mexuar exhibits unique decorations. Floors and ceilings are designed using brown wood. The Harem has bathrooms with pressurized water.

The building has a room known as the Hall of the Ambassadors. It is the largest and has a huge dome that makes it impressive. The Court of the Lions is a courtyard with an oblong shape. It is decorated using white columns. There is also a pavilion with a doomed roof and filigree walls (Garcia-Pulido, 2017). An alabaster basin is noticeable in this structure. This washbasin is known as the Fountain of Lions and has twelve lions. These are lifeless forms designed and decorated using marble. The garden of Arif is one of the villas connected to the palace.

Other notable features include the Court of the Council Chamber, the Hall of Justice, and the Queens Robing Room. These structures appear to have architectural uniqueness, decoration, and architecture. The Upper Alhambra is observed to have a labyrinth, sepulchers, summer-rooms, and bedrooms. Large vases (called Alhambra vases) are evident in this structure. Individuals can see numerous column arcades, reflecting pools, and magnificent waterways that enhance the palaces aesthetic values (Arnold, 2017). The upper parts of different walls have inscriptions in Arabic. Tile mosaics form mathematical patterns known as laceria. Such aspects of art make the building exceptional and wonderful to the viewer.

Historical Selection

The Alhambra is arguably one of the widely studied structures in the world. This happens to be the case because it has a long history characterized by different events. However, every person will acknowledge that the palace is a classical example of Islamic architecture. The style is also influenced directly by various designs that were associated with the Byzantine era (Garcia-Pulido, 2017). Artists acknowledge that the palace complex exhibits the famous Nasrid style. This was a form of Islamic art that denominated the region from the early 13^th century (Ghasemzadeh, Fatherbaghali, & Tarvirdinassab, 2013). The art is characterized by Arabic inscriptions, geometrical patterns, and carved plaster. The use of tile mosaics, as observed in this structure, was common among pioneers of the style.

The complexity and adoption of different artistic styles can be attributed to the buildings vast history. Originally, the palace was constructed as a fortress by the Romans. This means that it borrowed most of the artistic fashions embraced by the Romans in 889 AD. It was later reconstructed by Arab Mohammed Al-Ahmar in the 13^th century (Jani, Harun, Mansor, & Zen, 2015). The ruler designed the palace and the surrounding wall. In 1333, the Sultan of Granada named Yusuf I converted the structure to become a royal palace. The fortress would later be occupied during the Christian Reconquista towards the end of the 15^th century. The palace was, for the third time, redesigned by its new occupants. This development explains why the renaissance style is also evident in this structure.

This analysis shows conclusively most of the structures attributes and features exhibit Islamic architecture. These include the Alcazaba, annexed rooms, and the towers. Historians acknowledge that most of the features added later during the Nasrid kingdom did not survive. This spectacular artwork, therefore, displays the best of Muslim art and the concept of a paradise (Garcia-Pulido, 2017). The added tunnels, Arabic inscriptions, fountains, arcades, and pools make it an admirable piece that serves both architectural and aesthetic functions.

Analysis of the Work

Although this work is attributed to Mohammed and Yusuf I, every visitor will wonder why it houses a palace bearing the name of Charles V. It is also evident that most of the features defining the complex palace are still noticeable today. The Fountain of Lions can be analyzed as a portrayal of the sovereignty, power, and dominance of the designers of the palace (Jani et al., 2015). Archeologists and historians can analyze these features to study how architectural designs changed or influenced each other over the years. Specifically, they should examine the influences different styles such as the Renaissance and the Byzantine had on this structure. Additionally, different Muslim leaders appeared to fancy the artistic styles embraced by the Europeans (Ghasemzadeh et al., 2013). Consequently, they chose to such styles, thereby transforming Islamic architecture.

This understanding should encourage more people to examine how cultures embrace each others ideas and use them to come up with superior designs. This magnificent artwork can be studied and analyzed as an amalgamation of various styles that dominated Europe for many centuries. Scholars should also be willing to explore the impacts of injudicious restorations and defacement on historical artworks (Petruccioli & Pirani, 2013). Despite the fact that the building displays Islamic architecture at its best, many historians have acknowledged that the move by different rulers to redesign it for their own intentions amounts to cultural vandalism. This understanding must be embraced by different communities in order to promote and preserve art instead of destroying it. The best thing is to borrow the artistic styles without distorting or destroying them.

Conclusion

The Alhambra is a significant building that exhibits the unique attributes and features of Islamic architecture during the 14^th century. The structure also borrows numerous styles and ideas from the Byzantine and Renaissance eras. The palace brings together diverse architectural concepts, thereby making it an unforgettable piece of art. The survival of this work should encourage every person in the society to support the preservation of ancient buildings (Petruccioli & Pirani, 2013). This practice is critical since cultural vandalism and imprudent refurbishment are malpractices that threaten the future of architectural works that link the present to the past.

References

Arnold, F. (2017). Islamic palace architecture in the western Mediterranean: A history. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Curl, J. S., & Wilson, S. (2015). The Oxford dictionary of architecture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Garcia-Pulido, L. J. (2017). The last and most developed Nacrid palace in the Alhambra: The Alijares and its country estate (fourteenth century). Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean, 29(1), 60-83. Web.

Ghasemzadeh, B., Fatherbaghali, A., & Tarvirdinassab, A. (2013). Symbols and signs in Islamic architecture. European Review of Artistic Studies, 4(3), 62-78. Web.

Jani, H. H., Harun, N. Z., Mansor, M., & Zen, I. (2015). Exploring the Islamic garden concept as inspirational landscape design. Procedia  Social and Behavioral Sciences, 170, 359-368.

Petruccioli, A., & Pirani, K. (2013). Understanding Islamic architecture. New York, NY: Routledge.

Introduction

Globalization has had significant impacts on the lives of many people in different continents. However, the Muslim society has resisted various attempts to brainwash it with western ideologies. Most Islamic issues have not changed even though there has been an improvement in their lifestyle.

Women are very vulnerable to changes that occur in society because they are easily influenced to follow modern lifestyles and embrace issues that bring different fashions and trends in their life. Muslim women have a special place in society due to their unique personalities and lifestyles that continue to puzzle critics and cast doubts as to whether or not modernity will have a major impact on their lives.

On the other hand, western women are believed to be ready and set to go for any changes that will make them comfortable regardless of what other people will think about them. This discussion compares the lives of Muslim and western women in the social, political and economic scenes.

Social Issues

The position of a Muslim woman has never been challenged by any issue in her society and she has always accepted to play the fool in all matters. The lives of Muslim women are dictated by the Islamic culture that has norms which direct their behavior. These women are not supposed to challenge men in any issue and thus they are very loyal and submissive to their husbands.

The decisions made by their husbands are final whether they are right or wrong. Women have been oppressed by this religion and that is why men dominate all Islamic societies. The Islamic religion and culture form the basis of determining what women should do or not and this explains why most Islamic women have no say in their families. Western women are aggressive and can challenge men on various issues.

They are not less equal than their male counterparts and this means that they are not limited by their sexual orientation to be less equal to men. They demand respect and equality from social institutions so that they can do what men do and that is why they are considered to be free.

In addition, the western culture has granted them the liberty to do what they want regardless of what men will think about them and this explains why there are so many conflicts in western societies compared to Islamic ones.

Secondly, Muslim women have no say when it comes to marriage and men can decide to have a second, third or fourth wife provided they are able to take care of them. Islam allows men to marry more than one woman without having to seek consent from the first wife or give reasons for doing so. This explains why most Muslim women are in polygamous marriages.

On the other hand, western women believe that they have a right to decide what is good or bad for them and that their husbands cannot marry second wives without their consent. In addition, western culture does not recognize or support polygamy because women have fought to ensure that men marry only one wife. This culture dictates that a man must divorce his first wife before marrying another but this is not common in Islamic culture.

In addition, Muslims do not consider divorce a ticket for men to marry a second wife. Western women are very agile when it comes to issues about marriage and they are quick to seek legal interventions when their husbands think of marrying second wives.

Thirdly, Muslim women do not have choices when it comes to marriage and their traditions dictate that they should get married irrespective of their social, political or career aspects. The issue of celibacy is unheard of in Islamic societies and all women are supposed to get married and start their families. Muslims consider marriage a rite of passage and thus every person must pass through it.

The Quran advocates for all people to get married and have children and this is a requirement that no Muslim should violate. All Muslims are supposed to get married when they attain the age of 16 years and above and even though this is considered to be child abuse most of them do not get married at this age especially those living in non-Muslim countries.

However, women living in Islamic countries have no alternative and most of them get married when they are less than 20 years old. This means that Islam places a lot of emphasis on marriage and the establishment of families than on the rights of children to education and other privileges. Western women are very different when it comes to marriage. First, marriage is a personal choice and not a compulsory requirement.

This means that they are free to get married or remain single for the rest of their lives. The need to pursue their careers and live a single life has forced western women to seek legal protection from their parents and communities to ensure nobody forces them, to get married. Most western countries have strict laws that ensure women are not forced to get married.

In addition, they can decide to marry whoever they want without the interference of their parents or society. On the contrary, Muslim women do not have the right to choose their marriage partners.

Most of them are usually married to suitors that offer the best bride price and those that are in good terms with their parents. Celibacy is a common aspect in western cultures and most women pursue their careers and get married when they are aged above 35 years. In addition, some of them do not even bother about marriage and decide to live without getting into one.

Moreover, childbearing is considered a blessing in Islamic culture and thus women are supposed to bear as many children as possible. An average Muslim family has eight members (two parents and six children). Muslims consider children to be blessings and source of cheap labor for the family; therefore, they are usually motivated to have as many as possible to ensure their families are large.

The need to name all members of the family and meet customary requirements pushes men to marry more than one wife and thus women have no say when it comes to childbearing. They are supposed to give children without the use of any family planning methods because the Quran dictates that families should reproduce as much as possible.

Muslim women have no say when it comes to the number of children they can bear; therefore, their work is to give birth until when their bodies will no longer be able to conceive. However, medical conditions can exempt them from conceiving and this becomes a gateway for their husbands to marry other wives.

A woman who cannot conceive is considered cursed in the Islamic society and thus she must be prepared to suffer the humiliation associated with barrenness. Most western women use modern family planning methods to ensure they have very small families. An average western family consists of four people (two parents and two children).

Most women get married around the age of between 26-30 years and start to plan their families as soon as they get married then get two children and stop having more.

The issue of celibacy is a personal choice in the western world and women have the right to decide whether they want to get married and have children or not. Some women can decide to get married but this does not mean that they must get children. In addition, others may decide not to get married and nobody will force or ridicule them for making this decision.

Prostitution is considered a sin in Islamic societies and men are required to marry more than one wife to ensure the number of unmarried women is reduced. This society does not promote prostitution because it is a sin that should be eliminated by all members of society. Members found fornicating are punished severely depending on their Islamic beliefs.

Some may be stoned to death while others excommunicated and this means that Islam does not condone this practice. Muslims believe that all women should be married to ensure they are tied to families and avoid fornicating. This explains why polygamy is promoted in Islamic societies. A woman is not supposed to have an intimate affair with a man unless they are married.

Pre-marital sex is discouraged and punished by Islamic laws to ensure youths have high moral values. However, the western world is a care-free society where everybody does what they think is good for them. Prostitution is considered a way of earning income and there are bodies that protect the rights of prostitutes.

They are not exempted from taxation and they have registered designated places to conduct their businesses from without fear of interference from the public. Pre-marital sex is considered a rite of passage by youths whose parents do not bother about what they do. This means that fornication and pre-marital sex are just ordinary daily events in western societies.

Women live a care-free life even though there are religious and cultural issues that prohibit fornication and adultery in this society. The need to enjoy personal freedom and rights has abused the importance of abstinence, chastity, and faithfulness in families and marriages. Divorce cases are very high in western societies because women have a lot of unnecessary rights and freedoms that expose marriages to regular conflicts.

However, Islamic societies have very few divorce case because women place a lot of emphasis on protecting and building their marriages. The need to be responsible wives and prepare a bright future for children makes Islamic women focus on the importance of family virtues and not the need to fight for freedom and rights that will expose them to moral decadence.

In addition, the issue of single parenthood is unheard of in Islamic societies because women are not allowed to have children out of wedlock. Early pregnancies and those conceived out of marriage are considered to be curses and their victims face stiff penalties from societal and religious leaders. Therefore, Muslim women ensure they keep their bodies untouched until when they get married to avoid early pregnancies.

Older Muslim women are role models for young girls and they spend a lot of time advising them on how to be responsible wives in the future. The relationship between Muslim women is very strong because of the need to provide emotional and moral support to each other to ensure their families coexist and become successful.

Muslim ladies attend frequent counseling before they get married to ensure they are prepared for it and can manage various family challenges that usually affect marriages. This explains why the role of Muslim women in marriages cannot be underestimated and they are indispensable when it comes to laying the foundation of successful families. On the contrary, single parenthood appears to be the modern trend in western countries.

Women fear parental and marriage responsibilities and that is why most of them are divorced or get children before getting married. Womens position in western societies has threatened men and most of them fear getting married to career women. In addition, family values have become a difficult test for western women and thus they are not willing to commit their time and energy to attend to their families or children.

Economic Issues

Muslim women were the first to have the right to own property in ancient traditional societies even though they were considered to be the most oppressed ones. Their society considered the role they played in establishing strong family values and protecting the rights of their members and that is why it was necessary to enable them to own property to ensure they performed their duties properly.

Muslim women were regarded as the pillars of their families and it was important to ensure they had adequate resources to ensure the needs of their husbands and children were attended to properly.

Western women were granted the right o own property after intensive lobbying and activism by human right groups and other organizations. This means that the western society was coerced to allow women to own property and that is why there are still conflicts over property ownership in these societies.

Very few Muslim women participate in business activities because of the nature of their families and their responsibilities to their husbands and children. Most Muslim families have businesses that are operated by all mature members and this gives women opportunities to participate in running their family investments.

Very few Muslim women have independent investments because of their strict religious teachings that do not allow them to interact freely with men. However, western women are risk takers and do not hesitate to invest their income in profitable businesses.

They are free to invest in local or foreign countries provided they can monitor and manage their investments. They can travel for business trips for days or weeks without worrying about their families, and nobody will question them about their long absence from home. Commercial institutions give loans to independent women in western societies, but this is not possible in Islamic regions because no financial institution is ready to risk giving loans to them.

Public Issues

Western women can contest for different positions (presidency, senator, governor or Member of Parliament) without restrictions from men or the state. This means that they are free to compete with men in similar positions and campaign for political support from all quarters. These societies have granted women permission to vie for different political offices and offer the public their services.

Affirmative actions have ensured that women are given equal opportunities to compete for the limited public positions available in governments. These women have been brought up in families that recognize and promote the girl child to ensure she attains the highest level of education. Career advancements and civic space have opened room for women to head government institutions and businesses because of their leadership skills.

Also, they participate in sports and games without discrimination to ensure they use their talents wisely. Muslim women have limited space when it comes to participation in public activities. First, they are not allowed to interact freely with men, and this is the source of their predicaments.

Their societies do not consider them fit to hold public offices because this will expose them to issues that may affect their religious beliefs and customs. Also, they are not allowed to participate or contest for political positions because of the evils associated with politics.

Muslims do not allow women to be above them because this violates their religious teachings; therefore, they do not hold leadership positions in politics or economy. Lastly, Muslim women are not allowed to compete with men because this is perceived to be a lack of respect for their heads.

The condition of Muslim women in any part of the world is a controversial issue. It is very ill-fated that Women in Islam suffer as a result of religious beliefs and practices. For many years Islam and Muslim was kept away from politics but in the recent time it is in the limelight and many a times those who are affected and humiliated by such actions are women.

However, in reality what is actually happening to Muslim women are the consequences of Islamic cultures and practices that subjugate and disgrace women, these cultures include; women should become slaves to men, because for a man or a nation attain salvation women have to perform their responsibilities. In addition they should wear veils to protect them from men and general society.

This paper discusses the oppression of Muslim women in the United States.

In the US Muslim women have a tale to tell. They are seen as foreigners, voiceless and primarily aim at destroying America. Most of these women are immigrants and being immigrants they are actually blamed for all the social and economic problems in United States. Muslim women in America face discrimination which results from ignorance of cultural attitude about Islam practices leading to oppression and humiliation of women.

As a minority race in US Muslim women primarily face humiliation due to inadequate understanding of Islam and Muslim which create stereotypes, fear and mistrust of Islamic women. For instance the bombing in Oklahoma City, they were the first people to be suspected even without investigation by the police. After which they were harassed, physically battered, some of them were even detained and their lives jeopardized. In additions all Muslims schools were closed.

Another issue that emerges about Americans ignorance about Islamic culture and practices is the terrorism law proposed by former president Clinton which generally targets them as the suspects of any terrorist attacks.

They also face gender based prejudice, racial problems and isolation.For example; they cannot attain their educational or career goals as the media in the US portrays women in Islam as sexual objects. They get low salaries for the same tasks as men. Those in influential positions are very few and in addition they have the duty to take care of their homes and family with minimal support from men. Furthermore, those who put on Hijab (a cultural head cover for Muslim women) are shouted at particularly in public places, they loose they careers as most of the employees emphasizes on face to face interaction and also face sexually harrassment.In short, in America, Muslim women lives are endangered.

Muslim women in America also face discrimination form their own Muslim community. For instance, in the mosques and other Islamic centers they are barred from leadership roles and only given junior positions since they are considered inferior to men and the Quran does not authorize such to happen. They are not allowed to participate in educational or spiritual functions if at all they are to be allowed they have to teach fellow women and children.

American Muslim women are not only barred from leadership roles but also from mosques completely in the sense that facilities in the mosques are insufficient and they are told by men that it is their mosque. However, this is not an Islamic practice rather a tradition proposed by men as a result women prefer to leave Islam and Muslim.

The media is another platform that contributes to the humiliation of Muslim women. The media in the US also aims at reporting negative things on Islamic culture which portrays them as brutal and radical beings. This depicts how the US is ignorant about Islam and Muslim. It is very painful that the ignorance starts at an early age of school going children who find negative information on Islamic practices from textbooks. In severe case they are threatened to choose between Islamic or being Americans.

As the minorities in US Muslim women have to fight for their liberties or else human beings will continue to commit injustice against them. Ignorance, media, discrimination and gender based violence has contributed to the humiliation and subjugation of Muslim women and they will continue to be oppressed as long has there are no reforms in Islamic practices and non-Muslim perception about Islam and Muslim.

Muslim women in the US are trying to portray a positive image of their culture and practices. However, Muslims in America fear to address the problems encountered by their female counterparts simply because their enemies will attack them. On the other hand America is not very hard on Muslim women in fact it (US) is making a step a head to understand Islamic practice globally. They are also suspected because US was formed as a result of division of the church and the state.Threfore, affirmative actions to ensure equality regardless of race or gender. The oppression of Muslim women the US differ in scale.Threfore,there is need for Muslim women and the respective government need to come up with ways on how to deal with these subjugations

References

Rereading American, 7th Edition by Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen & Bonnie Lisle.

In the present-day world, when, spurred by numerous acts of terrorism, Islamophobia has reached its bursting point and has clearly grown weaker, such stories as Infidel seem to be taken with a grain of salt. However, because of the tension in relationships between the Islamic and the Christian world, Infidel should be viewed as a means to sneak a peek at the true state of affairs within the Islamic realm and realize what deplorable state the Islamic women are in. Even though Ayaan Hirsi Alis infidel can be seen as a means to enhance Islamophobia, it cannot be denied that a novel offers a strong statement and can be used as a powerful tool for fighting for womens right.

The story told in the novel is pretty simple, like the story of life of any Islamic woman is; born into the environment in which she is doomed to be inferior to a man, this is a trail of pain and humiliation. However, the novel is quite peculiar in that it tells a story of a rebel who did not want to partake in a crooked system and decided to take the matter in her own hands. Switching her locations from her native Somalia to Saudi Arabia, to Ethiopia and Kenya, and then moving to the Netherlands, Hirsi Ali describes her struggle for independency, which peaked at her being elected as a member of the Parliament. The novel also tells about Theo van Goghs attempt at making a feature film out of the novel, and his following murder. Ending at a cliffhanger, with Hirsis citizenship being questioned, the novel offers the readers to deal with a set of ethical and moral questions concerning clashes between religion, society norms and human rights.

There are a number of lessons to learn from Infidel, staring with the specifics of the Muslim culture to the issues that feminist movement faces when trying to provide women in foreign countries with their indefeasible rights. First and foremost, the novel bursts the bubbles of the humanists who claim that the traditions of every culture must be accepted without even being questioned, and it does so by offering detailed description of injustice that Muslim women face on a regular basis and, worse yet, which they have no rights to respond to. In addition to the background information about the issues that Muslim women have to deal with, the novel also provides the answers on how to handle these issues.

Although the steps that the author has taken in order to gain freedom and basic human rights can be viewed as very inconsiderate, seeing how the citizenship of Hirsi Ali remains questioned, it is still clear that taking measures to fight injustice is the only logical response in the given situation. Another important lesson that is worth mentioning concerns the gender issue in child upbringing. As the given story shows, even if raised in a certain way from the early childhood, any human being is striving intrinsically for keeping balance in relationships with the opposite gender.

With all these lessons in mind, Infidel is admittedly a very good book to draw inspiration from when handling childrearing issues, and the problem of gender in childrearing in particular. The given novel shows how important it is to raise children in the awareness of the fact that all people have intrinsic rights since their birth, disregarding of their gender, race, ethnicity, social status or any other specifics. Moreover, the book suggests that the cultural and social injustice has to be dealt with. No matter whether injustice was inflicted by the cultural specifics or any other outside factor, one must not turn a blind eye to it  on the contrary, injustice must be dealt with, the sooner, the less drastic the consequences are going to be.

In fact, at certain point Hirsi Ali clearly regrets not starting her rebellion earlier, thus, being able to resist the opponents attacks more efficiently and, perhaps, avoiding the accident in which her best friend and the man who helped her film an autobiographic movie, Theo Van Gogh: Attending the demonstration would only increase the risks for me and others. I felt that I was already responsible for one death: I had done enough damage (Hirsi 320). With that being said, it can be assumed that the novel also teaches the fact that every single step that people take has its effect and that one has to be fully responsible for every step that one makes. In terms of childrearing, the given issue is especially important, seeing how children are extremely susceptible to the effect of every single outside factor.

Therefore, it is clear that Ayaan Hirsi Alis literature endeavors are as impressive as her claims for Islamic women to have the right to be free. Allowing the reader to explore the depth of cultural and social injustice, Infidel provides an opportunity for feminists to both explore the specifics of the Islamic culture and find the avenues to address the challenges that Muslim women face in their traditional setting. An attempt to restore justice and draw peoples attention to the deplorable state of women in Islamic countries, Infidel can be considered a bomb dropped in the current mass media, yet this bomb had been dropped to shock the readers into paying attention to the actual problem. Hopefully, this feminist voice in the middle of chauvinist empire will be heard.

Works Cited

Hirsi Ali, Ayaan. Infidel. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. 2007. Print.

Introduction

Islam is a monotheistic religion, the most significant scripture of which is the Holy Book Quran. This doctrine firmly outlines gender roles, which is why most people consider that attitude towards Islamic women is the misogynistic one. However, the Quran declares that women and men are created to be equivalent partners, share the same religious responsibilities, but fulfill different social ones (Women and Islam: Social role of Muslim women in Islam, 2017). This essay will examine the role of Islamic women in society and the behavioral patterns, which they follow.

Social Status of Women in Islam

In the contemporary world, a variety of misconceptions about Muslim women exist. However, their authentic social role is similar to any other females one. Most individuals assume that Islamic men oppress their women. However, as Muslims are highly religious, it is necessary to apply to the Quran to understand how this scripture teaches individuals to behave. According to The Noble Quran (n.d.), To whomever, male or female, does good deeds, we shall give a good life and reward them according to the best of their actions (16:97). This evidence proves that Allah, the god in Islam, does not distinguish the importance between men and women and emphasizes their equality.

Moreover, the Islamic womens position as daughters, sisters, and wives are also protected by the scripture. The Noble Quran (n.d.) claims that he who brings up his daughters well and makes no distinction between them and his sons, will be close to me in Paradise (41:49). In addition, according to The Noble Quran (n.d.), He created wives from among yourselves, that you may dwell in tranquility, with them, and He put love and mercy between your (30:21). It implies that females are as important as males and may enjoy absolute respect and protection. Therefore, there is no discrimination, and the social status of Islamic women is not different from the mens one and is ensured by Quran.

Social Role and Behavioral perquisite of Women in Islam

Islam provides men and women with equal but different social responsibilities. The primary females duty is the nurturing the new generations, guiding, and transferring Muslim principles and faith. It also implies the females rights to get an education to fulfill their responsibility, making them equal to men, despite the common preconceptions, which claim the opposite. On the other hand, Quran defines womens behavioral perquisites, which may seem unfair and rigorous. It can be explained with Islams initial intention to divide the specter of responsibilities to ensure their effective fulfillment. The Noble Quran (n.d.) states that Men are the caretakers of women, as men have been provisioned by Allah over women and tasked with supporting them financially (4:34). It implies that females are not obligated to work, but they should ensure that males are capable of fulfilling their responsibility. The Noble Quran (n.d.) claims that righteous women are devoutly obedient and, when alone, protective of what Allah has entrusted them with (4:34). This verse from Surah An-Nisa, written in Quran, proves that it is the womens behavioral prerequisite to be dutiful.

Despite the age of this religions postulates, Muslims follow the principles they outline. The American society, which maintains the ideas of equality for males and females in all areas of activity, does not share the Islams vision that responsibilities should be divided. American women are capable of taking mens work, while Islamic ones rely on their husbands. The social role of Muslim females is defined by Quran and includes caring about the new generation and men, while the behavioral prerequisite to be obedient assists their responsibilities fulfillment.

Behavioral Patterns of Women in Islam

Muslim Women have four patterns, which define their behavior towards others. These models specify females roles as mother, sister, daughter, and wife. The first behavioral pattern put women in a position of respect, as the future of humanity depends on mothers (Women and Islam: Social role of Muslim women in Islam, 2017). From this perspective, females should be caring, patient, attentive, and well-educated to ensure the adequate teaching of their children and possibly orphans to grow the dignified generation of Muslims. The second behavioral model determines for women their position as a sister or a daughter. Despite being dependent on fathers or brothers, females are expected to be responsible for them since young women also can express their care (Women and Islam: Social role of Muslim women in Islam, 2017). Older sisters usually help their mothers to educate younger children and do domestic work. The last pattern defines wives behavior towards their husbands, in the view of healthy relationship creating. In caring and loving, women are the supports for men, and Islam outlines their particular role of maintaining a good marriage (Women and Islam: Social role of Muslim women in Islam, 2017). The mentioned above behavioral patterns directly emphasizes womens initial destiny to be caretaker of the family.

Conclusion

To conclude, Islam represents women as respectful new generations caretakers. Their social role is to protect children, teach them and maintain a healthy relationship with husbands. The womens social status is equal to the mens one, but Quran divides males and females responsibilities. Muslim women are subordinated to four behavioral patterns, which determine their roles as mothers, sisters, daughters, and wives. The behavioral perquisite of Islamic females, to be obedient, serves the purpose of ensuring their duties fulfillment.

References

Women and Islam: Social role of Muslim women in Islam. (2017). QuranReading. Web.

The Noble Quran. (n.d.). Quran.com. Web.

Introduction

The purpose of this essay is to consider the most relevant theoretical and methodological approaches to the interpretation of the meaning of the veil and covering the face and body in women professing the Muslim confession. From the perspective of an outside observer who does not interpret Islamic culture from the inside, the veil seems to be a symbol and sign of opposition, suppression by male control.

Such decidedly negative needs to be redefined, as it seems to stem from the inherent misconceptions of the Islamic world that are apparent in modern society. It is necessary to offer a deeper and more insightful perspective on the role of the veil in modern Muslim society, considering this phenomenon on the positive side. The historical development of the perception of the veil in modern society is currently expressed in the opposition between Western feminist criticism and the opposing Islamic branch of feminism.

The Veil in the Modern Era: A Historical Review

The first part of the essay presents a brief overview of the contemporary history of the veil and the law of wearing it to explain the power of tradition in the Muslim religion. It is necessary to explain how strong the cultural explosion was after the end of the Second World War in order to really characterize the subsequent changes. The process that followed after the Second World War was due to the strong influence of Western culture on the Muslim world, with new values preaching openness, intellectual freedom, and a variety of consumption (Abid 40). All of this seems to be at odds with the cultural tradition of Muslim women.

The issue of wearing a veil in this aspect can be interpreted as a point of tension in the struggle between Western and Eastern values in the second half of the 20th century and now. Moreover, this opposition can symbolize the contradiction between the old and the new, conservatism and modernization, which requires the abolition of old values.

It is also necessary to characterize the history of the perception of the phenomenon of the veil in the Western community in order to understand how a stable negative attitude towards it was formed. During the era of the French governments colonization of Algeria, the purdah, or traditional South Asian veil, was perceived as a sign of a lagging society looking backward in development. This attitude did not give a deep or detailed understanding of the very system of wearing the veil, but it influenced the attitude towards the veil in the Western tradition in the future. In the process of the restoration of European society after the Second World War, hijabs or burqas, as analogs of the veil, began to cause social contradictions in the case of frequent precedents and laws limiting their wearing.

In the legal field of some European countries, masks are also generally prohibited, which also has a projection of wearing a veil (Ladhani 1). The anti-terrorist orientation of such legislative measures is the cause of serious cultural contradictions between Muslims and legal representatives of European society. Discussing the current situation, one should note the negative portrait of a woman in a veil created in the media that is usually associated with the terrorist threat. This kind of manifestation of Islamophobia promoted in Western mass culture is well-established and associated with the fear of extreme manifestations of the belief system, in particular, religious extremism.

The Political Significance of the Veil

In this context, it seems necessary to illuminate the misinterpretation of the veil by Western critics who perceive liberal values such as freedom and equality as something to be applied universally in the most direct sense. In many European communities, there is a paradox of oppression of pluralistic views, which are perceived as a threat to freedom to wear a veil. Thus, the veil, perceived as a symbol of patriarchy, begins to cause public excitement and calls for its prohibition, which is a violation of the private freedoms of each person. Such a modern tradition, formed only in the criticism of the last hundred, is impossible in the context of Islam and women. That is because the idea of real freedom may have a different interpretation and meaning in Eastern culture.

In particular, wearing a veil can express the freedom of an individual from the gaze of other people  thereby, the veil fits into the principles of modern feminist freedoms, in particular, freedom from mailing. In addition, it should be noted that in many religious traditions, covering the face meant preserving and emphasizing ones own individuality, for example, among Jewish women in the Middle Ages. Moreover, in Muslim countries, covering the face with a veil could be interpreted as a sign of aristocratic affiliation, worthy of women only of the highest status in comparison with uncovered commoners.

Speaking about the political implications of condemning the wearing of a veil by Western politicians, publicists and the general majority, it is necessary to take into account the generally prejudicial specifics of the attitude in the West towards Islamic culture. Western attitude to Islam as a whole is largely constructed by virtue of absentee perceptions that are formed from both historical facts and myths and prejudices.

Moreover, Western perceptions of the East are generally more inclined to perceive Muslim culture as contrary to Western traditions. The West is associated with the ideology of enlightenment, democratic and liberal values, the struggle for personal freedom and self-expression. Islam, in this context, appears to the Western collective consciousness to be something completely opposite, advocating a more conservative and patriarchal system of values.

This perception is considered an example of so-called orientalism  a special type of perception of the east as mysterious, different and alien. At the same time, orientalism also implies the intensive work of a persons fantasy, closing the gaps in their own knowledge with hypothetical ideas and false conjectures and generalizations. That is why the perception of the veil in the Western tradition is on a par with other practices of oppressing women for which the Islamic world is so vehemently condemned.

Such odious repressive actions as beating a woman with stones for treason, for example, are perceived in the Western mind in sync with arranged marriage, polygamy and, finally, wearing a veil. However, this perception still not only does not distinguish between each of these phenomena, but also does not peer into the cultural context, replacing it with ethical indignation from the position of another culture. Thus, wearing a veil in the Western perspective automatically becomes an emblem for the oppressed minority, which is a grandiose generalization and exaggeration.

Contemporary Feminist Interpretation of the Meaning of the Veil

It seems necessary to develop further the outlined contradictions between Western feminist thought and its counterpart in Islamic tradition, while emphasizing their complexity. A satisfactory and comfortable life under the conditions of patriarchy for feminism in the Islamic tradition seems to be oppressive. From a feminist perspective, applied to the Eastern patriarchal family structure, the veil allows men to categorize women as a class other than themselves. The veil becomes the embodiment of the Other in the patriarchal ideology of Islamic culture.

The concept of the Other in feminist theory implies a kind of minority identity, the thinking and consciousness of which contradicts the logic of the majority, understood as initially correct and fair. In the context of this reasoning, it would be interesting to apply the term false projection. This concept means that the side of the majority in the patriarchal order seeks to project onto the minority those aspects of the personality and psyche that they seek to hide from themselves. The projection of the male side of Islamic culture in the case of planting a veil in Muslim life turns out to be quite metaphorical, and can be interpreted as concealing the very idea of equality between a man and a woman. This attitude also appears to be in opposition to contemporary Western culture, promoting this very equality.

However, other Islamic feminists strive to separate the Western tradition from their own, to pursue the values of their culture. The veil based on these ideas should be interpreted as an individual decision of each woman and not as a sign of personality suppression. The feminist and modern critical tradition in general is in conflict with the need to reconcile with the grand and monolithic religious tradition of Islam.

One could even say that the concept of the veil is itself intrinsically anti-feminist, since the veil contradicts the Western concept of an equal woman. Citing the example of cases with the ban on wearing a veil in European countries, which entail legal proceedings and precedents, it makes sense to note a deep social and cultural conflict (Zempi 2585). In the Western context, a woman in a veil not only appears as an oppressed minority, but also contradicts the Western concept of a normal identity.

Consequently, a Muslim woman in the West is forced to adopt someone elses moral system in order to fit into the concept of normality. This is the additional paradox of the decolonization of Muslim women. Western culture also makes no distinction between different types of face coverings for Islamic women, generalizing them as a tool of enslavement. Thus, in the context of Western feminism, the right to wear a veil appears to contradict the notion of normality.

Muslim culture finds itself in a situation of an incomprehensible and repressed Other, whose appearance and the doctrines communicated by it are generally undesirable for the dominant democratic point of view. This is the act of oppression of another culture criticized by the Islamic feminist branch (Cox 428). The historical tradition, during which it was the Western colonialists who fought against wearing the veil, further encourages distrust of the democratic tradition of criticizing the concept of the veil.

Conclusion

As a result of these observations, it should be noted that the cultural and political significance of the veil has a deeper dimension than is usually demonstrated in the Western community. The consequences of the fusion and interaction of cultures after the Second World War had a problematic impact on the preservation of Muslim culture during its integration into the European community. In the context of the Western cultural tradition, which is only reinforced by the toxic influence of the media, the veil continues to be perceived as negatively associated with the phantom image of the Islamic threat. The wearing of a veil is a dual cultural phenomenon that can be interpreted as a symbol of oppression, however, the prohibition of the maintenance of which is paradoxically oppressive as well.

Works Cited

Abid, S. Understanding the veil. Crossing Cultural Boundaries: Taboo, Bodies and Identities, edited by Lili Hernandez, 2020, pp. 39-53.

Cox, Neville. Behind the veil: A critical analysis of European veiling laws. Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 31, no. 3, 2020, pp. 427429.

Ladhani, Sheliza. Decentering the veil: Transforming the discourse surrounding Muslim women. Critical Education, vol. 10, no. 20, 2019, pp. 1-9.

Zempi, Irene. Veiled Muslim womens views on law banning the wearing of the niqab (face veil) in public. Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 42, no. 15, 2019, pp. 2585-2602.

Objectives of an Essay

The goal of this essay is to consider the most relevant theoretical and methodological approaches to the interpretation of the meaning of the veil and covering the face and body in women professing the Muslim confession. From the perspective of an outside observer who does not interpret Islamic culture from the inside, the veil seems to be a symbol and sign of opposition, suppression by male control. The essay seeks to redefine this criterion by offering a deeper and more insightful perspective on the role of the veil in modern Muslim society, considering this phenomenon on the positive side.

The Veil in the Modern Era: A Historical Review

The first part of the essay presents a brief overview of the contemporary history of the veil and the law of wearing it to explain the power of tradition in the Muslim religion. It is necessary to explain how strong the cultural explosion was after the end of the Second World War in order to really characterize the subsequent changes (Abid, 2020). The process that followed after the Second World War is due to the strong influence of Western culture on the Muslim world, with new values preaching openness, intellectual freedom, and a variety of consumption. All of this seems to be at odds with the cultural tradition of Muslim women. The issue of wearing a veil in this aspect can be interpreted as a point of tension in the struggle between Western and Eastern values in the second half of the 20th century and now. Moreover, this opposition can symbolize the contradiction between the old and the new, conservatism and modernization, which requires the abolition of old values.

The Political Significance of the Veil

This part of the essay seeks to illuminate the misinterpretation of the need for the veil by Western critics who perceive liberal values such as freedom and equality as something to be applied universally in the most obvious sense. In many European communities, there is a paradox of oppression of pluralistic views, which are perceived as a threat to freedom to wear a veil. Thus, the veil, perceived as a symbol of patriarchy, begins to cause public excitement and calls for its prohibition, which is a violation of the private freedoms of each person. Such a modern tradition, formed only in the criticism of the last hundred, is impossible in the context of Islam and women, since the idea of real freedom may have a different interpretation and meaning in Eastern culture. In particular, wearing a veil can express the freedom of an individual from the gaze of other people  thereby, the veil fits into the principles of modern feminist freedoms, in particular, freedom from mailing.

Contemporary Feminist Interpretation of the Meaning of the Veil

In this part of the essay, it is required to outline the main contradictions between modern feminist thought and the conservative Islamic tradition, while emphasizing their complexity. A satisfactory and comfortable life under the conditions of patriarchy for feminism in the Islamic tradition seems to be oppressive. However, other Islamic feminists strive to separate the Western tradition from their own, in order to pursue the values of their culture. The veil based on these ideas should be interpreted as an individual decision of each woman and not as a sign of personality suppression. The feminist and modern critical tradition in general is in conflict with the need to reconcile with the grand and monolithic religious tradition of Islam, which should be mentioned in the essay.

Work Cited

Abid, S. Understanding the veil. Crossing Cultural Boundaries: Taboo, Bodies and Identities, edited by Lili Hernandez, 2020, pp. 39-53.

Family law or personal law is that branch of civil law that deals with or governs relations of among the members of the family or we can say that it deals with personal family matters of an individual like marriage, dowry, and dissolution of marriage, guardianship, adoption, maintenance, inheritance, and succession. These laws not help in defining a relationship between a man and women but also helps in determining the relationship between women and the State. The Quran, which is considered as the primary source of Muslim law, have already discussed transformation in the conditions of women fourteen hundred years ago that would improve the situation, however these transformations have not been practiced by the Muslim society in the current times. In spite of the fact that the Islam as appeared to Prophet Mohammad isn’t oppressive to women its rendition enacted in the family law, and day to day activities is controlled by males.

Unfortunately, women for the sake of religion and socio-cultural practices, many a times have been prevented for claiming opportunities of development and uniformity of genders (Shima Azizi, 2017). This prevention at times points towards a question, whether the Muslim women have the same status as the Muslim men in regard to family or personal matters? The answer to this question is that women are yet treated according the older beliefs and are considered secondary to men. A women is guaranteed with equal rights in regard to family matters under various provisions laid down by international organizations in respect to human rights. According to the Article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and political Rights, “the family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State, and no marriage shall be entered into unless full consent of the intending spouses.

States Parties to the present Covenant shall take appropriate steps to ensure equality of rights and responsibilities of spouses as to marriage during marriage and at its dissolution.” (CCPR General comment No. 19: Article 23 (The Family) Protection of the Family, the Right to Marriage and Equality of the Spouses, 2020)Article 16 of Universal Declaration of human Rights expressly states that men and women have the right to marry and can own a family without any kind of restrictions thus prohibiting forced marriages of girls. Article 16 of CEDAW states that “the States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations and in particular shall ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same right to enter into marriage, to choose a spouse and to enter into marriage only with their free and full consent, The same rights and responsibilities during marriage and at its dissolution, the same personal rights as husband and wife, including the right to choose a family name, a profession and an occupation, the same rights for both spouses in respect of the ownership, acquisition, management, administration, enjoyment and disposition of property, whether free of charge or for a valuable consideration.” (Shima Azizi, 2017)

In India various laws have been established so as to give protection to women, however the heterogeneity in the religious and social practices does not permit for a homogenous civil law. The Constitution of India, provides knowledge regarding the provisions laid down for women which is intricate structure to guarantee equality amongst its citizens. The constitution not only guarantees equality to the citizens, Under Article 14, “The State shall not deny to any person Equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India”, but also “Article 15(1): Prohibits the discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them” moreover, there are other articles under the constitution that guarantee fundamental rights of women such as article 15(3)(1), article 16(2)(2), article 39(a)(3). These articles provide equality to women in all fields. However, nothing in these Articles shall prevent the state from making any other special provisions for women and children. Thus, criminal and civil law are secular, while the personal laws are administered by respective religious beliefs. Hence we can say that religion and personal laws go hand in hand, and each religion and tribal community have their own laws that are formulated in accordance to their customs and practices. Although article 44 of the constitution provides for the aspiration of having a uniform civil code in family and personal matters and therefore is not enforceable by a court of law. Both Hindu and Muslim laws have laws formulated in accordance to their religion specifications, and the local customs and practices. Both the laws do not differentiate much with each other in moral, custom and law.

Islamic law originates from the moral and religious law basically grounded on the provisions laid down in the Islamic religious text, the Quran and the models or examples set by Islamic Prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Due to these provisions laid down in the Quran and Sunnah, child marriages are supported, however there is a prohibition that is being laid under the Child Marriage Act which states that a girl in India can’t get married before she attains the age of 18 and for a boy it is 21 years, apart from this there are practices like one sided divorce and polygamy in Muslim community. Islamic beliefs states that marriage is an initial phase in making a family, and referred to it as an agreement which might be permanent or temporary and it also allows a Muslim male to have four wives if he treats all of them equally. There ought to a proposition or offer, made by or either by the parties or on behalf of them, this is the condition required for a valid marriage under Muslim law. On account of polygamy, personal laws for Hindus and Christians forbid polygamy and it is condemned by the Penal Code for non- Muslims, it is reasonable for the individuals who are secured by the Muslim Personal Law and the dissolution of marriage can occur either by the procedure of divorce or death of the spouse.

Muslim Marriage Act has a procedure laid down for separation under the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939. Both men and women, parties to the marriage contract have an opinion for divorce, yet the rights of the wife in this is secondary as compared to the men. Under the Muslim law, a husband can get divorced from his wife without giving a valid reason of the divorce he just needs to pronounce “talak” thrice and the marriage agreement comes to an end. Although a divorce can be taken by a mutual agreement but the consent of wife does not play a significant role as mere her consent cannot initiate the procedure of divorce under Islamic law. But she can buy her divorce from her husband and can get divorced from her husband through the process of delegation. But the matter of divorce by wife have various exceptions. These exceptions have evolved from various cases like in case of Noor Jahan Bibi V. Kajim Ali, wife of the defendant filed a suit against her husband Kajim Ali who accused that her behavior was not acceptable and even though she had a husband she was having a relationship with Ashgar Ali and has committed adultery with him. In this case it was held that the doctrine of lian is not absolute in the Muslim law and therefore a Muslim wife can bring a suit for divorce against her husband on the ground that the her husband has charged her with false adultery under section 2 (ix) of the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act,1939. Moreover, In the case of M.B. Raheem V. Shumsoonnissa Begum, the Privy Council saw that wherein the husband discarded the property of her wife, then limited her to a room as if she was kept in a prison and misbehaved with his wife. The plaintiff in the court argued that as far as the Muslim law is concerned a wife under no circumstances has a right to live separately from her husband. It was held that if under the Muslim law if a wife cannot separate herself from her husband then such law would be a clear violation of the principles of natural justice. Therefore, the Privy Council upheld the principles of natural justice and decided the case in the favor of the wife. Thus we can say that when a husband has a lot more rights than the wife, it is deemed as the natural justice violation.

The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986, lays down provision for maintenance. According to section 3 of the act a divorced women has the right to get a reasonable and fair amount of maintenance from her husband after divorce. The amount should be equal to the sum of mahr or dower agreed to be paid to her at the time at the time of marriage or any time thereafter according to the Muslim law. This amount also includes the properties that she was given before the marriage or after the marriage by her relatives or friends or husband or any relatives of the husband and relatives. If the husband fails to provide her the above mentioned the magistrate can order the payment of the same. This payment needs to be given during the period iddat. Apart from this a divorced Muslim woman who is unable to maintain herself can directly claim maintenance from the State Wakf Board under section 4 of the act and under the same section she can plead inability of her relatives to maintain her. Relatives can be added to the process of the case if they have the capability to maintain the divorced women. This was held in T.N. Wakf Board V. Syed Fatima Nachi. A divorced women even has the right to claim maintenance under section 125 of the Cr.PC even beyond the period of iddat.

Many scholars belief that in 1973, the amendment that was being made with regard to the rights of the divorced women under section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code. After the amendment the term wife under the section also included divorced wife. This led to protests by the Muslim League as they felt that the amendment was a violation of the Muslim Personal Law. The amendment further excluded Muslim women from the ambit of the section 125 if the wife has already received the maintenance due to them by their husbands.

In the light of this issue a famous case came into existence as the Shah Bano Case in 1986, the case opened gates for the legislative amendments in the Shariat Act which wasn’t amended since 1937. After this case the Dissolution of Muslim Marriage Act 1939 again came into existence. In this case it was held that even though the Muslim Law limits the liability of the husband to pay maintenance to his divorced wife till the period of iddat but if the wife is unable to maintain herself after the expiration of the iddat period, she has the right to claim maintenance under section 125 of the Cr.PC. However the ruling given by the court was opposed by prominent Muslim leaders, who claimed that the judiciary was trying to violate their personal laws and if such a decision from the court is passed it would ultimately lead suppressing the Muslim law and superseding the Hindu law. During such protests the government of India, at that time Congress party was under great pressure to pass a law for the Muslim society. In such circumstances the government came up with the Muslim Women’s (Protection of Rights upon Divorce) Act 1986. Thus the act provided protection to the divorced Muslim women. Instances can be made evident from the case of Daniel Latifi V. Union of India it was held that section 3(1)(a) of the Muslim Women’s (Protection of Rights upon Divorce) Act 1986 makes a husband liable to provide for maintenance to his wife even after the expiration of the iddat period. This maintenance given by the husband shall be continued till the time she gets remarried. This was again upheld in the case of Sabra Shamin V. Maqsood Ansari.

In order to understand more about the concept of marriage under Muslim law we need to understand the relationship between polygamy and dissolution of marriage under the law, in the case of Abdul Azeem v. Fahimunnisa Begum, the wife filed a suit against her husband stating that their marriage has been dissolved and the husband has failed to pay her maintenance for two years. In this case the wife had been living with her parents and the husband got married again.

Introduction

Much acclaimed and celebrated Afghan writer, Khalid Hosseni in one his works, the Kite Runner mentions “There are many children in Afghanistan, but little childhood” (Hosseini, 2011). A statement as such is years of honour and threat their generations had to encounter simply to flee their country to evade war. Ever since 1978, the Saur Revolution, the Soviet invasions in 1979, and the Civil War’s in 1990’s, the number of Afghans fleeing their country is only increasing (Hyman, 1989).

The constant war like situation in Afghanistan has transformed it to a land of terrorism and drug trafficking. This research paper focuses on the increasing Afghani woman crisis in India involving the struggle encountered by these woman merely to survive.

The Afghani refugees in India have often fallen prey to the games of politics by the big powers in the country. India and Afghanistan have shared a very special relation of cooperation and rivals in the past. However, with the onset of the Russian aggression, the Taliban coupled with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism many Afghani’s have fled to the national capital of India; New Delhi.

Today, both India and Afghanistan seek to improve their bilateral trade with India offering its support to the national defence and security forces of Afghanistan to curb narcotics and fight terror (Kaura, 2019). The UNHCR has 14,464 registered refuges in India in 2017 (Chauhan, 2019). The Afghani woman of India have constantly made headlines due to the various challenges they encounter in an alien land.

The society that envelopes these woman is filled with pressures limiting them to work often forcing them to carry out small scale businesses from their homes itself such as that of beauty parlours and teaching (Buscher 2011).

Problem Statement

The plight of Hindu refuges in India is comparatively better than that of the Muslim Afghani refugees perhaps due to the difference in their population density or cultural similarities. This difference has led to the lack of academic literature and study to be conducted within the field (Buscher 2011).

With the limited literature that is available, this research paper will seek to analyse the strategies adopted by the Afghani refugee woman for their survival while outlining the difference in the living standards among the Sikh and Muslim refuges

Rationale

Although, India is known for its diversity, there is an increasing intolerance levels among people who migrate from different regions (regional discrimination) often resulting in the creation of an hostile environment for a particular group. The friction in India – Pakistan relations backed by political perspectives have contributed in the creations of anti-Muslim sentiments often leading to Muslims being one of the most vulnerable groups in the country. Muslim refugee Muslims are however most vulnerable and fall prey to gender based violence and abuse.

However, these Muslim Afghani refugee Woman haven’t given up and still fight for the development of their and their society’s well-being yet, their contributions often go unrecognized. Making this an important field of study to explore in terms of the legal and cultural system of Muslim Afghani Women for the creation of an inclusive environment within a country and for better humanitarian laws for the development of us as humans.

Literature Review

Legal Aspects Involved

A. Refugee under International Law

Article 1of the 1951 UN Conventions defined refugee as a person as “owing to well – founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or owning to such fear is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country” (UNHCR–The UN Refugee Agency. Guidelines On International Protection: Cessation of Refugee Status under Article 1C(5) and (6) of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (the ‘Ceased Circumstances’ Clauses), 2003.

B. Post 1967 Protocol

The 1967 Protocol is read alongside the 1951 UN Convention as an update to the preceding Convention since they both deal with the Status of Refugees. Although, the protocol introduced the removal of temporal and geographical limitations only migrations backed by civil or political rights where included under the convention.

This has resulted in most of the refugees from the third world or developing countries to be denied the protection since they fled not only because of political or civil rights but also because of natural disasters and economic upheaval (B.Chimnney 2000,07-08).

Refugee flows and its Causes

The inflow of migrants and an increase of refugees have taken place primary due to six factors; economic, environment, political, ethnic and human rights violations and tensions.

• A. The 1951 UN Conventions recognized persecution based on the race/nationality/membership to a particular group and their religious and political belief and opinion to influence their safety within their country.
• B. Economic stability which determines the increment of the refuge is also recognized as a major reason for individual to seek refuge in areas where they have a better economic stability.
• C. Migration caused by environmental factors is the most controversial refugee migration since there are many who debate that this kind of migration is not forced where people are forcefully uprooted.
• D. There have been various disagreements among the various ethnic groups often leading to conflicts turning violent. Such ethnic tensions are often seen as the root cause for refuges today. (UNHCR–The UN Refugee Agency. Guidelines On International Protection: Cessation of Refugee Status under Article 1C(5) and (6) of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (the ‘Ceased Circumstances’ Clauses), 2003.

United Nations Humans Rights Commission

The creation of the League of Nations initiated an organized response to the refuge problem post the Cold War Era as it indicated that large scale refugee movements in European could not be controlled without government cooperation. This lead to the creation of intergovernmental committee on refugees (IGCR,1938), United Nations Relief And Rehabilitation Agency (1947, UNRRA) and International refugee organisation (IRO, 1947) were set up for refugee protection (B. Chimney 2000,210).

The fall of the of the IRO in 1951 resulted in the creation of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR,1950) with an aim to lead, direct and coordinate international action to protect refugees and resolve their crisis around the world.

Refugee Rights

The 1951 UN Conventions outlined the civil and socio- economic rights of the refugees which are to be respected by not only fellow citizens but also by citizens in whose country they seek refuge. Although the international law makes it mandatory for states to adopt these laws laid down by the UN Convention some states have not been abiding by them.

Some of the laws that have been made for the protection of refuges are;

• a. Entry in search of refuge on instance of persecution, armed conflict or events disturbing public order.
• b. In times of armed conflict, refuges or asylum seekers should not be used as a shield/buffer where their safety is threated.
• c. National authorities should instantly inform UNHCR in case of detention of refuges or asylum seekers, allowing it to supervise their and protect them.
• d. They must be provided with employment and public assistance as part of their socio – economic rights (Harvey, 2009)

Refugee Crisis in Involved and the Legal System involved

With the coming of the 1951 UN Convention and the 1967 Protocol, India has become a home to many refugees from across the globe; it is known to house more refuges than to produce them. Although India lacks laws specifically for refuges it has been a host to many even though they are not entitled

Bibliography

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After 9/11 image of Muslim stereotype in film industry things has changed a lot. Riz Ahmed an actor and a rapper from a Muslim ethnicity has mentioned about how we can stop this in one of his speech at the UK’s House of Commons. In the month of March 2017. Sadia Habib and Shaf Choudry had come up with this solution known as Riz test. The test basically filters the TV show and movies and lets us see if there is any bad Muslim representation on those platforms. This will help movies to change the scene with some alternative to picture the story better rather than making it have a Muslim stereotype to hurt people from the Muslim ethnicity. This test is inspired from another test which is known by Bechdel test that basically challenges viewers to view how women are represented. Riz test is something similar by categorizing the test into five points. If the TV shows or movies fail one of the tests, we can know it is a bad representation of a Muslim stereotype.

On the other hand, recent activities have shown how Trump’s term gave Muslims some fresh content. Ramy Yousef who is an American comedian and an Egyptian immigrant has changed the stereotypical perception on Muslims a lot. He has also mentioned how suddenly Muslim have become cool in LA recently. His shows jokes about how he and his companions compare religion to a menu. He mentions how he doesn’t have drugs or alcohol, but he admits that sometimes he has premarital sex. He also tries to show that each person has their own way to deal with god. Muslim writers like Gardezi have changed a lot too with their work in the Hollywood industry.

All in all, the representation of Muslims has shifted from being regressive others to more aggressive and violent image who hate the western world. This representation has caused many Muslims to suffer and finding difficulty during activities such as travelling by air to a foreign country because of 9/11 and the stereotype movies have made. The group does not only suffer from misrepresentation but also because of very few good representations. This kind of issues is what have had a bad impression for the religion. This has made people from Muslim ethnicity to hide their religion in public to suffer less being the victim in which they were not part of. Muslim stereotyping in movies and post 9/11 events have represented the whole group into such situation that has been unbearable at some point. Big movies and their characters were also a part of this Muslim stereotyping in movies and tv shows. This has changed a lot with its ups and downs but now things are seen more positively rather than those negative impression due to certain representation of that ethnic group. Many big figures have also been a part of this revolutionary change in Muslim representation in movies and tv shows. Muslim personalities such as Riz Ahmed, Ramy Yousef, Sadia Habib and Shaf Choudry are trying to change this. The Riz Test makes it easy for us to know what movie is misrepresenting Muslims and Arabs while Ramy Yousef comedy has suddenly made Islam cool again.

References

1. Nittle, N. K. (2019, June 23). A Look at Common Muslim and Arab Stereotypes in TV and Film. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/tv-film- stereotypes-arabs-middle-easterners- 2834648
2. Fadel, L. (2018, October 30). Muslims Are Having A Hollywood Moment. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2018/10/30/654555060/muslims- are-having-a- Hollywood-moment
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5. Bayraktaroğlu, K. (2018). The Muslim world in post-9/11 American cinema: A critical study, 2001-2011 / Kerem Bayraktaroğlu.
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7. Undoing Stereotypical Representations in Arab and Muslim Cinemas: Challenges, Interruptions, and Possibilities. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.arabmediasociety.com/undoing-stereotypical- representations-in- arab-and-muslim-cinemas-challenges-interruptions-and-possibilities/
8. Campbell, N. (2018, November 16). 16 Movie/TV Muslim Characters Who Broke Down Stereotypes. Retrieved from https://thewhisp.mommyish.com/entertainment/muslim-characters-movies-tv- flipped-stereotypes/1/
9. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/weta/crossroads/about/show_muslim_americans.html