Category: Music

Every commodity ends up in the hands of the user who is the consumer of the particular good or service. However, in some instances, a product may have to go through intermediaries before it finally gets to its end user. Intermediaries are normally used by companies for the purposes of distributing its products to the consumers. This may involve a few procedures in the course of distribution and these are what we refer to as distribution channels.

Distribution channels are the paths that a ready to sell product goes through before it reaches the final consumer. Channels of distribution are characterized by the presence of middlemen who include wholesalers, retailers and distributers. The internet has been the latest entry in the industry and is increasingly been used as a distribution channel by many companies. Distribution channels are categorized into either direct or indirect channels.

A direct distribution channel which is not very common allows the consumer to purchase goods directly from the manufacturers without having to go through the intermediaries. This has its own benefits and limitations too. The advantage of direct distribution is that it eliminates the chances of consumer exploitation by unscrupulous middlemen hence reducing the overall price of a commodity. Nonetheless, this type of distribution is a burden to the manufacturer because the manufacturer has to incur the distribution costs like transport.

Indirect distribution is the most common where the consumer purchases his or her products from the middlemen. To the manufacturer the indirect distribution channel is more business friendly. This paper seeks to develop a research on the distribution of music in the music market, its growth from the past and its feasible future.

Distribution channels in music trade

Music trade has made tremendous advancement with regard to distribution in the past decade. With the present growth in technology, distribution of music has seen great transformation in the last ten years. The emergence of peer-peer networks was the initial stage from which the growth of digital music sharing began (Passman 51). The uses of computers have influenced the growth of the music industry especially through marketing and distribution.

Development and introduction of applications such iTunes that provide legal downloadable music have contributed immensely to the shift of distribution strategies. In thee music industry, direct distribution is very common and almost the absolute distribution channel. Musicians have embraced the idea of Doing-it-Yourself in the distribution of their music rather than use middlemen (Passman 66). Competition is a major factor influencing the competitive distribution strategies as experienced in todays market.

Distribution of music has gone digital with artist availing their music on every social network in the internet. The internet has created an unmatched platform for music market players in the last few years. Although there are some artists that are still going for the historic album sales, they find it not yielding as mush as it would in the past. Consumers are opting for downloads for their favorite song in a particular album from the internet.

This has rendered other forms of distributions in the music market almost obsolete. Music distribution has been facilitated by the growing popularity of the social networks where consumers can purchase or listen to any of their favorite musicians. Other channels of distribution that are still operational include hiring distribution companies. These are companies that engage in the business of distributing music albums on behalf of the music label.

For a client to sign in to a distribution contract, he or she had to be a signed member of a record label. Nevertheless, in the recent past these requirements have been dropped due to the competition created by the internet as a platform for distribution. This practice is however very infrequent as it is a costly and not a very effective channel of distribution as it was traditionally. Shipping is another channel of distribution that players in the music industry are using.

This is however in some cases facilitated by online functions. Through the internet, buyers from other continents can place orders for particular records and the orders will be delivered via shipping transportation. This practice is however not very sustainable and the economic implications are not practical considering the options available in the market. For this reason, this channel might not in the long run compete with other offers in the market and very soon it will be obsolete.

This leaves the industry with only one feasible distribution channel; the internet platform which not only offers cheaper rates, but also provides an effective channel that delivers products very fast with unmatched efficiency. Internet therefore remains the best option for the music distribution industry.

Changes in the distribution channels

In the United States of America, sales of recorded music experienced a major decline from $13Bn to $10Bn between the year 1999 and the year 2003(Bockstedt, Kauffman and Riggings 1). This was influenced by the tremendous growth in popularity of the digital music. Digital distribution has become an essential distribution strategy in the music market today. Looking at the purchases made through digital platforms such as iTunes, there has been an increase in the number of customers within a one years timeframe (Bockstedt, Kauffman and Riggings 1).

According to Bockstedt et al., between the year 2003 and 2004, the customer base for digital music rose from 861,000 to 4.9 million customers (2). This indicates the extent to which music distribution has shifted from the old album sales to the new digital dispensation. Music distribution through the characteristic compact discs is slowly fading away with the introduction of live online streaming. As he predicts, Bockstedt et al., maintains that in the near future, the total music sales will be through digital distribution rather than the cell of compact discs(2).

These will be facilitated by the increase in the development of devices that play digital music in the market. The increase of the gadgets is triggered by the rise in demand for digital music rendering other forms of distributions invalid. Changes in the value chain have driven changes in the primary market. The digital music suppliers double up as product owners by trading straight with the client. This has seen a notable change in the distribution channels as they were.

Effects of both Distributors pricing on the business models

Due the simple internet distribution platform, the industry players are presented with better and more rewarding deals. In the past the distribution strategies included physical travelling which was a costly venture. Physical distribution was not efficient as it was restraining the distribution of music. These changes have brought life in the industry and now the players can more effectively reach and supply their merchandise with ease. Payment for delivered orders is also in most case done via wire transfer hence transactions can take place with minimal physical movements.

This was not the case two decades ago. However, there are still few companies that are engaging in album distribution and are still running. These companies receive payments from bands and record labels to distribute their products to different retailers around their jurisdiction. The shipping market is also being used in the distribution of music CDs. Nonetheless, the players admit the fact that their market is highly threatened by the replacing of album sales by songs downloads.

There is a rising demand on music videos, a factor that favors the establishment of digital music. Looking at the situation in all dimensions, it is apparent that the digital market is better placed in music distribution than any other form of distribution.

Distributor pricing

The tradition distribution pricing of music is very different from the current digital strategy. Musicians and bands are disregarding the traditional distribution and pricing in favor of the digital pricing. The traditional physical release and sale of CDs is no longer a viable strategy. Digital music pricing which include two options; purchase and subscription services, is the most appropriate distribution and pricing strategy in response to the changing musical environment. Customers are provided with the options where one can choose to purchase the desired song or alternatively subscribe to a monthly streaming plan.

These pricing strategies are encouraging the growth of the industry and seem to capture the attention of buyers. Buyers who just want to listen to particular song can subscribe to the monthly plan that allows them to have access to digital music online. With the digital music platforms accounting for more than 20 percent of the music sales, the industry seems to have embraced the new idea. This has come with a lot of other services that the industry has to offer. However the industry is threatened by other digital distributers that are not licensed hence illegally distributing music.

The music distributed in such sites does not benefit the owner and this is hurting the industry. The pricing of music online is standardized but with the current consumer preference in demand, this may change. Currently both old and new songs are offered at an equal price which is raising concerns from the consumers. Consumers feel that old music should attract a lower price tag as compared to new ones. This is a fair argument and valid reason to bring the prices down in response to market demand. High prices can be charged on new music to enhance a balance within the industry. May be songs should be priced on the account of their popularity and demand. Though the market is young and still trying to come up with regulatory measures, interim policies to run the market are required as a matter of urgency.

Do-it-Yourself distributing

Self distribution of own music has gained huge support from players in the market. However, this has been made possible by the ease in which music platforms are accessible. Unlike in the past, getting an air space for ones music to be played was almost impossible. The digital platform has provided players in the industry with an easier way of reaching out to fans and buyers. It has become so easy to acquire an album through the internet than ever before.

With this form of platform, musicians no longer require the chains of distribution as was the case before. It has become a personal prerogative to put and avail individual products on the web for funs to access. The social networks have become major targets when it comes to self distribution. The Reverb Nation for instance is a major site for such distribution. Music can be downloaded from the site with authorization from the owner at a fee.

The site also provides option in the event whereby a musician wants to promote his or her music; he or she can provide his or her music for free. This means that music can be accessed by the customers without charges. This has enabled many bands to increase their popularity and hence increase sales of albums and single songs as well. Tweeter users are more said to engage in music activities compared with other regular internet users. This is yet another avenue where music industry players are exploiting the benefits of the web.

Statistics show that 41 percent of the site users listen to online radio (Brae 205). Tweeter has been used by music industry players to entice customers to purchase their music. It has since worked as the tweeting community accounted for 77percent of the total digital music purchases (Brae 205). Unlike in the past, today artists dont have to make trips all over the world incurring cost of distribution. The internet has provided a remedy with regards to this tiresome adventure. In the near future, physical launches may have no meaning with most of the musicians hosting launching events online.

Works Cited

Bockstedt, Jesse, Robert J. Kauffman and Frederick J. Riggins. The Move to Artist-Led Online Music Distribution: Explaining Structural Changes in the Digital Music Market. Minneapolis, MN; University of Minnesota, 2004. Print.

Brae, Michael. Music Distribution: Selling Music in the New Entertainment Marketplace. Charleston, SC: CreateSpace, 2009. Print.

Passman, Donald. All You Need to Know about the Music Business. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 2000. Print.

Introduction

Music forms an integral part of any cultures tradition and practices. In the 1960s, a new tradition in the music industry emerged in Liverpool and London that would transform Britains culture forever. The influence these two distinct regions provided the emergence of several bands and songs that became sensational outside the country. The time for such external popularity in the United States would become the British Invasion. While most of the bands of the time relied heavily on American templates, such a musical phenomenon succeeded due to young peoples determination to oppose the conservative traditions of the time and their desire to focus on the ongoing Civil Rights Movement in the United States.

Bands from Liverpool

In Liverpool, a tradition of pop and classical music emerged in the 1950s that gave birth to different bands and artists who remain famous till this present day. During this period, Liverpool succeeded in developing a unique form of genre that was associated with numerous bands of the time (Mordden 35). This music type was known as Merseybeat or British beat. The name emerged due to the fact that most of the musicians lived near River Mersey (Whiticker 18). Historians acknowledge that American music influenced this genre. From the 1950s, many American musicians popularized the blues and rock and roll, thereby making them popular in different parts of Britain.

Young individuals of the time began to replicate such music practices and the trad jazz that had become common at the time. With the combination of the original British and the emerging American styles, the Merseybeat became a reality in Europe (Mordden 58). With the dominance of American musicians and hits in the United Kingdom in the early 1960s, very few artists managed to repeat their success. However, Cliff Richard attracted the attention of more listeners with his hits, such as Living Doll of 1959. Within several months, the Beatles became an instant sensation both in Europe and the United States. This band promoted backbeat that had become the unique rock and roll genre of Liverpool (Yudklin 29). Some of the famous songs associated with this band included She Loves You and Love Me Do.

The second band to have originated from Liverpool during the 1960s was the Gerry and the Pacemakers and it promoted the Merseybeat scene (Whiticker 28). The artists favorite genre borrowed a lot from the American pop music culture. However, they relied on guitar-guided harmonies, vocals, and 4/4 bars. This band went further to feature bass and rhythm guitars, drums, and backing vocals. Some of their famous hits that topped the UK Singles Chart during the 1960s included Youll Never Walk Alone and I Like It (Whiticker 34). They also produced the song Ferry Cross the Mersey to popularize the famous River Mersey.

The third band that followed in the footsteps of these famous groups was The Searchers. Having emerged as a skiffle group in 1959, the members worked tirelessly to learn the guitar and handle different voices, such as bass (Whiticker 61). Merseybeat beat was their favorite style and it borrowed a lot from American rock and roll. Some of the greatest hits included Sugar and Spice and Sweets for My Sweet. This band produced and recorded the two songs in 1961 (Yudklin 65). By 1964, most of their works had become admirable both in the United Kingdom and the United States.

Bands from London

In London, similar trends emerged whereby the majority of the emerging artists were keen to use unique American templates to produce their songs. From the 1960s, London witnessed an explosion of new bands that relied heavily on American rhythm-and-blues genres (Whiticker 34). The majority of the notable bands were common in basements and suburban regions and restaurants. Tunes and genres that revolved around rock and roll also became common during the time. This model began to replace the jazz culture that had dominated London for decades.

The Rolling Stones would emerge as a notable band or liable that promoted the rock template. Some of their famous songs that attracted the attention of rebellious young individuals in the United States included Paint It Black and (I Cant Get No) Satisfaction. Additionally, this group considered the importance of assimilating diverse genres that supported their musical aims, such as reggae, dance, blues, folk, and rhythm and blues (R&B). The second band based in London during the 1960s was Pink Floyd that promoted the psychedelic pop genre. Some of the elements that emerged during the time included trippy effects, sitars, and fuzz guitars (Yudklin 82). This genre led to the production of inspirational and melodic songs that were capable of entertaining more people. The American rock genre was the primary American template the inspired this group to achieve its goals. Some of the greatest songs by this group included Cymbaline and More Blues of 1969.

The Yardbirds was another London-based band that promoted the rock genre and borrowed the emerging American templates that had become common in Britain throughout the 1960s. Specifically, the members relied on rock and roll to produce songs that entertained many people in the United Kingdom and across the globe (Whiticker 87). Some of their famous hits associated with this band included Over Under Sideways Down and For Your Love.

Personal Opinion

From the above analyses, it is evident that London and Liverpool were unique locales that transformed the music culture of Britain. The achievements of the identified bands resulted in a seminal contribution to American popular music through the famous British Invasion (Whiticker 92). From a personal opinion, I believe that music imitating American popular music from Great Britain became so popular because it challenged the existing traditions and conservative genres that existed in the United Kingdom. At the international level, this music remained entertaining since it merged different styles to deliver a new genre.

In the United States, many people were willing to associate with it since it captured their rebellious attitudes to the ongoing political events of the time, such as the Cold War, the Vietnam War, and the ongoing Civil Rights Movement. After focusing on the nature of this remarkable phenomenon, it becomes quite clear that music can have a strong force to influence peoples cultural values and guide others to fight for equality (Yudklin 94). The famous British Invasion succeeded since it sought to oppose the traditions that were affecting the future of the world. The youth wanted to change the course of history and promote new thoughts that could take them closer to their goals.

Conclusion

The emergence of numerous bands from Liverpool and London in the 1960s as a result of the influential nature of American music culture. However, the dedication and willingness of some of these artists led to the famous British Invasion. More young people in Britain and the United States found the music inspirational since it resonated with the issues that were taking place in the world. Additionally, the musical phenomenon was a sign of resistance to the conservative ideas of the time, such as inequality and racism.

Bibliography

Mordden, Ethan. Open a New Window: The Broadway Musical in the 1960s. New York: St. Martins Publishing Group, 2015.

Whiticker, Alan J. British Pop Invasion: How British Music Conquered The 1960s. Wahroonga: New Holland Publishers, 2019.

Yudklin, Jeremy. Music in Medieval Europe, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1989.

Various critics have railed against the alleged harms of rap music. It is misogynistic and promotes violence (especially toward women), crass materialism, and street crime. Virtually all of the arguments about rap focus on its alleged effectsharmful or, occasionally, beneficial. Yet such arguments are difficult to prove. While not suggesting we abandon approaches like this, the focus on effects ignores another important moral argumentrap music is both assign of and contributes to a form of corruption of moral character.

Critics have alleges that rap music is harmful.

1. It promotes violence;
2. it enhances materialism;
3. it increases criminal activities;
4. it is contributes to corruption of moral character.

Morality is not simply about actions, consequences, and effects on others. It is also about oneself and the development of ones own character. Being self-centred, cowardly, or weak-willed may not harm others, but we do judge such things in terms of morality. Who we are and the motives for our actions are important. Two people may do the same thing but for different reasons. We, justifiably, judge them differently. Two nephews may be attentive to their elderly aunt, taking her places, buying groceries, seeing to her welfare. If we judged them solely in terms of the consequences of their actions, there would be no difference between them. But maybe one nephew has no love for his aunt and helps her solely out of hope that he will benefit in her will. The other maybe helps her because he loves her and is concerned about her well-being. We judge their actions differently because of intent. Even the legal system considers motive and character. A person who pushes a man in front of a moving bus with the intent of killing him is judged differently than one who stumbles and pushes the man accidentally. Character is important in morally assessing ourselves and others.

Further: 1) rap music influences a persons actions, consequences and effects on other people; 2) it also affects the development of a persons character; 3) there are high chances that rap music may influence the motives behind peoples actions.

Rap both indicates and contributes to a corrupt personal character. Rap lyrics (and accompanying videos) are full of images of hos and pimps, guns, violence, the killing of cops, dissing and being dissed, dominance, and drug dealing. It is rife with jewellery-wearing thugs promoting crass materialism and hostile sexual stereotyping. Women are subjected to the crudest form of sexual subjugationas merely the sexual playthings of violent mento be used, pimped out, and discarded.

Rap videos and lyrics are full of images showing guns, pimps, killings, dissing language, and drug dealings; it portrays a lot materialistic things and thuggery; it categorize women as sex objects who are only supposed to be used by violent men and dumped.

The imagery is unrelenting. And it glorifies a world of misogyny, where crass materialism by any means, where violence as a primary means of settling disagreements, and where illegal activitydrug dealing, stealing, killing copsare considered normal and desirable.

Rap music glorifies defiance and committing illegalities by all means necessary; it promotes violence as a means of solving disagreements; it portrays committing illegalities as normal behaviors.

People who choose to listen to and watch such material on a regular basis are saying something about their own moral character, about what they value, about who they are. They are endorsing the behaviours the genre exemplifies. Seeking out such material is like seeking out and choosing to watch portrayals of atrocities, such as rapes, executions, and real-life violence, all of which are available in our culture and on the Internet.

Watching rap music is a clear demonstration of once character and behaviors; those who watch such materials are actually telling the society who they are and what they value in life; such people are evil, violent, rapists and criminal in real life.

One could argue that people might listen to rap only for the music and not pay attention to the lyrics. In response, consider the following parallel. Imagine that a genre of music emerged that had interesting music but whose lyrics and accompanying videos were entirely devoted to the denigration of a particular race and the superiority of another. I doubt that we would believe that self-described nonracist people listened only for the artistry of the music and ignored the lyrics. But even if this was the case, we would likely still find a moral failing in that. Their failure to see and condemn the message of the lyrics would itself be a moral failing. Finally, even if some individuals failed to recognize the message of the lyrics that cannot be true of everyone who listens to the material. If it was simply the music and not the lyrics that was important, other lyrics would develop. This singular vision would not be as pervasive in the genre. Other genres are not as unrelenting and uniform in their vision of the world.

Those who listen and watch rap music do so to get the violent, materialism, drug dealing, and dissing messages framed in the lyrics; they like and love the immoral lyrics conveyed in rap music; that is why all rap music lyrics are the same all the times and full of immoral language.

The state cannot prevent us from corrupting our character, nor should it. However, that does not prevent me, as an individual, from deploring the corruption of character in rap. We make a decision when we choose to listen to music. The choice to persistently listen to a form of music that celebrates thugs, violence, drug dealing, crass materialism, and the denigration of women shows a corruption of character and deserves moral censure.

No law or legal framework can prevent people from being immoral; people must be let free to choose what they want to be in the society; at the same time those who feel bad about immorality depicted in rap music should talk about it openly; the violence, drug dealing, materialism, belittling women and all other immoral messages in rap lyrics should be censured by the society.

Topic: Rap and Moral Character

Issue: Is rap music harmful and corrupting moral character of people

Position: Rap music is harmful, and promotes violence, materialism, drug dealings, crimes and dissing of women thus, it should be censured or discarded.

1. It is misogynistic and promotes violence (especially toward women), crass materialism, and street crime. Note: this statement presumes that all types of music is supposed to promote good moral characters in the society. This is very vague and has not concrete justification.
2. Rap music is both assign of and contributes to a form of corruption of moral character. Note: the word assign can mean so many things like allocate, give, set, designate, and set apart; its importance and meaning in this statement is ambiguous.
3. Morality is not simply about actions, consequences, and effects on others. It is also about oneself and the development of ones own character. Note: there is no link or justification on how rap music contributes to the development of a person, or the behavior of a person.
4. Rap lyrics (and accompanying videos) are full of images of hos and pimps, guns, violence, the killing of cops, dissing and being dissed, dominance, and drug dealing. Note: What is the extent of this full, or how full is this full? This is a vague statement and does not quantify empirically how rap music is full of immoral images.
5. It glorifies a world of misogyny. Note: Very subjective and uses normative moral criteria claim in selecting what is legal or illegal.
6. People who choose to listen to and watch such material on a regular basis are saying something about their own moral character. Note: Very subjective and also uses normative moral criteria to presuppose some standard of judgment on what actions are morally good or bad in the society.
7. I doubt that we would believe that self-described nonracist people listened only for the artistry of the music and ignored the lyrics. Note: This statement is vague and very subjective because it is difficult to tell why some people listen to certain music. It is like trying to push the narrative that while others who listen to other music do so due to the artistry of the music, the same is not true for those who listen to rap music.
8. If it was simply the music and not the lyrics that was important, other lyrics would develop. Note: This claim is very abstract and its truth can only be ascertained through analysis of several rap music from different artists.
9. The state cannot prevent us from corrupting our character, nor should it. Note: The words state and us in this statement are ambiguous, who is the state and who are us?
10. The choice to persistently listen to a form of music that celebrates thugs, violence, drug dealing, crass materialism, and the denigration of women shows a corruption of character and deserves moral censure. Note: The statement is using normative moral criteria to pass judgement and classify rap music immoral and should be condemned.

Rap music should be censured because:

1. it promotes violence and crime, enhances materialism, and contributes to corruption of moral character;
2. images and videos displayed in rap music elevates killings, dissing language, drug dealings, thuggery and categorize women as sex objects;
3. watching or listening to rap music is like revealing your immoral character to the society.

Arguments 1, 2, and 6 depict all rap music as immoral because everything about them including images displayed, lyrics, and people who watch or listen to them are indecent, and so it should be censured by society. This sounds invalid because the claims are not grounded in any sound empirical evidence but are based on conceptual claims which require deep analysis of the word immoral.

Arguments 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 portrays rap music as a promoter of violence, crimes, materialism and only meant to corrupt the moral characters of people. These arguments confine rap music to only immorality and nothing good or no moral information can be passed from such music. It cannot be true that all rap music only promotes immorality in society, there are some which are decent and which promote good societal values. The arguments are weak assumptions with no justifications.

Music is universal and is meant for recreational purposes and artistic expression. People listen to them to raise their mood, get them excited, or make them calm and relaxed. Listening to music allows humans to feel nearly or possibly all emotions that they experience in their lives. In most cases, the melody of the music draws audiences and fans from different cultures and races to love particular music without even understanding the message or information it conveys.

The theme of music in most cases follows the cultures of a particular people in the world, the way they behave, their language, what they consider moral, and their styles of doing things. It is important to note that some cultures may not resonate well with some people and as a result, they may not love music associated with such cultures. This is the case with rap music which can trace its origin from the richness of African American and diasporic cultures (Dingle and Sharman, 2015). The mixing of vocal methods and storytelling heritage from those customs, and the fluidity and simplicity with which prior rap musicians moved among musical varieties.

Considering the stereotypes and discriminations against Black Americans which still exist to date. It could have informed the classification and association of rap music with violence, crimes, and other things considered by contemporary society as immoral (Dingle and Sharman, 2015). The arguments against rap music on the basis of promoting or corrupting the moral characters of people are vague and not based on any sound empirical evidence but subjective perceptions and opinions of some people. There is no scientific evidence to justify the claims that rap music does influence listeners to act violent or commit crimes, it is all to do with the stereotype that all rappers are violent.

Reference

Dingle, G., and Sharman, L. (2015). Getting a bad rap: why problem music isnt really a problem. The Conversation. Web.

Introduction

There are two basic types of musical instruments: chordophones and idiophones. Chordophones are instruments that produce sound from vibrations of strings, like a guitar, Chinese zeng, violin, banjo, Chinese pipa, and hammered dulcimer. Idiophones are musical instruments that create sound by vibrating when struck. Some common idiophones are gongs, triangles, shakers, cymbals, spoons, castanets, and Mbira dzavadzimu. Idiophones and chordophones are some of the key musical instruments that are associated with specific kinds of music in different cultures.

Discussion

The Shona people of Zimbabwe are credited with the invention of the Mbira dzavadzimu, the earliest known idiophone music instrument. This wooden instrument consists of a box with several metal tines or keys plucked to produce sound. The Shona people use the Mbira to communicate with the spirit world and as a tool for healing (Bakan, 2012). The Mbira dzavadzimu of the Shona people of Zimbabwe is a traditional instrument that is played during religious ceremonies.

On the other hand, the chordophone family of instruments is believed to have originated in China. The earliest form of the chordophone is thought to be the Chinese pipa a long time ago. The zeng (a type of Chinese lute) is also known to have started almost at the same time as the pipa (Bakan, 2012). Over the centuries, these instruments spread throughout Asia and Europe and eventually became popular around the world. Today, many different types of chordophones are used in all kinds of music genres. Chordophones such as the Chinese pipa and zeng are generally associated with classical music. However, these instruments can also be similar to other styles of music, such as folk and popular music (Bakan, 2012). For example, the pipa has been featured in several modern rock and pop songs over the years.

Conclusion

In conclusion, chordophones and idiophones are two different types of instruments that produce sound. Chordophones are instruments such as the Chinese pipa and zeng that use strings to create sound. Idiophones are instruments such as Mbira dzavadzimu that use metal or other materials to create sound; they are related to spiritual music. These musical instruments came from different cultures; for example, Mbira dzavadzimu was mainly started by Shona of Zimbabwe from Africa. Conversely, chordophones such as zeng and pipa were invented in China and later in Europe and Asia and were associated with classical music.

Reference

Bakan, M. B. (2012). World music: Traditions and transformations (2^nd ed.). New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

American music during the 1960s decade was often associated with the combat zone and the military. Songs were mirroring the nations current mood, reflecting common pain, disapproval, and lack of conformity with the political decisions the leaders of the country were taking. Although this music was initially written to express emotions, it became a social tool for applying pressure to the US government to end their involvement in Vietnam. The following, will through an analysis of previous discourse on the topic, assess how music was used in both explicit and implicit ways as a weapon for applying pressure on the US government during the Vietnam war.

Barley Norton assesses the influence of war in Vietnam on musical expression and examines the relation between protests in music and politics (97). He takes into account that 1968 was remarkable because of worldwide protesting sentiments and movements, and Vietnam certainly played an important role in this phenomenon. Not just in democratic America but also in communist Vietnam, music became an art form of mass propaganda, or in poetic terms, a sort of intangible weapon that the population had at their disposal to protest. However, the difference is that in Vietnam, participation in musical activities was encouraged by the government and was aimed to incentivize comradeship between troops and the population while in the US. The situation was quite the opposite: people expressed their inconformity and disagreement with politics through folk, rock, and country/blues songs. Moreover, Norton admits that Vietnamese songwriters even dared to devote some lyrics to the Americans, encouraging them to fight together for peace (105). This event was possible only because both sides of the conflict wanted to stop the war, especially the Vietnamese population and gradually an almost entire American population.

Anderson stated several points concerning the issue in his article American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam. First, he affirmed that war contributed to the significant growth of the record industry and popular music, especially rock n roll (51). Record sales tripled, and production and recording developed as new sounds came both in terms of music and social protest. Secondly, Anderson paid attention to the bipolar nature of all the songs written in that period. However, the primary theme of all music was similar  war and the confusion and insecurity it was making people feel. It is noteworthy because it was the first time social protest appeared in this form (music). In 1968 protest music was described as serving as a source of strength, unification, and expression when the battle is raging, social revolution, and rock is the poetry of that revolution (Anderson 51).

Some of these explosive songs were even banned from the media, even though not everyone understood the true meaning of the lyrics. For instance, CBS television banned folk singer Pete Seeger for an antiwar song and called it the big fool, though the performance was eventually allowed. Finally, Anderson illustrated the transition from classic folk, which praised traditional topics like justice and brotherly love, to the occurrence of folk-rock/blues, which started to have different connotations (54). Folk-rock singers were uncovering the main illness of America  The Establishment. This music was more aggressive and fully represented social inconformity through powerful and intense sounds. It started to become uncommon to have new songs without some protest message, even if this was indirect or implicit.

James Davis also analyzed the link between music, war, and protests. He suggested that rock had a contradictory position in capitalism and paid particular attention to this kind of music. For example, he provided the expression of John Sinclair, who supposed that rock supplied the form of and the means to social transformation (123). This is where the revolutionary nature of the music of the 1960s became obvious  rock as a counterculture. Also, James made some overview of the relation between the war and music of those days. The war had different effects on different music styles, and the representation of the war also differed. Besides, the way music was used by both sides of the conflict varied. Further content-analysis of lyrics of those days made by James proved that ideological and general changes in public mood were positively correlated with musical practices.

Another prestigious author who looked close at rock as a mass influencer was H. Ben Auslander. He suggested that it was shaping political and social attitudes (108). He also highlighted 1967 as the peak year for the Vietnam-related protest music, which captured most of the publics attention. The more escalated the intervention in Vietnam was, the more popular protest music became. Auslander names Phil Ochs, Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, and others among the artists who wrote resonant albums, which later increased the crowd of protesting Americans. Musically the songs ranged from beautifully melodic to jarringly dissonant, lyrically from idealistic to cynical (111). Besides, Auslander distinguished several categories of protest songs (110). First are those that disapproved of the war in general (Masters of War, One More Parade, etc.). Then go the songs that referred specifically to the conflict in Vietnam (The War Drags On, White Boots Marchin in a Yellow Land, etc.). The third group included songs that condemned the Selective Service (I Aint Marchin Anymore, The Great Mandala, etc.).

Lydia Fish examined the issue from a slightly different perspective (5). She studied military folksongs and their impact on American soldiers during the Vietnamese insurgency experience. The motives were usually related to various war scenes. She concluded that they were primarily used to unite and support soldiers morally: These songs served as strategies for survival, and for the enhancement of morale (5). Music was one of not so many entertainment sources and meant to express inner fears, pain, and grief. Unlike protest songs, occupational folklore gained official acceptance from the media, and CBS even started broadcasting the Songs of War in 1967. She also noted the remarkable words of the member of the New York Times Saigon bureau. He said that almost every club had a resident musician who would sing about living in a strange country and the war; the songs were cynical and echoed the sadness and fear over the dirty little war which became a dirty big one. These statements illustrate common disillusionment about the US government and its actions. Even patriots were admitting that the war was a pointless demonstration of power, and this feeling was finally reflected in lyrics.

However, not all Americans were supporting peace. Fry provides a picture of the South, where people expressed more acceptance than resentment of the war (334). They preferred country music, as it was more typical of the South. The southern audience demonstrated a clear preference for songs that endorsed anticommunism, fighting and sacrificing for freedom, commitment to honor and duty, and attacks on antiwar protestors (Fry 334). Those ballads praised fearless soldiers, fighting for freedom from communism. Although pro-war songs were popular only in the South during 1967-1968, they became recognized across the country during Nixons presidency. Hence, not every kind of American music was devoted to the peace and criticism of the government. Only a few country music artists were questioning the war and defending protestors, and the most famous one was probably Johnny Cash with his song What Is Truth. Also, Southern women were the first in the country to start expressing their fear publicly, and these sentiments also found the reflection in southern country music. The aspect of fear and heavy moral resentment had not been revealed much before, and therefore, the South was a key contextual setting in this area.

To apply pressure to the government to end the US involvement in Vietnam, American society used music as its weapon. Various bands and artists acted as advocators for peace and strived to point to the government through art. Moreover, some psychedelic movements, such as hippies, also supported the musicians endeavors. However, it was not so at the very beginning of the war. As Bindas and Houston note, rock music and its artists were noticeably silent on this issue and revised their attitude only after the American societys reaction to war had changed (1). As soon as musicians joined the anti-Establishment and antiwar movement, the situation altered rapidly (1-2). Rock music, which has been rebellious since its birth and was in a constant state of conflict with societal rules, played an important role in opposing the war actions in Vietnam (1).

Rock became the representative of the political and social counterculture to the Establishment (4). Various rocknroll bands made their contribution to advocating for peace and opposing the government policies of the 1960s. The Rolling Stones, the Beatles, the Who, the Doors, Steppenwolf, Jimi Hendrix, and many other artists and bands criticized different Establishment elements. In their Satisfaction, the Rolling Stones laughed at the materialism and compliance of the after-1945 era (4). The Beatles also disapproved of the established rules in such songs as Fool on the Hill, Eleanor Rigby, Piggies, and Taxman (4). The Who, Jimi Hendrix, the Doors, and Steppenwolf criticized the established opinions on drug use (Magic Carpet Ride, Purple Haze, Mothers Little Helper) and sex (Light My Fire, Hello, I Love You). The songs like Manic Depression and My Generation were aimed at drawing attention to societys failure to perceive the ideas of the young generation of the 1960s (4). Musicians wrote about those themes because they wanted to capture the consumer whose opinions they reflected (4).

Many people considered the Vietnam war as the embodiment of everything dishonest and undignified present in the Establishment. Soon, the Establishment movement started to be compared with the war. Rock musicians could not but take advantage of the enormous antiwar, anti-Establishment market (Bindas and Houston 4). Bindas and Houston differentiate between two schools of thought about the antiwar implications of rock performers (5). One group of analysts (R. Serge Denisoff, Steve Chapple, Terry Anderson, and Reebee Garofalo) defends an opinion that antiwar rock was not born until the 1970s (5). The other group (Robert Pielke, David Pichaske, and Herbert London) argues that rock was always in vogue and always had an impact on society (5). However, as Abbie Hoffman noticed, rock music was revolutionary only because the consumers called it that way (qt. in Bindas and Houston 5).

The antiwar movement was more disruptive than its predecessor  the civil rights movement (Eyerman and Jamison 454). It managed to change the means of communication between culture and politics, which had been very close at the beginning of the 1960s (454). Each of the movements of that period criticized militarism and the place occupied by the military the lives of American people (454). Many campaigns and demonstrations of the 1960s aimed at opposing the military-industrial complex and the preeminent role of the military in the countrys cultural, economic, and political affairs (454). The movements activists were convinced that the greater attention was paid to military arrangements and values, the less consideration would be given to other crucial social issues such as insufficient social well-being, poverty, and racial inequality (454). Moreover, a focus on the military gave the impression that aggression and cruelty became the distinguishing features of the US culture (454). The most popular and well-known psychedelic movement of the Vietnam war period was the hippie movement. Those who belonged to it had a slogan Make Love Not War (454) and supported the rebellious rock musicians as well as other antiwar music trends such as rhythm and blues, urban folk music, and country blues (455).

Not only did hippies support peace, but they also made it possible for the black culture to integrate into the US society (455). Black rhythm and blues was the transformation of white rocknroll, and black country blues was the correspondent to white urban folk (455). The hippie movement formed a special environment that impacted the peoples opinions and initiated new social movements (457). As Eyerman and Jamison remark, movements are both consumers and producers, takers and shapers of pop culture (457). Therefore, it is no wonder that the hippie activists were able to make a big contribution to the anti-Vietnam war movement. The artists and their songs became an important part of the creation of national identity (458). In the 1960s, the singers viewed their purpose wider than merely commercial ones (458). By means of pop culture, the values and concepts conveyed by the musicians were able to reach a larger audience and have a more profound impact (458). Phil Ochs I Aint Marchin Anymore was one of the most classic antiwar songs of the hippie movement (463). Therefore, we can see that psychedelic movements, in particular, the hippie movement, had a tremendous impact on the formation of peoples attitudes against the Vietnam war.

While many scholars and theorists entitled music with a huge capability to induce the US government to end its involvement in Vietnam, there were also opposite opinions. Some researchers consider rock music not to have obtained its rebellious power until the end of the Vietnam war. For instance, Jerome Rodnitzky argues that music of the 1960s did not bear a rebellious character (44). The author emphasizes that consideration has to be made as for the musics purpose and its way of representation. Rodnitzky remarks that since it was no longer commercially successful to send a blatant message about ones dissatisfaction with the government, the musicians style of performance was subtle and symbolic (44).

The author is convinced that it was no longer enough merely to sing protest songs. He remarks that the young ears were eager to hear the precise ways of confronting the situation or at least co-existing with it instead of listening to the words of dissatisfaction and contempt (44). Rodnitzky criticizes the 1960s songs by calling them do-it-yourself protest songs (45). According to the author, the audiences were able to interpret the meaning by themselves, as well as make their own conclusions (45). The musicians of the 1960s did not introduce and explain their lyrics any longer and tended to talk about everything except the song, since its meaning was too obvious (Rodnitzky 45). Garofalo shares Rodnitzkys opinion and says that the significant cultural role of music was undermined in that period and performed a purely entertaining function (77). Therefore, some doubts exist as to the overwhelming rebellious power of antiwar music.

The Vietnam war was one of the most terrible conflicts of the past century. The struggle within the US society and culture over the wars implications and seriousness continues up to modern days (McMahon 160). Many people consider that the war was a conflict without purpose (Wineburg et al. 42). However, what made this conflict different from others was that the people on one side (the US) criticized their governments position and were opposed to military actions in Vietnam. They tried to express their opinion in various ways, but the most effective method was doing that through the art of music. Many historians and critics consider the music of the 1960s rebellious and antiwar. There are some scholars who ridicule the ability of music to dictate the peoples negative attitude to the government. However, most authors agree that rocknroll, country, rock, blues, and some other music styles born at the beginning of the 1960s had a great impact on the citizens attitudes towards the military actions. Starting with the critique of the Establishment, these performers moved on to criticize the war and the governments decisions. Songs of the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Jimi Hendrix, Steppenwolf, and other musicians remained in the history of world music as examples of revolutionary spirit and the belief in the peoples power to make positive change. Therefore, the music of the 1960s is considered a weapon of pressure applied to the US government with the aim of ending its involvement in Vietnam.

Works Cited

Anderson, Terry. American Popular Music and the War in Vietnam. Peace and Change, vol. 11, no. 2, 1986, pp. 51-65.

Auslander, Ben. If Ya Wanna End War and Stuff  You Gotta Sing Loud  a Survey of Vietnam-Related Protest Music. The Journal of American Culture, vol. 4, no. 2, 1981, pp. 108-113.

Bindas, Kenneth J., and Kraig Houston. Taking Care of Business: Rock Music, Vietnam, and the Protest Myth. The Historian, vol. 52, no. 1, 1989, pp. 1-23.

Eyerman, Ron, and Andrew Jamison. Social Movements and Cultural Transformation: Popular Music in the 1960s. Media, Culture, and Society, vol. 17, no. 3, 1995, pp. 449-468.

Fish, Lydia. Informal Communication Systems in the Vietnam War: A Case Study in Folklore, Technology and Popular Culture. New Directions in Folklore, no. 7, 2015, pp. 1-13.

Fry, Joseph. The American South and the Vietnam War: Belligerence, Protest, and Agony in Dixie. University Press of Kentucky, 2015.

Garofalo, Reebee. How autonomous is relative: popular music, the social formation and cultural struggle. Popular Music, vol. 6, no. 1, 1987, pp 77-92.

James, David. The Vietnam War and American Music. Social Text, no. 23, 1989, pp. 122-143.

McMahon, Robert J. SHAFR Presidential Address: Contested Memory: The Vietnam War and American Society, 1975-2001. Diplomatic History, vol. 26, no. 2, 2002, pp. 159-184.

Norton, Barley. Music and Protest in 1968. Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Rodnitzky, Jerome L. The Decline of Contemporary Protest Music. Popular Music and Society, vol. 1, no. 1, 1971, pp. 44-50.

Wineburg, Sam, et al. Common Belief and the Cultural Curriculum: An Intergenerational Study of Historical Consciousness. American Educational Research Journal, vol. 44, no. 1, 2007, pp. 40-76.

Introduction

Reggae is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the 1960s. Nowadays, the term encompasses the contemporary popular music of Jamaica and the international Jamaican diaspora. Among the primary influences that shaped the genre are traditional mento as well as American jazz, rhythm and blues, and African folk music. Reggae is known not only for the unique rhythm and musical patterns but also for the lyrics which reflect deep social consciousness. The present essay will examine the intersection of reggae with race, class, gender, and sexuality.

Reggae and Race

Reggae has always had close ties with Rastafarianism  a Pan-African religion that originated in Jamaica in the 1930s. Rastafarians views on race are based upon their unique interpretation of the Bible, and namely, the Old Testament. The adherents of Rastafarianism believe that throughout the history of humankind, race dynamics were influenced by the inherent superiority of black people and inferiority of whites (Waters 32). The pain and suffering to which white people subjected people of color can be explained by the fear of greatness and world domination in which whites would be the lower, underprivileged class.

Marcus Garvey was one of the major influences that shaped the belief system about race in Rastafarianism and reggae. Jamaican-born political leader and journalist, Garvey, was convinced that African people all over the world needed to unite to impose the new world order (80). Due to his radical black empowerment thought, Rastafarians deemed him to be a prophet and the second reincarnation of St. John the Baptist.

Reggae and Class

One of the possible interpretations of the term reggae is rege-rege or ragged clothing. In the 1960s in Jamaica, if someone called a person streggae, it meant that the said person looked poor and was not dressed well. This understanding of the word makes sense, as the genre itself originated from the lower class, and namely, maroon villages  secluded subculture founded and run by escaped slaves.

Reggae artists and Rastafarians were in opposition to societal norms and political regime, as they advocated for radical changes and refused to conform to the White mans rule. Political leaders were aware of the potential that reggae held, which made Prime Minister Manley announce that the adherents of reggae culture were the wicked enemies of the country (Waters 23). Reggae as social movement transcended nations and became a protest music genre in many other countries. For instance, in colonialist Africa, Lucky Dube became one of the first artists to help to legitimize music as a protest gesture.

Reggae and Gender

Although the gender roles in Jamaica were largely influenced by the legacy of slavery and colonialism, the countrys population was able to retain some of the traditional views on what constitutes mens and womens responsibilities. Jamaicans inherited the concept of male supremacy from their European colonists while believing in the sanctity of the maternity (Thame and Dhanaraj 10). At the same time, womens duties to bear and raise children were not seen as incompatible with being workers and providers.

The contents of the music genre were aligned with the prevailing views on women in Jamaican society. While the majority of reggae songs communicated expected social change, very few of them addressed the challenges of women and advocate for their betterment as The Message by Neville Martin. Many popular reggae songs appeared to be lenient about male unfaithfulness. For instance, one of the interpretations of the famous No Woman No Cry by Bob Marley is comforting a woman whose partner is committing adultery. In the same song, Marley describes how his wife helped him in the times of struggle, which did not stop him from betraying her.

Reggae and Sexuality

Reggae has its roots in the mento music genre which is known for its sexual innuendos galore and double entendres. Despite the strong Christian influence and the impressive church per capita rate, Jamaicans have never been strictly puritanical. Even before the emergence of reggae, musicians were not afraid to play with risqué topics while choosing witty metaphors for sexual acts and making up entertaining stories about love trysts.

Being outspoken about sensuality and the physical side of romantic relationships was also an act of protest as the government tried to police the expression of sexuality by the indigenous population. However, not everyone was free to act upon their sexual urges: while male reggae musicians objectified women in their songs, women were reprimanded for acting loosely (Makari 10). The criticism of female sexuality was also grounded in the Rastafari theocratic order which treated adultery as a crime and revealing clothes as misconduct.

Conclusion

Ever since its emergence, reggae music has been known for its sharp social commentary on politics and religion. First, reggae has always been associated with Rastafarianism  religious teaching based upon the criticism of the oppressive Western culture. Having chosen black empowerment leaders as main sources of inspiration, reggae artists supported the unification of all Africans to usher the world into the new era.

Due to the calls for radical changes, reggae artists were seen as rebellious and non-conformists, and their roots in the lower class only amplified the schism. Despite the political rhetoric built upon the notion of freedom, womens interests were also dismissed, and in the songs, they were often diminished to sexual objects or submissive wives. Their ability to execute sexual autonomy was limited whereas mens promiscuity was seen as the norm.

Works Cited

Garvey, Marcus. Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey. Ravenio Books, 2015.

Makari, Elly. Gender Issues in Selected Reggae music (Riddims). 2015. Web.

Thame, Maziki, and Dhanaraj Thakur. Patriarchal State and the Development of Gender Policy in Jamaica. 2014. Web.

Waters, Anita M. Race, Class, and Political Symbols: Rastafari and Reggae in Jamaican Politics. Routledge, 2017.

Introduction

Music supports emotional health, manages stress, and increases psychological well-being. Scientists suggest that a persons preferences in music can provide insight into various aspects of their personality (Hooen et al. 12). From ancient times, people used music as a motivation for battles. Moreover, some people associate the healing process with particular sounds or even songs. One of the most outstanding philosophers of ancient times, Pythagoras, highlighted that music is essential for the development of the body and soul or maintains the health of the people and enhances the educational process (Hooen et al. 13). Therefore, music has many various benefits that positively affect peoples nervous system, psychological state, and educational opportunities and can be efficiently applied to medical aims.

Nervous System and Mood

Music affects the nervous system of people based on two factors: physiological and psychological. The first one is correlated with the wavelength and vibrations, which affect the body of the people. The effects of music on a person are expressed in the creation of specific emotional experiences that affect the intensity of metabolic processes, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and brain activity. Any music is represented through the sound wave, which has two significant impacts physical (on skin receptors) and psycho-physiological (on the brain) (Hooen et al. 20). The information received through sound receptors is the most effective. It mobilizes neurons and leads to the emergence of clear sensations and, at the same time, reactions to sensations in the form of emotions and feelings (Hooen et al. 25). When a signal about the irritation of the sound receptor is transmitted to the brain, the human body reacts reflexively (Hooen et al. 25). Reaction to music is the part of the autonomic nervous system controlling the functions within organs and blood vessels. The ear picks up the sound and, through the receptors, perceives vibration and transmits it to the brain. As far as all the functions of the body are connected with the brain, the changes occurring in it affect the physiological processes in the whole neurological system. The vibration of sounds creates particular energy fields that make every cell of our body resonate. A person absorbs musical energy, and it normalizes the rhythm of breathing, pulse, and blood pressure.

Psychological State of a Person

Emotions represent the mental manifestation of the waves. Music can directly affect the psychology of people. It causes a compilation of various emotional experiences. The mental state implies relevant actions, choices, and decisions. The choice of a favorite musical genre largely depends on the individuals psychological, social, and spiritual maturity, on the need to satisfy the internal emotional and mental state (Gobet and Sala 1429). Each musical style awakens specific emotions in a person. Scientists believe that such a situation appears because of the excitation of resonant oscillations especially when the waves frequency coincides with the alpha rhythm of the brain (Gobet and Sala 1431). As a result of biological interactions, music directly affects the psychological state of people.

Correctly chosen music can positively affect the situation of the person experiencing emotional difficulties. Researchers confirmed that music helps cope with stress through practical experiments (Biasutti et al. 2). The study was based on the combination of different frequencies and wavelengths. The primary aim of the experiment was to estimate the subjects relaxation and stress in relation to the sound and vibration changes. (Gobet and Sala 1431). Most of the compositions that positively affected the subjects states were correlated with classical music. Some of the music even involved an algetic effect reducing the pain level of the people.

Another experiment was associated with listening to sad music. Based on this research, scientists concluded that listening to depressive music positively affects the general mental state of people (Biasutti et al. 3). The listeners associate themselves with the music or the singer, developing empathy. At the same time, such sadness does not cause negative consequences because the real problems do not support it. Thus, sad music contributes to experiencing pain without harming psychological health.

Music and Medicine

Music can be efficiently applied in clinical practices. As was mentioned earlier, musical vibrations of different frequencies can affect peoples psychological states. This feature can be involved in the treatment of psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Various studies have shown that listening to pleasant music stimulates the production of dopamine in the brain (Farkhondehzadeh and Hashemimehr 30). Dopamine itself as medication has an analgesic effect. Chronic pain is often considered to be the problem for cancer patients. They also have other negative symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, lack of energy, and poor quality of life.

Several studies have examined the effects of various music therapy techniques and passive listening to music on the well-being of cancer patients (Farkhondehzadeh and Hashemimehr 31). The most significant impact of music in the medical sphere is related to pain syndromes. However, music also has a positive impact on the level of anxiety, loss of energy, and the quality of life of patients in general. Individual studies have documented a reduction in the use of painkillers and rehabilitation time (Farkhondehzadeh and Hashemimehr 31). These results cannot be called accurate and reliable enough. Interestingly, the meta-analysis found no difference between studies that used active forms of music therapy and those that simply passively listened to music (Farkhondehzadeh and Hashemimehr 30). Scientists found only one exception: active music therapy, in contrast to passive listening, is less intense but still influences the quality of life.

Music and Education

Music can enhance memory, concentration, attention, and other skills necessary during education. The researchers found that it was easiest to remember the text if person reads it, but people who listened to it like a song had a better understanding of its essence (Qiang 176). This method is used in the study of languages but also for subjects that rely less on memorization and more on understanding, such as in the exact sciences. When music is not related to the studying subject, peoples brain performs two separate tasks at the same time: studying and listening to music (Qiang 176). The music can change the mood, and it will make activities more manageable.

Conclusion

Therefore, music affects many aspects of human life. From the physiological perspective, music affects the nervous system through vibrations causing changes in mood and the emotional and psychological state of the people. Such effects can be used in the clinical aims of reducing chronic and acute pain. Moreover, music is beneficial for improving the skills such as concentration which are necessary within the educational process. Music has many benefits for people improving their general well-being and quality of life.

Works Cited

Biasutti, Michele, et al. Editorial: The Impact of Music on Human Development and Well-Being. Front. Psychol., vol. 11, no. 1246, 2020, pp. 1-4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01246

Farkhondehzadeh, Mahboobeh and Hashemimehr, Mohammad. Music Therapy and Its Status in Iranian Medical Texts and Knowledge: The association Between Music and Medicine. The Journal of Research on History of Medicine, vol. 1, no. 11, 2022, pp. 17-32.

Gobet, Fernand and Sala, Giovanni. Cognitive and Academic Benefits of Music Training with Children: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis. Memory & Cognition, vol. 48, 2020, pp. 1429-1441.

Hooen, Susan, et al. Effects of Music Interventions On Stress-Related Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Two Meta-Analyses. Health Psychology Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 2020, pp. 1-62. doi:10.1080/17437199.2019.1627897

Qiang, Long. Influence of Music Education on Children Personality Development. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, vol. 12, no. 2, 2022, pp. 174-178. doi: 10.17265/2159-5836/2022.02.008

Introduction

Music has always been a sensitive mirror of major social processes, attitudes, and trends. So was the case in the twentieth century, when the tendency to the scientific perception of the world, employment of technology, and progressing mechanization of life characterized contemporary society. At the same time, composers did not lose connection with the specific national features of their motherlands, as well as explored achievements of the distant past. Those three spheres of composers interest  intellectualism, national identification, and historicism  are the focus of works considered in the present report. Correspondingly, the aforementioned trends are explored in Piano Concerto #3 by Sergei Prokofiev (performed by Martha Argerich as soloist), symphonic poem Pines of Rome by Ottorino Respighi (Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Herbert Karajan), and scenic cantata Carmina Burana by Carl Orff (conducted by Jeffrey Thomas).

Piano Concerto #3 by Sergei Prokofiev

Intellectualism and sharp sarcastic humor define the works of Russian composer Sergey Prokofiev (18911953). In addition to his composers talent, he was an outstanding piano performer, noted for his innovative playing techniques. Taking an interest in the genre of the piano concerto, Prokofiev experimented with it and produced several samples of concertos all possessing individual distinguishable features. His Piano Concerto #3 (1921) is said to be a compilation of earlier drafts and ideas and appears to stay in the traditional limits, keeping to the three-movement design (Lee 283). The exceptional popularity of this Concerto among others is explained to a certain extent by conventional harmonies and keyboard patterns (Lee 283). Typical for Prokofievs works, the Third Concerto reflects an eternal struggle between the lyrical and the sarcastic spheres, with the former represented by the orchestra and the latter rendered in the piano part.

The first movement, AndanteAllegro, is opened by the sound of solo clarinet that plays a melancholic melody, with strings joining in the lyrical mood. A sudden acceleration of tempo and ascending passages prepare the appearance of the piano which jumps in with an active theme resolutely moving on large intervals and demonstrating technical virtuosity. After an engaging interchange between the soloist piano and the orchestra, the piano launches a new march-like theme in resolute chords. The orchestra does not give in and presents another sharp rhythmic theme. The piano enters the dialogue again, after which the opening clarinet melody is played once again, now by the whole orchestra. Responding to this, the soloist performs a lengthy meditative fragment, varying the theme. And again, the atmosphere of active resolution returns with the repetition of the second theme. Following it is a breathtaking virtuosic fragment that involves one of Prokofievs favorite inventions: alternatively playing with the right hand on the black keys and the left hand on the white keys (Lee 284).

Prokofievs art of drawing a musical veil over the initial theme reveals itself in the second movement of the Concerto, Thema con Variazioni. The graceful dance-like melody is initially played by the woodwinds and further entrusted to various instruments and groups of the orchestra that develop it in a series of variations. This movement is characterized by obvious tempo contrasts, with the theme and first and fourth variations keeping in the lyrical mood and moderate tempo, while the second, third, and fifth variations proceeding in much faster motion and representing the sphere of the sarcastic. The theme is often concealed either in lyrical figurations or in virtuosic passages of the piano that astounds with the level of performance complexity. The struggle between the lyric and the sarcastic continues throughout the final Allegro ma nontroppo movement, which starts with a march-like theme played by bassoon. Here the pianist exposes the virtuosic capacities to the fullest, performing passages that span the whole keyboard, swift ascending gammas, etc. The orchestra attempts to counteract this almost sportive technical rush by introducing lengthy lyrical melodies in which the piano seems to engage, but not for long. In his last sarcastic grin, Prokofiev deploys a surprise ending: the pianist breaks through with passages of stirring virtuosity and the orchestra cannot but follow this provocative outburst.

Symphonic poem Pines of Rome by Ottorino Respighi

National tendencies in twentieth-century music are, inter alia, distinctly expressed in the works of Italian composer Ottorino Respighi. An author of an impressive number of symphonic works, Respighi took great pride in the national heritage and dedicated a whole series of symphonic poems to the Italian capital city. Among them, The Pines of Rome are singled out by their clear impressionistic orientation: the century-old trees are not the main object of depiction but a symbol of events related to them and an impulse to recall visions of those events (Kinscella 418). Each of the four movements has a separate name and explanation, which help the listener uses as a hint for imagining the related events and feelings. The poem is opened by The Pines of Villa Borghese: woodwinds play high-pitched thrills and passages that are called to depict the noisy scene of children playing under the trees. In their games, the children include war imitation, and this is reflected in the sound of brass winds that play a melody of a march.

Following the scene of life is a picture of The Pines near a Catacomb. Respighi returns the audience to the times of early Christianity when followers were bound to practice their religion secretly. As if from the depth of the catacombs comes a severe melody of the Gregorian chorale, accompanied by the dismal sound of muted strings (Kinscella 418). Night falls over the city, and in The Pines of the Janiculum Respighi depicts all the tremulous sensation of the night. A peaceful melody gently played by clarinet is carried on by the orchestra and developed to a vibrating admiration. As it ceases, a nightingale starts to sing. Respighi decided to employ a tape recording of the real song since he considered any composers effort too farfetched to match the spontaneity of nature (Kinscella 418). This romantic scene is followed by The Pines of the Appian Way, a scene of the heroic past. Respighi employs the orchestra to depict the measured tread of the approaching Roman army: an impressive crescendo, employing rhythmical strikes of timpani and fanfares, strikes the listeners with its grandeur reminding of the bygone Roman glory.

Scenic cantata Carmina Burana by Carl Orff

A bright example of historicism in music is observed in Carl Orffs scenic cantata Carmina Burana. As a source of inspiration Orff chose a collection of medieval Goliardic poems glorifying the earthly joys of gluttony, gambling, and lust (Hristov). The cantata opens with an impressive hymn O Fortuna, which holds the audience in awe by its enormous sound created by an imposing ensemble of large orchestra and choir. There is something archaic in the music: perhaps, this impression is rendered by lack of big melodic development and usage of musical minimalism or even primitivism. As a means of expression, Orff employs measured rhythm and compact monodical melody performed in unison by the whole orchestra and choir. This unity of performers in one rhythmical articulation creates the atmosphere of powerful dominance of the mass over the individual and of mob strength over isolated personal considerations.

Works Cited

Hristov, Nathalie. Orff: Carmina Burana. operatoday.com. 2005. Web.

Kinscella, Hazel Gertrude. Music and Romance. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005. Print.

Lee, Douglas A. Masterworks of 20th-Century Music: The Modern Repertory of the Symphony Orchestra. New York, NY: Routlege, 2002. Print.

Introduction

Music therapy is the controlled use of music in treatment, rehabilitation, and a means of optimizing creativeness and pedagogical work. Behavioral therapists widely adopt music to treat depressive conditions. Since the mechanism of the effect is not always clear, music therapy sometimes seems like a kind of miracle, giving a melody a magical meaning. A significant part of scientists considers music therapy an auxiliary means of psychotherapy to prepare patients with sophisticated therapeutic methods. It is increasingly asserted in the status of a universal educational system that optimizes the process of development of a person in social life. The methods of music therapy have gained wide popularity. Many specialists have been studying how to use music to treat patients with specific psychological or somatic problems.

Forms of Music Therapy

Music affects the human body in the physical realm. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was experimentally proved that musical sounds make every cell of the human body vibrate (Gilroy and Lee 163). Electromagnetic waves alter blood pressure, heart rate, rhythm, and depth of breath (Gilroy and Lee 163). Music has proven to be effective in sports medicine, actively influencing the improvement of sports performance. It is no accident that in modern medical science, music therapy is gaining increasingly more popularity along with herbal medicine and art therapy.

The following forms of music therapy are distinguished: receptive, active, and integrative. Receptive or so-called passive music therapy means that the patient does not actively participate in the music therapy session, taking the position of a listener (Gilroy and Lee 109). He or she is offered to listen to various musical compositions or sounds that correspond to the state of his or her mental health and treatment stage. Passive listening aims at relaxing the nervous system. Active methods of music therapy are based on the work with musical material: instruments playing and singing. Being engaged in singing, according to a unique program, the patient experiences two healing effects at once. On the one hand, singing strengthens the respiratory and cardiac systems, and on the other, it positively affects the nervous system (Gilroy and Lee 110). Integrative music therapy takes advantage of other forms of art, organically integrating with them. For example, there are different approaches such as drawing to a tune, music-moving games, plastic dramatization to music, creating poems to a musical theme, and other creative forms (Gilroy and Lee 115). Artistic therapeutic methods are selected, as a rule, individually.

Effectiveness of Passive Music Therapy

There are several main therapeutic effects of music therapy. The first benefit is emotional activation during verbal psychotherapy. Furthermore, it stimulates the development of interpersonal skills, for example, communicative functions and abilities (Sundar 248). Listening to music together creates an atmosphere of mutual trust between the doctor and the patient (Sundar 248). Finally, music affects psycho-vegetative processes and increases the aesthetic needs of a person.

The mechanisms of the therapeutic effect of music therapy are emotional discharge, regulation of the emotional state, and reducing frustration with life problems. It increases social activity, acquiring new means of emotional expression and facilitating the building of new social relationships. Sudan claims that correctly selected melodies, works, and improvisations are convenient to work with in the subconscious mind (250). Music structures the processes of reflecting and recalling a memory. Sounds interact with associative structures, bringing them to the surface into the current state of mind. Even unpleasant dissonances can affect remembrance and consciousness, and, consequently, have a beneficial effect on the general mental condition.

With regard to the mental impact on a person, different musical genres have various outcomes. Gregorian chants use rhythms of natural breathing, which allows patients to achieve a sense of spatial relaxation (Gilroy and Lee 235). These melodies are well-suited for quiet exercises and meditation, reducing the level of stress. Slow Baroque music, for instance, compositions of Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, gives a sense of stability, order, security, and creates a spiritually productive ambiance that is suitable for the work process (Gilroy and Lee 235). Classical music, like that of Haydn and Mozart, is distinguished by clarity, elegance, and transparency. It can enhance concentration, improve memory, and spatial perception (Gilroy and Lee 235). The music of romanticism of composers such as Schubert, Schumann, Tchaikovsky, Chopin, and Liszt emphasizes expressiveness and sensuality, and often awakens individualism. It is better to use it to activate feelings and emotions that usually tend to diminish or are hidden.

Concerning rock songs and pop music, the latter provoke rhythmic movements and create a feeling of well-being. Rock music performed by artists can awaken deep senses, stimulate active changes, and relieve nervous tension. It might ease the pain and reduce the unpleasant effect of loud and sharp sounds in case they are in the environment (Landis-Shack et al. 334). Meanwhile, it is necessary to maintain a nuanced approach to treating patients with this genre since rock music can create nervous tension, causing a dissonance of emotions. Sometimes it can be the reason for a stressful state or adverse mental conditions.

Moreover, these days, musical therapy is used not only in behavioral treatment but also in domains that can be considered far from music, for example, in surgery or dentistry. The practice of medicine has shown that some musical works have an anesthetic effect; consequently, it can reduce the fear of pain. An important role in postoperative rehabilitation is played by the patients mental state before, during, and after surgery. A review of medical studies shows that preoperative anxiety is associated with more pain, even with equal doses of analgesics (Martin-Saavedra et al. 87). For reducing stress and, as a result, improving the patients physical well-being after an operation, various methods are used: among them, there is music therapy. However, one neuropsychologist, according to Martin-Saavedra et al., admitted that music should accompany medical treatment, but not replace it (88). Not every disease can be cured with jazz or hip-hop. For instance, in the case of a broken leg, it is difficult, but regarding bacterial infection, music can stimulate the immune system. Musical programs for the immunostimulating effects have already been developed in some medical organizations.

Singing Benefits

Singing has a particularly beneficial effect on a persons health. It is a unique respiratory gymnastics that helps to establish regular breathing. The correct breathing setting leads to an apparent increase in all the reserve capabilities of the human body. Chanting acts as a breathing training massage of the larynx, during which breathing muscles and diaphragmatic breathing are trained, bronchial drainage is improved, and lung capacity is increased (Irons et al. 80) When a person sings, vibration occurs in his or her internal organs, especially in the academic manner of singing (Irons et al. 75). Studies have confirmed that singing not only develops the lungs and pectoral muscles but also strengthens the cardiac muscle (Irons et al. 80). Singing helps to cure bronchial asthma, other broncho-pulmonary diseases, and sinusitis (Irons et al. 80). As a result, it has a beneficial effect on the kidneys, endocrine glands, and thyroid gland. All these facts put singing next to physical education.

Institutions

The purposeful therapeutic use of music called music therapy or music treatment has stood out in an independent direction, which has occupied its niche at the intersection of science and art. Since 1969 in Sweden, there has been a music therapeutic society (Gilroy and Lee 34). It became known to the whole world that the sounds of bells containing resonant ultrasonic radiation kill typhoid bacilli, pathogens of jaundice, and influenza viruses in seconds (Gilroy and Lee, 34). Since 1998, the American Association of Music Therapy has existed in the United States (Gilroy and Lee 34). Its goal is to support the therapeutic use of music in hospitals, educational centers, and communication facilities, training and certification of music therapists, and conferences. Through its journal Music Therapy and other publications, information is exchanged among the members of the association about new research, clinical trials of methods, and equipment for music therapy (Gilroy and Lee 35). Two 2700 musicians are certified as music therapists and music therapy is carried out according to individual repertoire plans.

Conclusion

One can argue in favor of using music therapy, including vocal exercises, in the treatment of various diseases. In general, people should not underestimate the role of this new direction in the development of modern medical science. Music therapy can treat neurotic disorders, various phobias, stresses, and other psycho-emotional abnormalities. It allows a person to reduce the dose of drugs, prolong the therapeutic effect, and improve the overall quality of life. There is no optimal musical direction or a specific melody for the treatment of a particular disease. Positive influence can be achieved through rhythm and harmony.

Works Cited

Gilroy, Andrea, and Colin Lee, eds. Art and Music: Therapy and Research. Routledge, 2019.

Irons, J. Yoon, et al. A Systematic Review on the Effects of Group Singing on Persistent Pain in People with LongTerm Health Conditions. European Journal of Pain, vol. 24, no. 1, 2020, pp. 71-90.

Landis-Shack, Nora, et al. Music Therapy for Posttraumatic Stress in Adults: A Theoretical Review. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, vol. 27, no. 4, 2017, p. 334.

Martin-Saavedra, Juan Sebastian, et al. Standardizing Music Characteristics for the Management of Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, vol. 41, 2018, pp. 81-89.

Sundar, Sumathy. Role of Music in Therapeutic Communication. Effective Medical Communication, edited by Subhash Chandra Parija and Balachandra V. Adkoli Springer, 2020, pp. 247-256.

Ave Maria by Josquin des Prez is a prime example of Renaissance art. Due to the presence of the parties of several voices, this work becomes full and voluminous. This gives the listener the impression of something large-scale and majestic. Four voices can be noted in the work: superius, altus, tenor, and bassus. They start singing in turn: from the highest to the lowest voice. Thanks to this, the listener gradually plunges into the music, and its volume increases over time.

Ave Maria is written in Latin and is a classic work of the Renaissance. Even from the name, it is clear that this is the praise of the Virgin Mary. This can be noted in the text: the author bows before her greatness. He has exceptionally bright and reverent feelings for her and is ready for sacrifices in her honor. He calls her blessed and claims that he is prepared to give her everything that he has (Des Pres, 2018). Thus, this text can be called a prayer that allows people to maintain their faith and be immersed in their strong feelings for higher powers.

If I had to describe this music to a friend, the first adjective that would come to my mind would undoubtedly be bright. This piece makes me slow down the pace of my life, think about something essential, and immerse myself in the power of art. I would also describe it as a classic song as it has many of the hallmarks of Renaissance music. It is also worth noting the divinity of this work since it is closely related to religion. Thus, this is indeed a great example to show various features of the studied periods art.

References

Des Prez, J. (2018). Ave Maria [Video]. YouTube. Web.