Category: Mongolia

The Mongol Empire could be described through a multitude of ways such as religion, drama, social hierarchy, laws, taxes, politics, and complete legacy. It is these topics that I am going to discuss in this essay.

In the 12th century, during the time of Genghis Khan, Buddhism was the predominant religion. Genghis Khan was a Tengrist, but he was also interested in other religions and learned morals and philosophy from the religions. Kublai Khan was also interested in other religious and became friends with a Chan Buddhist monk Haiyan. Genghis tolerated most religions in Mongolia like monks, Muslims, Christian missionaries, and the Taoist monk Qi Cheju.

Mongolia had a 4-system hierarchy, starting with the highest class was the emperor. The emperor had the power to rule the dynasty and make sure everything was in order. The second highest hierarchy is the government officials, these are the people who worked for the government and would send taxes out, and if the emperor said he wanted to change something, the officials would make sure it would happen. The second lowest class are the merchants, artisans, craftsman; all these the work required something related to construction. The lowest hierarchy were farmers and peasants; this work only paid, while the others were just peasants.

The citizens within this time could partake in any religion under the rule of Genghis Khan. Citizens underneath his reign was at freedom to worship as they pleased, as long although the laws of the Yassa had to be obeyed. Kublai Khan kept divided his laws from the Mongols and the Chinese. His preference was to employ foreigners over Chinese. Kublai supported agriculture and built up an office for the stimulation of agriculture. Another aspect is how Kublai designed and formed the tax system, meaning wealthy citizens didn’t pay through their local tax collectors, only through the government, once that was completed the government would pay the nobles.

As I said in the beginning, the Mongols are remembered today is because of their trade. Trade was one of their positive legacies that they left behind along with the Silk Road. The Silk Road had both positive and negative impacts on Mongolia and the countries along it. One of the positives is that the Mongols had put valuables like clothes and weapons put on the Silk Road. On the Silk Road there were not only valuable things and weapons, but also ideas. Most of the ideas and valuables were from the Mongols like philosophy, science, military strategies, and that would change the world and the way people would fight forever.

Now about the negatives. First, there was a disease that spread through the Silk Road through rats known as the Black Death. It was one of the deadliest plagues ever in history, killing millions. The disease killed half of China and Mongolia, and in some countries it killed 90% of land and people.

To summarize, the Mongolian society was exemplary as their reign changed the course of history. As the last most powerful words of Genghis Khan were: “I’ve conquered for you a large empire. But my life was too short to take the whole world that I leave to you”. He died placing his faith in the citizens of Mongolia, but yet the conquest was not fulfilled. As what we see of Mongolia today is miniature compared to the peak of their empire as it braced the world for fierce empires and warfare as the Mongols stunned the world.

Mongolia, the birthplace of Genghis Khan, the Land of the Eternal Blue Sky, and home to the world’s last nomads, reigns as a country rooted in tradition. In many ways, life in Mongolia continues to mirror ancient times. Approximately 40% of modern Mongols follow a nomadic, pastoral lifestyle on the steppe. As of year-end of last year, there were 209.8 thousand households with animals, 145.3 thousand of whom are herding households (FOA.org, 2019). Following their livestock, nomadic families move their gers, round tents made of folding wooden walls and heavy felt outer coverings, up to five times a year. These nomads do not have running water or electricity. Vegetables are scarce; therefore, Mongolian diets predominantly consist of meat and dairy products. The life of the family depends on the health of herds and is punctuated by caring for animals (‘Mongolia – Nomadic Land’).

The importance of animal health in Mongolia cannot be overstated. For city dwellers and nomads alike, more than 70 million animals are an essential source of food, income and cultural symbols for this country of barely three million inhabitants (‘Mongolia Keeps Animal Diseases at Bay with the Help of Nuclear Technologies’, 2016). Landlocked between Russia to the north and China to the south, the 610,740 square miles of Mongolian landscape is vast and diverse. Mongolia is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world; livestock outnumber people ten-to-one and pastoralism is one of the key economic activities, employing almost half of the population and accounting for 90 percent of agricultural output (New Agriculturist, 2009). Primary to the economy are the ‘five types of animals’: sheep, goats, cattle (mainly yaks), horses, and camels. From these livestock numerous animal products are harvested, including meat, dairy products, hides and wool. In other words, Mongolian economy is still dependent from development of animal husbandry. The animal husbandry prepares 23.5 thousand tons of sheep wool, 5.2 tons of goat cashmere, 1.3 thousand tons of large animal hair, 1.2 thousand tons of camel wool, 335.0 million liters of milk on average per year (FOA.org, 2019). Mongolia is the world’s second largest producer of cashmere in the world, behind only China.

Mongolia reported its first-ever outbreak of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPR) in September 2016, when sheep and goat deaths were linked to an extension of PPR cases occurring in China. The outbreak in Mongolia then spread to an endangered species, the Mongolian saiga, killing over two-thirds of the population. The saiga deaths, which highlight the extreme vulnerability of animals that have not been exposed to PPR as well as the challenge of protecting wildlife, are an “unprecedented and worrisome development”, said OIE Director-General, Dr. Monique Eliot (‘Alarm as Lethal Plague Detected Among Rare Mongolian Antelope’, 2017). PPR is a painful condition causing mouth ulcers, diarrhea and ultimately death. PPR was first identified in Cote d’Ivoire during the 1940’s and has spread throughout Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia and China. In the worst situations, PPR-related morbidity is as high as 100%, with a mortality rate that can reach 90% (‘Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR’, 2015). Fast and accurate diagnosis is critical in Mongolia where nearly all of the livestock roam free and graze off the land, explained Bandi Tsolomon, head of the veterinary division and chief epidemiologist at the Implementing Agency of the Government of Mongolia for Veterinary and Animal Breeding (‘Mongolia Keeps Animal Diseases at Bay with the Help of Nuclear Technologies’, 2016).

Across the developing world viral diseases such as peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), bluetongue virus (BTV) and Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) place a huge disease burden on agriculture. In particular these viral agents affect sheep and goat production, the agricultural mainstay of some of the poorest people on the planet (‘Combating Infectious Diseases of Livestock for International Development’). Outbreaks of these type of diseases can also result in trade restrictions as other countries do not want to risk exposure. Due to animal diseases, Mongolia’s export market shrank as countries have grown concerned about the spread of diseases potentially affecting the quality of the products (‘Mongolia Keeps Animal Diseases at Bay with the Help of Nuclear Technologies’, 2016). However, the effects of the market pale in comparison to the suffering of the people who have lost their single source of food and income.

Bearing in mind the strong negative impact that PPR can have on food security and the livelihoods of poor farmers, the main keepers of sheep and goats, the Global Framework for the Progressive Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF-TADs), the Global Steering Committee in 2012, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations’ (FAO), the Council, the Committee on Agriculture (COAG) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), in the form of a resolution of the World Assembly of Delegates of the OIE in 2014, have all recommended the development of a PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy (hereinafter named ‘Global Strategy’), and expressed a strong willingness to address the animal health problems in a systematic way, dealing with horizontal as well as more disease-specific (vertical) issues (‘Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR’, 2015). The Global Strategy’s three components are PPR control and eradication by the year 2030, strengthening veterinary services, and prevention and control of other major diseases.

PPR’s closest relative is rinderpest, a cattle disease that was eradicated in 2011, making it the second disease, after smallpox, to be completely wiped off the earth (Rajewski, 2017). PPR’s similarities with rinderpest make it an excellent candidate for eradication. Experience gained from the rinderpest crisis proved that vaccinations should be delivered smarter, not harder. For example, Ethiopia battled rinderpest unsuccessfully for decades by trying to vaccinate all of the cattle. Success was not achieved until a few hotspots driving the problem were identified. Once they finally started targeting the right cows, Ethiopia wiped out rinderpest within a year or two (Rajewski, 2017). Therefore, surveillance and control systems monitored by veterinary services are key to the eradication of PPR and must be established. Effective control of PPR requires that basic reliable laboratory diagnostic services are operational within individual countries (preferred option) or are outsourced (‘Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR’, 2015).

After disease surveillance, a vaccination campaign is the next step in eradication. There are current laws such as the Law of Protecting Animal Genetics and Health in Mongolia that establishes contracts between individual herders and animal clinics that cover veterinarian services. For example, herders pay for anti-parasite medicine which costs 130 Mongolian turgrug (around $0.06) per head of livestock, but the government pays for the service fee. Similar, if not more aggressive, arrangements between herders, veterinary services, and the government are needed to provide PPR vaccines. Educating herders on better livestock care and delivering tools to the grassroots level is bringing welcome changes in Mongolia, changes that will help the country fulfill goals such as preserving nomadic culture as a national brand, and enter the competitive international market to diversify its economy (‘Better Animal Health Care Brings Welcome Changes to Herder Households in Mongolia’, 2017). The effectiveness of a vaccination campaign is reliant on efficient veterinary services and dependent on researchers and vaccine companies. There also must be a strong political willingness to eradicating the virus, because the eradication of PPR will be a long-term financial commitment. Unfortunately, there are numerous negative factors that can hamper effective control and eradication of PPR, such as the insufficient control of live small ruminant movements, poor information on the size of their populations and the absence of identification of animals in most developing countries (‘Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR’, 2015).

In conclusion, one country cannot eradicate PPR alone. It will take a global effort, but with a cheap, effective vaccine, target vaccination, political willingness, and public awareness the eradication of PPR by the year 2030 is possible. The most fragile persons of the world, especially women and the youth, are dependent on small ruminants. When this disease hits a herd, up to 90% of the animals can die destroying the livelihood of the herder. This type of devastation forces migration and can create instability and conflict. Currently, 80% of the sheep and goat population of the world is at risk of contracting PPR. Therefore, it is imperative that Mongolia and the rest of the world follow the Global Strategy of the GF-TADs, FOA and OIE to eradicate PPR.

Works Cited

1. About Us: OIE – World Organisation for Animal Health, http://oie.int/en/for-the-media/press-releases/detail/article/alarm-as-lethal-plague-kills-endangered-mongolian-antelope/
2. “Alarm as Lethal Plague Detected Among Rare Mongolian Antelope”. International Rice Commission Newsletter Vol. 48, FAO of the UN, 27 Jan. 2017, http://fao.org/news/story/en/item/463932/icode/
3. “Better Animal Health Care Brings Welcome Changes to Herder Households in Mongolia”. World Bank, http://worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/05/31/better-animal-health-care-brings-welcome-changes-to-herder-households-in-mongolia
4. “BluePeak Travel Photography”. Gobi Desert – Mongolia, http://bluepeak.net/mongolia/ulaanbaatar-life.html
5. Branigan, Tania. “Mongolia: ‘The Gobi Desert Is a Horrible Place to Work’”. The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 20 Apr. 2014, http://theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/20/mongolia-gobi-desert-coal-mining
6. Combating Infectious Diseases of Livestock for International Development. BBSRC Bioscience for the Future, http://bbsrc.ukri.org/documents/cidlid-brochure/
7. EIU Digital Solutions. “Mongolia”. Country, Industry and Risk Analysis from The Economist Intelligence Unit – List of Countries – The Economist Intelligence Unit, http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=1345215919
8. “FAO.org”. International Rice Commission Newsletter Vol. 48, FAO of the UN, 2019, http://fao.org/mongolia/fao-in-mongolia/mongolia-at-a-glance/en/
9. Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR. Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication of PPR, OIE & FAO, 2015, http://oie.int/eng/ppr2015/doc/PPR-Global-Strategy-2015-03-28.pdf
10. “Living in Mongolia”. The Chinese Education System | InterNations, http://internations.org/mongolia-expats/guide/living-in-mongolia-17666
11. “Mongolia”. Countries and Their Cultures, http://everyculture.com/Ma-Ni/Mongolia.html
12. “Mongolia Keeps Animal Diseases at Bay with the Help of Nuclear Technologies”. IAEA, IAEA, 14 Dec. 2016, http://iaea.org/newscenter/news/mongolia-keeps-animal-diseases-at-bay-with-the-help-of-nuclear-technologies
13. “Mongolia – Nomadic Land”. The Mongolian Horse, Companion of Nomads and Nomadic Herders – By Mongolia Travel and Tours, http://mongolia-travel-and-tours.com/nomads-daily-life-mongolia.html
14. “New Agriculturist”. New Agriculturist: Country Profile – Afghanistan, May 2009, http://new-ag.info/en/country/profile.php?a=732
15. “PPR Virus Poses Threat to Conservation”. ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 15 Oct. 2018, http://sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181015132936.htm
16. Rajewski, Genevieve. “The Fight Against Goat Plague”. Tufts Now, TuftsNow, 21 June 2017, http://now.tufts.edu/articles/fight-against-goat-plague
17. Sawe, Benjamin Elisha. “What Type Of Government Does Mongolia Have?”. World Atlas, Worldatlas, 12 July 2017, http://worldatlas.com/articles/what-type-of-government-does-mongolia-have.html

Unified around 1200, the Mongols were a pastoral people, and rose to power in Asia very quickly. They were a great civilization and had an immense impact on history. The Mongol empire’s beginning is incomparable to the speed and vastness of the spread of any other kingdoms. Though great, they are a very controversial people, and questioned to be a negative or positive influence in history. Due to being revolutionary in many aspects of an empire, the Mongols are a mainly positive force in history.

To begin with, the Mongols were good influencers in history because of their effect on trade. The Mongols are given credit to creating the first great free trade zone. Charles Brady notes, “Cities among the caravan routes… prospered” (Brady, 11). Among the thriving caravan cities, the Persian industry flourished due to contacts opened with China because of the Mongol’s conquests. Trading had many benefits, such as cultural diffusion. With the trade of items came the traveling of food. Among this was rice, which was shared all throughout Eurasia due to the Mongol’s cross Eurasian trade.

Another reason the Mongols are a positive force in history is their freedom regarding culture and religion. In the article, ‘Mongol Trade: Linking East to West’, the writer’s point out that, “Mongols opened their doors to all religions and diplomats from all over the known world. East learned of West and vice versa”. Their tolerance to religion, like their trade, brought cultural diffusion. Comparable to Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan (the conqueror of the Mongols) and his descendants respected people’s culture and religion, and instead of destroying it, used it to make his kingdom greater.

A third positive aspect of the Mongol empire is their messaging system. This messaging system was incredibly efficient, to the point where messengers would ride 200-sometimes 250-miles in a day. In his work, ‘The Mongols: How Barbaric Were the Barbarians?’, Charles Brady outlines, “Off they go with all the speed they can muster, till they reach the next post-house twenty-five miles away” (Brady, 13). Because they kept post-houses twenty-five miles away from each other, they had more than 200,000 horses across the empire. The yams (post-houses) are located among roads which spread out from the center of the city of Khanbalik, which made it easy to send and receive information for the Great Khan.

In conclusion, the Mongols – though a controversial empire – were overall a positive force in history. They were the first to create a great free trade zone, which was done throughout Eurasia. They also respected religion and culture, which led to advancements through the cooperation of the kingdom. They, furthermore, created a highly efficient messaging system which reached throughout the entirety of the Great Khan’s empire. All of these advancements were used or further built upon in future civilizations, showing the Mongols were important and advantageous in history.

Works Cited

1. Brady, Charles, and Philip Roden. Document Based Questions in World History: [gr. 9-12]. Evanston, Ill: DBQ Project, 2005. Print.
2. ‘Mongol Trade: Linking East to West’. History on the Net, Salem Media. February 18, 2020.