Defining the phenomenon of Modernist architecture is not an easy task, mostly because it incorporates uncompromising simplicity of forms and a number of design elements borrowed from a range of the existing styles. Perhaps, to approach the concept of Modernist architecture, it would be reasonable to address its relation to function. For centuries, architecture has been shaped by the aesthetical principles, with style obviously dominating the substance. With the advent of Modernist architecture, the emphasis has clearly been shifted onto the functionality of the architectural elements. The reasons for the use of simplicity in architecture are quite versatile. For instance, some researchers claim that urban style has started dictating its terms (Chalana 2010, p. 25). Others insist that the return to simplicity was meant to marry the concepts of nationalism and internationalism in design (Mentula 1979, p. 28; Al-Kodmany & Ali 2012, p. 43). The Eureka Tower in Melbourne, the design of which is based on a very simple principle of symmetry and rectangle shapes, yet incorporates the use of the latest technological innovations, is a perfect example of Modernist architecture. Therefore, Modernist, or Modern, architecture can be defined as an architecture concept that focuses on function as the top priority and stresses the significance and reasonability of architectural simplicity of forms.
Gallery: Arx Barierro 2013, Web.
Much like its definition, the origin of Modernist architecture is rather obscure; there was no particular point at which the epoch of Modernism in architecture started. The process of ousting architectural extravagances with more functional elements seems to have been going on rather naturally, with the introduction of globalist principle of culture fusion, as well as a careful balance of “spiritual fulfillment” and “material afluence” (Hirano 2006, p. 16) and the denial of the style-over-substance principles. However, speaking of the point at which the advent of a new Modernist era was heralded in architecture, one must mention the World Architecture Festival, with internationalism having been defined as the key trend in the XXI century architecture (‘World Architecture Festival’ 2012, 19). In fact, Modernist style blends the elements of the architecture approaches all over the world, which means that it incorporates the latest advances and some of the ancient traditions, thus, tying future and past together (Clark 2009, p. 13). For instance, Abbaszadeh specifies that Modernist architecture may incorporate the elements of a traditional Persian culture and the innovative approach towards functionality in that it follows the key premises of functional theory closely (Abbaszadeh, & Salim 2009, p. 117). Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that Modernist architecture appeared at the end of the XX century. Fallingwater, with its futuristic look and the design that makes it an integral part of the rural area, is the blend of technology and tradition that can only be described as Modernist architecture.
Small elegant office with the modern architecture design 2012, Web.
Even with due regard for the novelty and reasonability of Modernist postulates, the popularity of the Modernist principles in world architecture is truly fascinating. One might expect that the representatives of more conservative cultures would be rather resistant and hostile towards the influence of Modernism, yet the new phenomenon seems to have taken over the world for the time being. The aesthetics of function (Grabow, S 1999/2000, p. 33) should be listed among the reasons for the popularity of Modernism in various cultures. In addition, the influence of the West and the fact that the Western culture has been cultivating Modernism for quite a while should be noted. After years of searching for perfect forms, people have finally discovered the impeccability of function. Modernist architecture has gained popularity all over the world due to its tendency to incorporate elements of different cultures. It has something for the representative of any nation to relate to. The Jewish Museum, with its striking simplicity and the integration of a zigzag design, is another specimen of Modernist architecture.
Graph 1. Modernist Architecture: Timeline.
References
Abbaszadeh, A, Ibrahim, R, Baharuddin, M N, & Salim, A 2009, ‘Identifying Persian traditional socio-cultural behaviors for application in the design of modern high-rise residences,’ Archnet-IJAR, vol. 3 no. 3, pp. 116–132.
Al-Kodmany, K & Ali, M M 2012, ‘Skyscrapers and placemaking: supporting local culture and identity,’ Archnet-IJAR, vol. 6 no. 2, pp. 43–64.
Chalana, M 2010, ‘Slumdogs vs. millionaires balancing urban informality and global modernity in Mumbai, India,’ Journal of Architectural Education, vol. 36 no. 2, pp. 25–37.
Clark, H 2009, ‘Back to the future, or forward? Hong Kong design, image, and branding,’ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Design Issues, vol. 25 no. 3, pp. 11–29.
Gallery: Arx Barierro 2013, Web.
Grabow, S 1999/2000, ‘Towards an aesthetics of function,’ Structurist, vol. 39 no. 40, pp. 33–36.
Hirano, T 2006, ‘Design and culture: developing a nation’s brand with design management,’ Design Management Review, vol. 17 no. 1, pp. 15–20.
Mentula, P 1978, ‘The role of nationalism and internationalism in design,’ Journal of Interior Design, vol. 5 no. 1, pp. 28–29.
Small elegant office with the modern architecture design 2012, Web.
It seems that the return to traditional architectural styles demanded by the presidential administration was inspired not only by aesthetic or ideological motives. Buildings of classical architecture are designed to return respect for the power and the constitution, to remind us of the antiquity of such things as law and human rights. Modernist architecture completely breaks with the idea of reviving tradition, but it is a continuation and logical stage in the development of culture as a whole.
Aesthetic criteria are linked to the principle of reverence for traditional cultural-historical models. This approach seems overly conservative and inhibits architectural development. Moreover, it can be said with great confidence that it would have generated a few architectural masterpieces. This kind of construction requires not only design thinking but also inspiration. The construction of buildings that copy the architectural standards of other civilizations is doomed to be only a semblance. But if you apply this architectural model to all buildings in America, the quality of projects will decrease, and one may end up in a country where bad taste reigns. Of course, the architecture would look impressive and would resonate with traditional culture lovers, who are the majority. However, the full implementation of such a project risks slowing down the development of the architecture for a long time.
It seems that it is the architects hired that have to decide what the federal building should look like. It does not belong to politicians who always occupy only a temporary occupation in it. Thus, the architect must be aware that he is building buildings of the present and the future and focus on future generations and not on previous styles. But ordinary citizens also play a role in this, whose perception of both the city and the government largely depends on the surrounding architecture.
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret was a French architect during the 20th century. He was born in Sweden in 1887 where he spent most of his early life. However, in 1930, he changed his nationality and became a French citizen. He was an urban developer, architect, writer, designer and painter (Lang, 1994).
It is through his remarkable designs that he received his nickname, Le Corbusier that was a rather annoying resemblance to his ancestor. Despite the fact that he did not like the name, Charles decided to keep his nickname. Le Corbusier career lasted five decades from the early 1900s to late 1950s. In the course of his career, he was able to design several buildings in Europe, North America, South America, India and Russia (Barnerjee, 2011). It is through his remarkable designs that many scholars refer to him as the father of modern architecture.
Throughout his career, Le Corbusier experienced a lot of achievement. Le Corbusier finished his studies just after the end of the First World War. During this time, he taught at his old school. However, he spent much of his time practicing the theory of architecture. He presented his ideas through plans and models.
Just before the onset of the first world war, he teamed up with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret to start an architectural firm that would last up to the 1950s (Barnerjee, 2011). They also formed a studio for painting and photography in France during the early 1920s. However, Le Corbusier grand debut came about in 1922 when he presented a solution of increased number of city dwellers in the cities of France.
The French officials had for a long time experienced the problem of increased population from the individuals of the lower class. This problem had led to the growth of slums within the cities. Le Corbusier presented a model of cell like houses that could be built on top of one another to create more space. In addition, this design allowed for each cell to have a bedroom, kitchen, bathroom and living room. This allowed for more people to live decently in a small area. This design is still in use up to the present moment.
At the same, Le Corbusier presented a contemporary city model to the government of France that would accommodate approximately three million people. This model comprised of a city with huge skyscrapers covered with glass, steel-framed office building, residential areas, a transportation hub including an airport, a train station and a bus terminus, recreation facilities and many other accessories.
Although not all of these were adopted but most modern contemporary models for many other cities in the world adopted this model. It is due to these works and many others that Le Corbusier was regarded as the father of modern architecture. In 1961, he was awarded with the Frank P. Brown medal for his hard work (Moos, 2009).
Due to his achievements, it will be an honour to write a book on such an individual. He is the pioneer of modern architecture. Most of his styles and designs are still being used up to the present moment. The buildings that he designed are of great historical value. Some of them serve as monuments of the cities in which they are found in. It will therefore be essential for many people to have more information of the individual behind these designs and ideas. This can only be achieved by writing a book that details his life, personal life and career.
References
Barnerjee, T. (2011).Companion to Urban Design. Boston: Taylor & Francis
Lang, J. (1994).Urban Design: The American Experience. Manhattan: John Wiley and Sons
Moos, S. (2009). Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis. New York: 010 Publishers
This is a historical style of decoration, which is based on no philosophy. This style of decoration employs the use of symmetrical decorations with geometrical designs and streamlines, which makes it suitable for mass production. Such buildings are designed with curves like ceilings.
This is a period of restoring what was damaged between the First World War and the Second World War between 1919 and 1939. Some Manchester buildings were build in 1932 (Lera 2003).
This is part of the art deco style, which is based on the notion of line and speed. Using the art of deco style, a good illustration can be made to symbolise a building.
For instance, in the picture below the streamlines of the building symbolises straight transportation such as the Manchester Unity Building (Wiley 2008).
Manchester United Building
This is the movement, which affected the other countries (Johnson 2004).
Modernism from the word modern means present time, which indicates that one has to look forward and not backward.
As much as modernism could have different meanings within the history of design, it simply refers to the 20th century design movement where different groups and countries are involved in the design and construction.
This is in reference to the period between the First World War and the Second World War that took place between the year 1919 and 1939.
Such groups include the Bauhaus in Germany, Russian Constructivism, De Stijl in Holland, Italian Futurism and many other groups from various countries that engage in design and construction.
The modernist designers also include Moholy-Nagy Le Corbusier, Marcel Breuer, Walter Gropius, Mies Van der Rohe, Herbert Bayer and El Lissitzky (Eley, Seidel & Symes 2005).
The groups, which practised modernist design, had a set of theoretical and ideological principles applied in their design to ensure that the constructions and designs implemented were appealing within the 20th century.
For the design to be appreciated within the 20th century there are aesthetic design values, which the architectures and designers apply.
These values have evolved due to the expansion of architectural and industrial design ideas that have kept on changing from the times of the last century to the modern century.
These revolutions in the aesthetic values reflect the degree of development within the community of art. These changes have been realised because of development in sector of technology, politics as well as the economic sector.
The modernism design therefore operates under the following principles and ideological theories, which dictates the attitudes and design.
The concept that governs this principle is because in each age there are rules that govern the design. The spirit of the modern times denotes the intellectual and the culture that is in practice within the 20th century, which is linked to the Australian views, sense, collective consciousness and taste.
The Manchester United building design thus conforms to the aesthetic style of the modern life that expresses the difference between the 20th century design, and the 19th century designs (Thompson 2000).
The architects and designers in various sectors are motivated by the need to plan for houses that will cater for the interest of the users and the general public by ensuring that the houses are safe.
This can be expressed through the interests of the architects and designers in keeping themselves aware of the current social values of the society. These social values create aesthetic impact, which are also realised in other forms.
Social design values can at times conflict with other principles and this has always resulted to a continuous debate between romanticism and rationalism, which is experienced in the industry of architecture as well as the industrial design.
The social design value consists of the social change design value, crime prevention design and consultation and participation design value.
Through architecture, a sense of commitment is realised in a given society and this is a positive change. Therefore, the design is according to the programs of buildings that are planned before they are constructed.
Architects and designers use this value in the construction of Manchester United building as a way of transforming the society in terms of buildings and those living within the given society (Beatley & Wheeler 2004).
Various crimes that occur in the society can be regulated in a controlled environment. This can be achieved by employing three strategies that includes situation crime prevention, preventing crime by engaging in environmental designing and lastly by defensible space (Johnson 2004).
This denotes the idea and the benefits of involving the stakeholders in designing processes. It is believed that the involvement of stakeholders helps designers to access up-to-date information, be influential in the design processes, considering the consequences of the design as well as helping designers to meet the social needs through the reduced use of resources (Ivar 2006).
The design of the Manchester United building was in a manner that the form follows the function. The building should not only be a decoration but also serve the purpose for which it was designed. The design should therefore take the form, which will fit the function of the intended construction.
When form is said to follow production it means that the function honesty communicates the idea that the product form depends on the shape of the construction. In this case, the shape of the construction is based on the intended function.
Material honesty in this case implies that the material selected or used in the construction of Manchester United building was based on the properties and characteristics of the material.
The modern industrial materials are therefore to be used in the construction and such materials include concrete, steel, plastics, glass and any other modern industrial material.
This is because the type of the material used influences the intended form. In the construction, each material is unique and therefore serves a unique purpose.
It is therefore hard for such a material to be exchanged with another for the same purpose as that would cause a change that is not intended in the process of construction.
In modernism designs anti-historicism is another principle that has to be followed by rejecting the use of past styles and materials when constructing.
This value is therefore based on the ideology that the design of a building and product should always conform to the 20th century principles, which transcend particular designers, the climate of the country or region and culture practised within the given era.
The idea about this value is that the public would appreciate the outlook of the building though the use of the needed forms. A part from being appealing to the eyes of the public, it also becomes easy for the public to understand the intended purpose of the building.
Good physical outlook relates well with variances regarding the climate of a particular place as well as culture of the habitants of that region. This is a clear way of expressing the cultural richness o different people. (Beatley & Wheeler 2004).
This is characterised by the belief, which is based on self-expression or one’s spirit or imagination. When designing therefore one needs to apply his or her inner intuitions as a way of revealing the needs of the society within that given era.
In addition, it also relate well with the ability of an individual to be creative and innovative as well as the ability of an individual to exercise liberty (Eley, Seidel & Symes 2005).
During construction of the Manchester United building, modern machine technologies were used for the design to fit into the 20th century. Such technologies include the use of photography and film, typography and engineering as well as print/reproduction.
Due to the use of modern machine technologies in Modernism design, the designs look simpler since they do not employ much decoration and ornament like the past designs where much was done manually or by lesser technological machines, which could allow decorations.
This is in connection to the notion that the simpler the form the more one becomes free from the many problems hence the achievement of peace of mind as well as enabling one to become more active (Johnson 2004).
This is based on the rationale that nature, which in this case includes all sorts of living organisms, laws, numerical and many others, can be inspirational in the world of art or act as functional clues to designers and architectures.
This value also gives aesthetic forms that designers and architectures use as a base in their field of design. Asymmetrical curves flowing freely in addition to the use of forms of expressions are major characteristics of the design (Pearson 2001).
In modernism design, the principle behind it is that most of the drawings will take the geometrical shapes. The constructions will therefore remain in their natural forms or painted red, blue and yellow.
The uniqueness in modernism designs is that the constructions will be universal across the social classes. This means that there is one design language for all people that are of all nationalities, classes and races (Abel 2007).
The buildings should be in good condition to ensure that the area where they are located is safe for living for entire human beings ranging from children to adults.
This implies that it is important for thorough supervision to be done during the construction and approval given at various stages. The principle behind this value is that buildings should be built in areas where there is enough amount of sunlight and they should stand free.
The materials selected for building should also be free from toxic emissions for human beings to live comfortably. This implies that the site has to be relatively far from an industrial plant (Dubrucq & Gelernter 2004).
For constructions to fit in the modernism design they should be constructed in a manner that they conform to the principles and ideological theories as discussed.
The architects and designers should also be members of the modern groups, which are present within the history of the 20th century.
References
Abel, C 2007, Architecture and identity: towards a global eco-culture, Architectural Press, Oxford.
Beatley, T & Wheeler, S 2004, The sustainable urban development reader, Rutledge, London
Dubrucq, V & Gelernter, M 2004, Regionalism: in sennott, R. S. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of 20th-century architecture, Fitzroy Dearborn, New York.
Eley, J, Seidel, A & Symes, M 2005, Architects and their practices: a changing profession, Butterworth Architecture, Oxford.
Ivar, H 2006, Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: how attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment, Oslo School of Architecture and Design, Oslo.
Johnson, D 2004, Rationalism: in Sennott, R. S. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of 20th-century architecture, Fitzroy Dearborn, New York.
Lera, S 2003, Designers’ values and the evaluation of designs, Royal College of Art, London.
Pearson, D 2001, New organic architecture: the breaking wave, University of California Press, California.
Thompson, H 2000, Ecology, community and delight: sources of values in landscape architecture, E & FN Spon, London.
Wiley, J 2008, Biophilic design: the theory, science and practice of bringing buildings to life, Fitzroy Dearborn, New York.
The principles of modernism affected many areas of human activities, including product design. It is necessary to focus on the following important distinctions of this style, namely:
the absence of ornamental elements and minimalism;
pure geometrical forms;
the use of new materials;
the suitability of the modernist designs for mass production (Greenhalph 1990).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, these features were very innovative and only few designers were willing to adopt this approach. This is why they can be called modern, at least if one speaks about the design which existed at that time.
Yet, nowadays there techniques are viewed as something conventional and very widespread. This is one of the main issues that should not be overlooked.
Overall, it is possible to argue that the principles of modernism are of great relevance to contemporary designers who attach importance to such criteria as utility, aestheticism, and cost-effectiveness.
These are the main questions that should be examined in this essay. They are vital for describing the principles of modernism.
In order to discuss the innovative aspects of modernist product design, one should first mention that the aesthetics of this movement which mostly rejected those elements which did not serve any practical purposes.
This approach is described as minimalism or functionalism which means that every element of design should perform a certain function (Bertens 1997, p. 92).
In contrast, purely decorative components are considered to be redundant by the supporters of the modernist movement (Bertens 1997, p. 92). These principles were particularly applicable to architecture and interior design.
Yet, this idea also appealed to many manufacturers of that period because they wanted to make the products available to a great number of clients (Bertens 1997, p. 92). This background information can throw light on the influence of modernism on product design.
This is one of the main aspects that should be taken into account. Overall, the absence of ornamental elements can be best illustrated by looking at the piece of furniture that was created during this period.
For example, the following photograph exemplifies the principles of minimalism and functionalism:
Figure 1: The armchair designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (Raizman, 2003, p. 189)
On the whole, this armchair highlights the way in the idea of functionality influenced the work of designers who tried to combine utility with aestheticism. In their view, these elements could be reconciled with one another. There are virtually no decorative components.
This is one of the main distinctions that explain the principles of modernism and its influence on design.
One should mention that this approach to design differed dramatically from the techniques that were used during the earlier periods.
For example, the furniture, made by the supporters of the Art Nouveau Movement, could contain tracery, carvings or the use of acrylic painting. In most cases, these components did not play any functional goal and their utility was usually minimal.
In contrast, modernist designers did not want to include these components because in their opinion, decorations were superfluous. This is one of the main points that should be considered. The design of furniture was not the only area that was transformed by modernism.
There are many other fields of product design that were changed by this aesthetic movement. For example, one can speak about the design of dinnerware created in the early fifties
Figure 2: Dinnerware designed by Trude Petri (Raizman, 2003, p. 189)
Again, it is important to remember dinnerware created in the pre-modernist period usually created a great number of decorative elements. Furthermore, one should focus on the use of pure geometric forms such triangles, spheres, or squares.
On the whole, this technique enabled the designers to emphasize the minimalism or austerity of their products. Moreover, in this way, the designers could illustrate the novelty of their work and its difference from previous artistic styles and movements.
As it has been said before, many critics and buyers could not readily accept this style because these forms were deemed to be very unconventional (Bertens 1997). This is main peculiarity that should not be disregarded when examining the forms that are associated with modernism.
It is possible to look at the photograph taken in 1930. To a great extent, this picture was aimed at popularizing the new approach to the product design.
Figure 2: A Model for the New Living Style (Greenhalph 1990, p. 98)
This picture indicates that that modern designers preferred clear surfaces and pure geometric forms that have no irregularities.
One should take into account that in the first half of the twentieth century, this technique was perceived as something very innovative because the majority of architects and designers avoided the use of pure geometric forms.
In their opinion, this technique was too simplistic or even crude (Greenhalph 1990). Moreover, this form was not readily accepted by buyers who were accustomed to the presence of decorative elements.
However, the development of modernist design popularized the new methods of production and aesthetic styles.
Therefore, it is possible to say that the principles of modernism are no longer regarded as something very innovative. This is one of the main peculiarities which should be taken into account by people who study the role of modernism.
Additionally, it is important to pay close attention to the use of materials that became very popular during the age of modernist design. Among the most popular materials that were applied in the pre-modernist era, one can distinguish wood, glass, and metal (Raizman 2003).
However, the situation began to change at the beginning of the twentieth century when scientific changes widened the opportunities that were available to designers.
One should focus on such materials as polyester, stainless steel, polypropylene, heat-resistant glass, aluminum, and even silicon (Raizman 2003; Ross 2008, p. 132). They could be employed for the production of furniture, home appliances, vehicles, and many other products.
One can also say that they greatly contributed to the rise of mass production (Cresswell & Lambert 2003, p. 122). It should be kept in mind that the development of modernism reflected the increasing industrializations of the society.
The materials that have been mentioned facilitated the work of manufacturers that were oriented to the needs of mass consumer market. Thus, this aspect of modernist turned out to be very useful to them.
Moreover, at that time, this approach was perceived as something very innovative because people preferred to buy products made of glass, metal, or wood. This is one of the main details that should be identified since it is vital for examining the effects of modernism on product design.
Furthermore, there is another detail which suggests that modernism revolutionized the principles of product design.
Such principles as minimalism, the reliance on geometric forms, and the use of innovative material enabled businesses to launch mass production of products (Raizman 2009, p. 189). To some degree, the adoption of the modernist principles helped companies increase the volume of production.
Moreover, modernist approach to product design facilitated the standardization of items that had to be manufactured (Raizman 2009, p. 189).
This peculiarity was of great use to many manufacturers that were producing large quantities goods at the beginning of the twentieth century (Raizman 2003, p. 189; Parsons 2009, p. 110). One can say that these techniques are now widely used by many companies which rely on assembly line.
This aspect is also critical for understanding the novelty of modernism and its role in the course of history.
Overall, these cases suggest modernism played an important role in the product design. In this case, one can speak about minimalist aesthetics, functionalism, pure geometric forms, the use of innovative materials, and orientation toward mass production.
Nowadays, the innovation brought by modernism are now taken for granted, but at the modernism emerged these changes were regarded as a breakthrough. To a great extent, the principles of the modernist movement opened a new era in product design and their effects are palpable nowadays.
This aesthetic movement increased the availability of many goods. Finally, it is possible to say that product design is one of those areas in which modernist principles continue to play a vital role. This is one of the main arguments that can be put forward.
References
Bertens, H 1997, International Postmodernism: Theory and Literary Practice, John Benjamins Publishing, Boston.
Cresswell, L & Lambert, B 2003 Product design: resistant materials technology, Heinemanin, New York.
Greenhalph, P 1990, Modernism in design, Reaktion Books, Boston.
Parsons, T 2009, Thinking: Objects: Contemporary Approaches to Product Design, AVA Publishing, London.
Raizman, D 2003, History of Modern Design: Graphics and Products Since the Industrial Revolution, Laurence King Publishing, New York.
Ross, S 2008, Modernism and Theory: A Critical Debate, Routledge, New York.
Architecture is seen today as an important part of the International Modern style of buildings. It is recognized through the flat roofs and large areas of glazing. Comparing postmodern architecture to the international modern style of architecture would require the determination of important details to better understand the two. Post-modern architecture is generally viewed as a style taken from the 1950s and constantly evolves up to the contemporary world of architecture. It depicts wit, ornament, and reference to architecture to deal with the International Style of Modernism (Klotz, 1998). For many cultural movements, postmodernism is largely visible in the form of architectural designs. The elements of architectural designs are influenced by the new ways of looking into the familiar styles and spaces that abound. The standard examples of modern architecture are those masterpieces such as the Seagram building and the works of Le Corbusier. A transitional example of postmodern architecture is the Sony Building made by Philip Johnson that is originally based on the past architectural elements and defines a new style through the application of color and symbolisms (Hitchcock & Johnson (1997).
In addition, postmodern architecture has been referred to as neo-eclectic were in the reference and pattern has returned to the pretense that substitutes the plain styles in the present era. This kind of eclecticism is usually combined with the use of non-orthogonal angles and atypical surfaces such as the State Gallery of Stuttgart and the Piazza d’Italia made by Charles Williard Moore (Jarzombek, 1999).
Architects in modern times treat postmodern buildings as blatant and chaotic in some forms. The postmodern architects usually thought of the modern spaces as inexpressive and ordinary. The differences in opinions cater to various perspectives and goals. How modernism differs from postmodernism is that modernism originated in less and real utilization of the materials like the dearth of designs while postmodernism is a negative response of strict rules that are set by the untimely modernists and looks for liveliness in the use of building methods, angles, and references on style (Klotz, 1998).
Discussion
It is overtly defined through the modern creations that postmodernism relates to the ideas of the architects through the designs where arts and styles are explored in a manner that somehow differs from the standards of modernism perspectives (Klotz, 1998). On the other hand, the International style is the major architectural style of the past years. It is normal for the buildings and architects of the influential eras of Modernism. This specifically occurred before the times of the Second World War. The characterization of Hitchcock and Johnson of the modern architecture appeared to have an extensive characteristic which is common to the Modernism sense worldwide. The idea is central to the styles of modernism which has something to do with the style of the time and would sum up modern architecture. Ideas are determined through the prevailing concepts that the expression of volume is altered instead of mass, balance instead of the predetermined symmetry, and the discharge of applied decorations or designs (Jarzombek, 1999).
The relationship of architecture in postmodernism greatly affects the designs and styles that are seen on the buildings today. The emergence of the 20th century made some of the architects avert from modern functionalism that is regarded as dull and almost considered uninteresting. The architects who agree with this perspective turned toward the past and highlighted the past aspects of different buildings and mixing them to create a new way of designing the buildings. A clear example of the new concept of postmodernism is that it is seen as the return of the pillars and other essential elements of the pre-modern designs. Sometimes it is regarded as settling into the classical Greek and Roman examples but not necessarily recreating those designs (Klotz, 1998).
In modernism, the support as a feature design is positioned by technological methods such as cantilevers or covered by curtains. The stimulation of the pillar is an aesthetic need though instead of using the technological methods. The high-rise buildings of the modernist more likely became monolithic which disregards the idea of a mass of different design elements for a particular vocabulary (Jarzombek, 1999). Also, this is seen to be the most tremendous case that used a smooth design with the suggestions of the probability of a single metallic extrusion from the ground through the elimination of visual horizontal elements such as the World Trade Center buildings of Minoru Yamasaki.
Postmodern structures are usually achieved through striking the contradicting points of the previous styles of buildings with each other as well as integrating furniture stylistic references on a larger scale. In addition, contextualism which is a way of thinking in the later parts of the 20th century broadly affects the concepts of postmodernism. It is focused on the idea that all knowledge is context-sensitive. This is considered to say that knowledge is not able to be understood without the recognition of the main context (Klotz, 1998).
As a comparison to the concept of postmodernism, the International modern style somehow differs because of its development through graphical and architectural sense by artists and maintains an identifiable, simple, and efficient style. Illustrations of an international modern style depict unembellished flat and curved walls, roofs, and floors. The curve presents a functional design for the building and maintains its simplicity though some obstacles are seen on the design. Difficulties are encountered for considering the basic concepts of International Style which are sheerness, flatness, plainness, unornamented, and smoothness. This may be viewed as simple but tough weathering and maintenance should be considered to achieve the said design because perfect geometry forms should appear (Tournikiotis, 1999).
Defining the examples of the International style applies to some famous sights in the world. Flat walls, roofs, and square corners match the natural beauty of the environment because of its simplicity and its plainness. The idea of Le Corbusier depicts that buildings are machines for living because of the purpose of the concepts of style. As preset parts function effectively in a machine, the human workers should then be able to function properly in a building. The capability of achieving tasks easily is a good point however people’s idea of the innovation regarding technology as a machine is somehow disappointing. Sometimes the time of development can overlook the feelings of a person. International style is indeed not about feelings but science and purpose (Hitchcock & Johnson (1997).
The purpose of International Modern Style appears to be vital for different places but it started in Germany. The needs and demands of people initiate art. The International Modern style buildings are shown in the early post-war era through the forms of big industrial-sized buildings. The designers seek great functionality in creating styles that suits the character of time though there is a limited international agreement on what does it depicts.
Modernism is a complete and revolutionary perspective and philosophy. It rejects the decorative themes that do not significantly contribute to the functionality of a building. Before, arts and designs had never come to a point of the mechanical senses and were put into details. It is said that the industrial revolution gave a form of art according to its principles such as simplicity, reproducibility, and modularity (Tournikiotis, 1999). De Stijl’s art is also one of the examples of modernism. De Stijl uses planes and a distinctly modern style hairline grid for the patterns of a building. Compared to the earlier styles, the International Modern Graphic design is regarded as having integration of art and science for the combination of formulas and mathematical concepts. From arts that are seen on the wall to the designs of the buildings, it proves that small details are vital for each other’s lives (Hitchcock & Johnson (1997).
The International Style of modernism is viewed to be a minimalist form of art. It is not merely in the sense of minimalism though and the International style does not possess a decorative detail wherein geometrical figures are focused and expressed in a functional form. With the perspectives of minimalism, international style is distinct for describing art more clearly. The term as it prevails may mean an international standard for the designs and art for architecture but it varies depending on the country. A distinct style should be made accordingly based on the artist’s style and sense. The ideals should be the same but the completion of the final design will make the masterpiece unique and most likely to be related to other designs (Jarzombek, 1999).
Conclusion
The comparison between postmodernism and the International Style for modernism falls under the main elements of architectural designs that have something to do with the total visualization of the buildings. Postmodernism possesses intricacy for the designs used for a structure while the International Style for modernism largely accounts for its basic principle of simplicity and plainness with the consideration of its functionality. Late modernism showed the popularity through the International modern style and it had been justified through commercialization over the years of development and impacted many structures. As the stage of modernism continues, the ascending desire for more creative designs is approaching the eyes of the people and expect more from the designers. A more creative distinction of the type of arrangement and size develops over time which makes designs varied. The use of the International Modern style is widely seen today among buildings and other infrastructures. Buildings, books, and other modern style are used in accord to the daily lives of people and is present anywhere. Postmodernism style in architecture though is still used today but few numbers of designs seem to be visible as people embrace the new style of modernism.
The development of art through the form of many media creates an overt and universal style which is apparent to the International Modern Style. With the line of its progress, the graphical and architectural styles have met diversity but still maintain its simplicity and functionality.
References
Hitchcock, H.R. & Johnson, P. (1997). The International Style. W. W. Norton & Company.
Jarzombek, M. (1999). “The Disciplinary Dislocations of Architectural History,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 58/3, p. 489.
Klotz, H. (1998). History of Post-Modern Architecture, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Tournikiotis, P. (1999). The Historiography of Modern Architecture. MIT Press.
The works of an Austrian architect, Adolf Loos, contributed to the style of modernism and modernist theory. However, even his style has changed over time, although he began to advocate for modernism early in his career and wrote many texts on the topics of the modernist style and ornamentation.1
One of his earlier works, Café Museum, a building repurposed into a café in 1899, was opened in Vienna, Austria, and showed his attempt at creating a modern interior in a building designed by a different architect.2 Although the exterior of the building seemed simplistic as opposed to some more rich and stylized designs, its original interior was utterly devoid of decorations, creating a simple and serious look. It was an explicit rejection of the ideology of Vienna Secession, in which the architect was briefly interested at the very end of the nineteenth century.3
Later, his approach started to change as he chose a more simplistic and modern look for the outside but a more comfortable and domestic one for the inside, while still advocating against adornments and decorations. His later work, Villa Müller, designed by the architect in 1930, is still preserved in its original form as a museum.4 The building showed a different style, devoid of any decorated surfaces but filled with expensive, high-quality materials and a variety of colors and textures. Currently, it serves as a great example of the architecture of the early modernist period.5
The differences between these two buildings are apparent, as they have a distinct look of two separate ideas of their creator. Loos’ decisions for Café Museum’s interior were dictated by his disagreement with the existing styles, especially Vienna Secession, which he despised for unnecessary decorations. Villa Müller showed a similar approach to practicality, however, including a more relaxed design for the interior and separating the moods for the two spaces – outside and inside of the house.
Café Museum
The interior of the Café Museum can be considered as one of the first significant works of the architect, who was guided by his views on contemporary culture in creating this concept. Interestingly, the outside of the café was designed by another architect, who also did not use many decorations for the façade of the first floor. As can be seen in Image 1, he chose a simple white wall for the bottom of the building and natural beige brickwork for the top.6
The only possible decoration for the café on the outside is its name, displayed in large golden letters. The inside of the building was created by Loos, who at the time was disenchanted with the style of other contemporary architects and wanted to present a modern look different from the popular trends of Vienna.7
Image 1. Café Museum, view from outside, Operngasse. Source: Wikipedia.
The rise of Vienna Secession with its highly ornamented designs, neoclassical inspirations, and a conservative outlook did not appeal to Loos, who advocated for practicality and absolute necessity.8 Thus, his design of the café directly corresponded with his views, presenting a simple room structure, muted colors, and the lack of any decorative pieces. As can be seen in Image 2, the original interior of the café included only the furniture that was absolutely needed for the restaurant to function.9
Image 2. Café Museum, the original interior. Source: Café Museum.
Moreover, the chairs and the tables were made from a material of one solid dark color, the same color used for the lower part of the walls. The material used was mahogany, a dark red and brown colored wood.10 The lighting also lacked any decorative details, serving only according to its primary purpose. Although the color of the walls, which was a kind of pale green, differed from the white ceiling, it was still muted enough not to become a distinctive detail of the design.11
It can be recognized that the café’s interior did not feature many materials, using wood and metal as the primary sources of color. In fact, Loos did not use many painted or colored furnaces in his works, creating the design and the atmosphere by choosing high-quality materials and utilizing their natural characteristics such as color, shape, and texture.12
However, the café’s atmosphere was still incredibly modest, which even led to it receiving the name “Café Nihilismus” from its visitors and critics.13 The interior could be considered lifeless and uncomfortable by some guests, who expected a more homelike charm of a café. It is possible that Loos’ later works would be more appealing to these critics, as they had a different atmosphere and feel to them.
Villa Müller
Loos’ beliefs did not change significantly over the years, as he still believed in the superiority of modernism and its logical use of materials and decorations.14 His later work, Villa Müller is a clear example of the creator’s devotion to the modernist style. Loos continued to advocate against adornments for the design, not using any patterns, decorations, or unneeded details in his designs.
As can be noticed on Image 3, the exterior of the villa is minimal – the building has a cubic shape, has no decorations, and is made from a material with a muted white or light beige color.15 Its only elements are windows with a balcony and the front door. The windows are painted yellow, which may serve as a splash of color on such an austere design. Thus, Loos’ view of modernism remained the same through the years, as he continued to value necessity over adornment.
Image 3. Villa Müller, view from outside. Source: Architectuul.
However, the interior design of the villa reveals the change of style that occurred in the works of Loos during his career. As can be seen in Image 4, the library of the house looks completely different from the café’s design.16 The walls of the room are hidden behind reddish-brown wood panels with noticeable texture and a glossy finish. They also serve as furniture as they have installed shelves made from the same material.
Image 4. Villa Müller, the library. Source: Architectuul.
The floor is bright blue, contrasting the warm brown color of the walls. The sofas are also made from the same brown-colored leather, creating a sense of luxury and comfort. The room still has few decorations apart from a carpet and a chimney, covered in white and blue tiles. However, the atmosphere in this room completely differs from the one in the café. It is much more homelike and plentiful.
It is the primary distinction between the old and new approaches of the architect. In the villa, Loos focused on creating a different view of its exterior and interior. From the outside, Villa Müller resembles a neutrally colored cube without any signs of the coziness of an occupied home. On the other hand, the inside is full of textures, colors, and forms, creating a separate atmosphere for every space of the house.
The library that was mentioned before uses the surface of the wood as a central decoration. Its complex coloring replaces the need for other ornaments or accessories, making the design more attractive. Image 5 presents another example of using textures.17 In this lady’s dressing room, Loos used a lighter color of wood for its built-in closets, bringing more light to the place. He also replaced large leather couches with a wicker chair in a similarly light tone. White parts of the table which is made from the same wood as the wardrobe serve as decorative details and make the room appear even brighter.
Image 5. Villa Müller, lady’s dressing room. Source: Architectuul.
In this case, Loos’ deliberate choice of these materials lies in their particular purpose. In the library, comfortable leather couches are intended for spending evenings near a lit fireplace, as they exude warmth and comfort. The dressing room is made of light-colored materials to make the room bright and clean, suitable for a morning routine that may require good lighting.
Loos’ design of different spaces focused on their purpose while using the elements of the room to increase usability further.18 It can be noticed that the walls in the rooms double as cupboards and shelves, creating a more open and less cluttered feel. This use of space is similar in all rooms of the house.
Such utilization of free space can be viewed as a symbol of Loos’ devotion to modernism. It can be assumed that the architect strongly believed in objects needing to have a specific purpose to be a part of the final design. Therefore, each detail of the rooms is thought out. The differences between the interiors of the café and villa are obvious. Loos used colors and textures much more abundantly in the later work, creating a more interesting and complete space.
The inside of the house cannot be called nihilistic as it exudes a different feeling. Loos was much more open to using bright colors which could be seen in the library. Moreover, his choice of furniture also corresponded with the purpose of the rooms. The use of space was more thought-out, as Loos incorporated many built-in pieces. As a representative of early modernism, Loos tried to create designs that would not need adornments and would be sufficient on their own.19 Thus, he used bold colors and contrasting textures.
Reasons behind Similarities and Changes
While comparing the interiors of the two described works, one might see many differences in their styles. However, the similarities between the designs of these two buildings can also be outlined. For instance, the simplicity of the café’s interior still finds a place in the villa’s structure. Loos continued to avoid decorations and unnecessary details, using only useful furniture. Furthermore, he preferred natural materials such as wood, glass, and metal and explored their existing features as elements of the design.
The café’s furniture made from mahogany was the main focus of the room. Similarly, wooden structures and built-in shelves of the villa also dictate the style and create the atmosphere. The lighting in both designs is simplistic and is seen as a source of light and not as a piece of décor. There are no complicated forms in the design of the room’s space, although the placement of all elements is rather sophisticated.
The change of style seen in the works of Loos can be explained by his continuously progressing view of modernism. The separation of spaces and areas in the house could come from his ideas of Raumplan, according to which the building “should be silent on the outside and speak only inside.”20 This concept was formed with Loos’ search for the rhetoric of modernism that suited his beliefs. Villa Müller is a clear example of that statement, as its exterior and interior are completely different.
The outside of the house does not have any distinct features and seems completely devoid of any elements of style. It is as simple as a building that can be both in its form and its color. In contrast, the villa’s interior is full of interesting decisions and elements that make it more suitable for comfortable living. Loos’ use of simple but high-quality materials creates a feeling of luxury and homeliness.
Conclusion
Loos’ view of modernism was centered on such concepts as usability, necessity, and simplicity. His firm belief in the need to avoid all decorations while creating designs remained inherent to his craft over the years. While one of his first works, Café Museum, was an example of restriction and limitation, his later design of Villa Müller revealed his progression as a modernist, as he refined his vision of usefulness and comfort. Although these works appear to be completely different from one another, they both represent their creator’s beliefs. Each piece of furniture in these designs had a purpose, and all of them correspond to each other in color and shape. Nevertheless, Loos’ later works also gained a sense of homeliness and a distinct look for each designated space. His desire to work with natural materials did not change much, but he started to use them as decorations, instead of completely ignoring the possibilities of colors and textures.
Bibliography
Café Museum, the Story. Digital image. Café Museum. Web.
Charciarek, Marcin. “Playing ‘Hide and Seek’ or Penetrating Architecture.” Czasopismo Techniczne 2015, no. 9-A (2015): 71-77.
Gronberg, Tag. “Coffeehouse Encounters: Adolf Loo’s Café Museum.” FKW Zeitschrift für Geschlechterforschung und Visuelle Kultur 30, no. 32 (2001): 22-33.
Lorenz, Wolfgang E. “Measurability of Loos’ Rejection of the Ornament – Using Box-Counting as a Method for Analysing Facades.” Shape, Form and Geometry 1, no. 1 (2014): 495-504.
Macarthur, David. “Reflections on ‘Architecture is a Gesture’ (Wittgenstein).” Paragrana 23, no. 1 (2014): 88-100.
Schiermer, Bjørn. “On the Ageing of Objects in Modern Culture: Ornament and Crime.” Theory, Culture & Society 33, no. 4 (2016): 127-150.
Van Duzer, Leslie, and Kent Kleinman. Villa Muller: A Work of Adolf Loos. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997.
Villa Müller, Lady’s Dressing Room. Digital image. Architectuul. Web.
Villa Müller, the Library. Digital image. Architectuul. Web.
Villa Müller, View from Outside. Digital image. Architectuul. Web.
Footnotes
Leslie Van Duzer and Kent Kleinman, Villa Muller: A Work of Adolf Loos (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1997), 31.
Tag Gronberg, “Coffeehouse Encounters: Adolf Loo’s Café Museum,” FKW Zeitschrift für Geschlechterforschung und Visuelle Kultur 30, no. 32 (2001): 22.
Ibid., 23.
Van Duzer and Kleinman, Villa Muller, 32.
Bjørn Schiermer, “On the Ageing of Objects in Modern Culture: Ornament and Crime,” Theory, Culture & Society 33, no. 4 (2016): 145.
Café Museum, View from Outside, Operngasse, digital image, Wikipedia, Web.
Gronberg, “Coffeehouse Encounters,” 24.
Ibid., 23.
Café Museum, the Story, digital image, Café Museum, Web.
Gronberg, “Coffeehouse Encounters,” 24.
Ibid., 24.
David Macarthur, “Reflections on ‘Architecture is a Gesture’ (Wittgenstein),” Paragrana 23, no. 1 (2014): 92.
Gronberg, “Coffeehouse Encounters,” 24.
Wolfgang E. Lorenz, “Measurability of Loos’ Rejection of the Ornament – Using Box-Counting as a Method for Analysing Facades,” Shape, Form, and Geometry 1, no. 1 (2014): 496.
Villa Müller, View from Outside, digital image, Architectuul, Web.
Villa Müller, the Library, digital image, Architectuul, Web.
Villa Müller, Lady’s Dressing Room, digital image, Architectural, Web.
Van Duzer and Kleinman, Villa Muller, 39.
Schiermer, “On the Ageing of Objects,” 136.
Marcin Charciarek, “Playing ‘Hide and Seek’ or Penetrating Architecture,” Czasopismo Techniczne 2015, no. 9-A (2015): 72.
Current essay deals with difficult though important topic of interrelation between historical currents in architecture such as classicism, gothic style, baroque with modernism and other contemporary architectural styles and theoretical approaches to architecture design and construction which are often described as being total departure from the formerly predominant forms.
The main thesis that we defend here in this regard is that modern and postmodern architecture (or to say it more definitely – contemporary ‘nontraditional’ approaches to architecture) shouldn’t be conceptualized in terms of complete departure from earlier traditions but in fact borrow much impulse from them which is transformed in peculiar modernist and postmodernist architectural forms. To these ends some historical perspectives and examples would be mobilized to support our point of view. The second intention of current research is to provide the analysis of Oscar Niemeyer’s architectural works: National Congress building in Brasilia and some other projects. We hope that drawing on interesting examples from this architect’s work will help us to comprehensively support our point of view.
There is no denying the importance of the fact that architecture is not only the aggregation of a given level of techniques, engineer capacities, approach to design, materials and form but what is more important is certain reflection of political and cultural symbols of the epoch in which it is created. For instance, Roman and Egyptian architecture does not only provide us with some valuable data on the level of technical development of corresponding civilization but is very important for understanding the spirit of its culture, religion, social and political relations.
To understand the relation between earlier forms of architecture and modern architecture it is important to recall the original meaning of this word. This word comes from Greek ‘arkitekton’ meaning precisely ‘master builder’. In premodern time architects and their work were under strict control of state and ruling elites like in Ancient China and Egypt where the strong architectural system was operating. The architectural sites were understood not as simple buildings which should be used for specific purposes but as works bearing some greater and important religious and cultural meaning.
It can be proved by the fact that the earlier period of architecture development are mainly presented in cult and religious buildings like in Ancient Greece, Egypt, China, Muslim world, Christian Europe and elsewhere. Besides this there is no denying the importance of the fact that many of famous architectural sites such as palaces, theatres etc. were created for self-indulgence of the ruling elite, hence it was the primary driving force of architecture development. In this regard older architecture should be regarded as the reflection of enormous wealth of ruling elites in tributary and feudal world.
To be more specific it should be noted that unlike modernist architecture (which will be described later), classical, medieval, renaissance and industrial architecture drew on the dominant cultural and historical patterns and forms reflected in architectural design. In the absence of what now we call standardized industrial design each new architectural site was unique though following the same cultural and religious patterns. Besides this it should be specifically noted that what even more differentiates classical architecture from modernist is little emphasis on bureaucratic functionality but rather on different forms, traditions borrowed from Ancient Greece, Rome etc.
For instance, there is no denying the importance of the fact that medieval Muslim architecture is a reflection of certain religious worldview which dictated architectural canon and design at the expense of functionality. Greatness of architectural building was for Muslim architects more importance than the considerations of functionality and this makes this architecture be the representation of culture, religion and historical conditions simultaneously.
Such architectural styles such as Gothic style in medieval Catholic architecture are also quite important for understanding the difference between medieval and modernist architecture (Hamlin, 1911, p.143). Many scholars claim that Gothic style represented in various cathedral and churches such as Notre Dame de Paris reflects the monumental and majestic character of Catholic church as the dominant actor in Western societies during medieval period. The forms of Gothic architecture are strict, severe and sometimes frightening (Harvey, 1950). With the rise of Gothic architectural style increased the complexity of design and the means of construction. Besides this medieval period saw a considerable increase of building hospitals, houses, recreation institutions etc.
Renaissance architecture also followed ideological and cultural impulse of the epoch. Renaissance, as we know, is characteristic of major emphasis on individuality, humanism rather than religion and hence it was realized in architecture projects. They in their turn became personalized in the work and talent of different architects such as Alberti, Palladio, Michelangelo etc. which was a considerable breakthrough if compared with Christian era. The classical epoch which is characterized by the dominance of absolutist feudal state also produced its own peculiar forms of baroque architecture characterized by formalism, pretentiousness and other features which can be ascribed to the cultural patterns of royal court society, aristocratic mentality and other features characteristic of classical period.
Industrial revolution was also a revolution in architecture as the growth of technical capabilities allowed separating architecture from mass engineering. Besides this the rise of capitalist economy created a new sphere for creating beautiful architectural sites, that is bourgeois mansion in countryside and in cities which were designed in neo-gothic and Scottish Baronial style.
The beginning of the 20-th century is characterized by the rise of modernism which is described as significant transformation of theoretical approaches to architecture which are tied with the development of industrial design as a profession.
It is important to note that going in line with our topic we should say that modernist architecture refused to follow historical traditions and considered architecture to be a synthesis of craft, art and technology devoid of any historical and cultural content.
Of course, it would be absurd to claim that this means that modern architecture is completely distinct from premodern and does not correspond to the notion of architecture. There is no denying the importance of the fact that it transformed some of the major approaches to architecture but that does not mean that it is not architecture. Though it refuses to abide to the patterns of historicity and tradition, it itself is a reflection of certain historical conditions when the rise of rational society led to considerable rationalization of architecture.
Modernist architecture was represented by the avant-garde movement in its own right which had its own philosophical, moral and aesthetic underpinnings. The main impulse of modernist architecture that should be taken into consideration is the desire to create new convenient and cheap buildings to satisfy rising interests of low and middle classes (Hvattum, Mari, and Christian Hermansen, 2004). That is why they radically torn with the formerly dominated architectural practices which placed emphasis on academic refinement of various historical styles which was the main cultural instrument of the declining aristocratic order.
What makes modernist architecture significantly differ from earlier patterns in architectural design is its approach which was to reduce architecture to pure forms by means of removing various historical references and ornaments in favor of different functionalist details. New buildings that exposed their inner structure and construction: steel beams and the concrete surfaces were considered to be beautiful instead of traditional architectural forms. For instance, such architects as Mies van der Rohe considered architecture to be the use of inherent qualities of materials and various modern construction techniques, using simplified geometric forms etc.
Modernism and other architectural styles such as classic style, baroque etc. are considerably different but this does not mean that modernism and postmodernism in architecture represent essential departure from architecture – they instead should be regarded as historical periods in architecture development (Sankovitch, 1998, p.689).
The succession between modernist and postmodernist architecture (two contemporary architectural styles) is more evident. Many architects criticized modernism for its austerity and the absence of decorative richness. Hence, Postmodernism should be regarded as the response to austerity of Modernism. Postmodern architecture following modernist considers it important to create functional buildings (they are even more functional than modernist), but such architects as Robert Venturi claimed that functionality should be maintained inside but a façade should present the mixture of different styles that is eclecticism of styles. Postmodern architecture utilized classic Roman and Greek styles in extraordinary way transforming strict architectural paradigms in the melting pot of mass culture and urbanism. In fact Roman and Greek architectural styles were used as referents and quotations not having too much in common with Greek and Roman approaches to architecture as it was the case in neoclassicism. There is bitter confrontation between modernism and postmodernism notwithstanding the fact that they have much in common. Modernist architects claim that postmodernist are vulgar and incapable of realizing aesthetic truth of the building. Postmodern architects instead often regard modernist building as being soulless and blank and try to replace this minimalism with the play of techniques, angles and various stylistic references.
Oscar Niemeyer work is important point of reference for understanding modern conditions of architectural development. His architectural approach lies between strict modernist utilitarianism, austerity and functionalism and postmodern eclecticism. Thought Niemeyer is oriented at modernist approach to architecture his buildings have such dynamic forms and sensual features that some say that he are a sculptor rather than architect. Niemeyer is famous for building many building in administrative capital of Brazil – Brasilia which in fact was created by his architectural wit (Papadaki, 1950).
Palacio Gustavo Capanema was one of the first modernist work ordered by state government. It was designed to house Ministry of Culture and included everything that was further considered as Niemeyer unique architectural style: employing local materials, making adjustments to colonial architectural style, using bold colors etc.
Another work by Niemeyer which is Brazilian pavilion on New York World Fair is characterized by the language of elegance and grace, spatial fluidity and lightness which became associated with Ionic current in modernism represented by Oscar Niemeyer. This shows how different can be the styles and approaches within one dominant architectural tradition and how much is the space for improvisation.
The fact that Niemeyer was deeply opposed to the dominant ‘form and function’ orthodoxy of modernism can be proved by his own accounts: “I was attracted by the curve – the liberated, sensual curve suggested by the possibilities of new technology yet so often recalled in venerable old baroque churches. […] I deliberately disregarded the right angle and rationalist architecture designed with ruler and square to boldly enter the world of curves and straight lines offered by reinforced concrete. […] This deliberate protest arose from the environment in which I lived, with its white beaches, its huge mountains, its old baroque churches, and the beautiful suntanned women.’ (Niemeyer, Oscar, 2000, p.169-170).
Oscar Niemeyer is also widely know for the construction of buildings for new Brazilian capital – Brasilia including the president’s residence, the National Congress, Parliament, The Cathedral of Brasilia and various other buildings. Viewed from the air, a new city had formal elements that repeated in every building thus giving city its beautiful structure and formal unity. The Brasilia cathedral is especially interesting combining modernist symbolism. Its entrance is poorly-lit corridor which totally contrasts with bright and illuminated hall. Buildings designed by Niemeyer were floating off the ground while supported by columns which allowed them to be integrated with nature. Besides this Brasilia was realization of socialist ideology for there were no wealthier regions and ordinary workers lived in the same houses occupied by top ministers.
To sum it up, Niemeyer’s approaches to architecture proves our thesis that modern architecture is different from its precursor which is not surprising but does not mean that it does not play the same important historical role. The opposite is postulated by the works of Oscar Niemeyer.
References
Hamlin, A. D. F. History of Architecture. 8th ed. New York: Longmans, Green, 1911.
Harvey, John. The Gothic World, 1100-1600: A Survey of Architecture and Art. London: B. T. Batsford, 1950.
Hvattum, Mari, and Christian Hermansen, eds. Tracing Modernity: Manifestations of the Modern in Architecture and the City. New York: Routledge, 2004.
Niemeyer, Oscar. The Curves of Time: The Memoirs of Oscar Niemeyer. London: Phaidon.
Papadaki, Stamo. Lucio Costa, and Oscar Niemeyer. The Work of Oscar Niemeyer. New York: Reinhold, 1950.
Sankovitch, Anne-Marie. “Structure/ornament and the Modern Figuration of Architecture.” The Art Bulletin 80.4 (1998): 686-707.
Schneekloth, Lynda H. “Unredeemably Utopian: Architecture and Making/unmaking the World.” Utopian Studies 9.1 (1998): 1-34.
In “The Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain,” Crawford reviews the design and ideas behind the movement, trying to “explain why collaborative attempts at the Unity of Art did not come to much” (15). The movement, with its Romantic sense of the past, strove to separate itself from the world by counter-distinguishing the Unity of Art and professionalism, Joy in Labor and factories, Design Reform and commercial taste; it became the last period of Romanticism, or anti-modernism (Crawford 24). While he cites the link between the movement and socialism, he states that it is not a political affiliation per se, but a sense of creating without being motivated by profit—of social responsibility. Crawford gives a very thorough account of the Arts and Crafts movement in Britain, and clearly states its strengths and weaknesses, but he cannot claim to be unbiased. It is clear that the author somewhat idealizes the campaign, freely explaining away some of its questionable attributes.
Winter starts “The Arts and Crafts as a Social Movement” by calling attention to the failure of the Arts and Crafts movement just before World War I. Numerous Arts and Crafts societies had completely wound down by 1920 (Winter 36). All of the movement’s areas of work suffered a decline in quality, most notably architecture, due to increased wealth of the middle-class, and the spiritual nature of the campaign. Winter draws parallels between the Arts and Crafts movement and Progressivism as a whole, saying that Morris attempted to “revive the Protestant work ethic without Protestantism” (Winter 36). Like Progressivism, it also didn’t have any plan for social regeneration, other than vague Protestant and socialistic overtures. Though various artists shed light on the drawbacks of the movements, it was susceptible to Utopian aspirations. Winter states in the beginning that he is not unbiased toward the Arts and Crafts movement, and yet his article gives a lot of thought to the weaknesses and failures of the movement. Winter concentrates on the individual input of the movement’s notable artists, giving it a more personal and diverse outlook.
In “Designing for Democracy: Modernism and Its Utopias,” Barter describes modernism as “an extended revolution” (7) that emphasizes everything new, a collection of related styles drawing from the Arts and Crafts movement. The author describes the philosophy and background of the movement, how a new generation reached toward new materials and the idea of simpler, more affordable design. Modernist futurism was equally as Utopian as the Arts and Crafts movement, striving to bring higher standards of living for all. The author discusses American modernism, its history, and social uses, with skyscrapers as a “compelling symbol of a modern American culture that was driven and shaped by the forces of industry” (Barter 11). In the end, modernism became an impersonal symbol of corporate power in the United States, and a symbol of prosperity in a consumer society. Barter gives a clear and extensive analysis of modernism in both Europe and the United States. While the author clearly favors the modernism in the United States in his article, showing himself somewhat enamored with the concept behind it, he portrays its failures without bias.
Tschichold’s The New Typography is a publication about the New Typography movement that rejected traditional text placement. The book is made up of two major parts. In the first part, the author examines the historical roots of the movement and promotes its use. While all parts of the text are connected by value and context, it should be a typographer’s goal “to express this relationship clearly and visibly through type sizes and weight, arrangement of lines, use of color, photography” (Tschichold 3). In the second part of the publication, Tschichold discusses the practical aspects of the idea. In the “Introduction to the English-Language Edition” that accompanies the text, Robin Kinross hails it “as the best single document of and about the New Typography” (Tschichold XV). He briefly describes Tschichold’s life before and after publication, and the realities that typographers of the German world were facing. Kinross discusses the main principles of the movement and mentions main objections. Kinross’ introduction to The New Typography is a perfect introduction to an outdated publication. By giving the book’s and the author’s historical and cultural background, Kinross highlights why The New Typography was a revolutionary break-through in typography of its time. Starting the introduction with Tschichold’s biography is a well-calculated move, aimed at making the reader take a more personal look at the material. The only aspect that doesn’t seem to be fully revealed is the opposition to the New Typography movement, which makes the introduction look rather one-sided.
The book Cultural Criticism: A Primer of Key Concepts by Berger is a valuable introductory text that presents a wide variety of theories and concepts, such as literary theory, Marxism, semiotics, and psychoanalytical and sociological theories, in the context of cultural criticism. In the fourth chapter, Berger discusses the basic concepts of semiotics, “the science of signs” (73), sign functioning according to Peirce’s and Saussure’s systems, and the differences between index, sign, and symbol definitions in those systems. Berger gives definitions of connotation, denotation, metaphor, metonymy, and their subcategories, along with the opinions of various authors on their purpose in the language. Cultural Criticism: A Primer of Key Concepts by Berger is the most academic, in comparison to the works above. It approaches semiotics as a concept that can be, and is, widely used in all types of art in everyday life. Consequently, Berger gives the reader a fascinating outlook on the choice of symbols in both the Arts and Crafts movement and modernism.
References
Barter, Judith A. “Designing for Democracy: Modernism and Its Utopias.” Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies 27.2 (2001): 7-105. Web.
Berger, Arthur Asa. Cultural criticism: a primer of key concepts. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1995. Print.
Crawford, Alan. “Ideas and Objects: The Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain.” Design Issues 13.1 (1997): 15-26. Print.
Tschichold, Jan. The New Typography: A Handbook for Modern Designers. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Print.
Winter, Robert W. “The Arts and Crafts as a Social Movement.” Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University 34.2 (1975): 36-40. Web.
Modernism had been developing for an entire century and can be commended for a variety of art movements ffrom the school of Dada to post-impressionism. In general, modernism is a global art movement that appeared in the late 19th century and lasted until the end of the 20th century (Childs, 2016). The development of the new modes of expression was mainly caused by social and technological change driven by industrialization. Moreover, developments in the social science, particularly in philosophy, political theory, and psychology, made newly emerged art abandon “outdated” realism and other traditional forms to find something that will better reflect modern societies.
The modern art movement was so broad that it is difficult to define its typical characteristics. Modernism is well-known for being experimental, elliptical, for combining creation and decreation techniques,and for its goal to tie an artist’s freedom from materialism, traditional forms with ideas of cultural collapse (Childs, 2016). The main unifying characteristic is the artists’ belief in the value of art and their “self-consciousness,” as they were sure that it matters. Despite slightly different timeframes, almost the same avant-garde movements prevailed around the world. They all applied new imagery, new materials, and techniques to rewrite, reprise, and revise achievements of realism.
The main differences which can be spotted among Asian, Latin American, and Western modernism development lies in region-specific political and social conditions of that time. For instance, Asian countries were dealing with colonialism striving to become independent; thus, prominent modernism artists mixed Western ideas with techniques and motives of the local culture. According to O’Brien et al. (2012), Asian and Latin American modernism was not entirely copied from North America or Europe, as it was adapted and revised according to local conditions and political dimensions. The political idea to challenge the colonial authority was often more important than aesthetic concerns in the works of Asian nationalistic artists. In Latin America, avant-garde artists also created pieces of art that comprised elements of local histories and culture and was against imperialism.
The main problem is that the Western world perceived the whole process as they “creawere while others “copy and replicate.” Modernist artists from different parts of the world assisted the development of avant-garde movements in Europe. It is not fair to label artists who found inspiration in Western modernism as derivatives. In reality, it was “multimodernism” that was possible only because of the mutual interchanging of ideas and concepts.
References
O’Brien, E., Nicodemus, E., Chiu, M., Genocchio, B., Coffey, M. K., Tejada, R. (Eds.) (2012). Modern art in Africa, Asia, and Latin America: An introduction to global Modernisms. Wiley-Blackwell.