Category: Modernism

Modernism is linked with the disillusionment of modern society with its previously accepted values and standards, as well as with the search for a new source of fulfillment. Being one of the first writers described as a modernist, Charles Baudelaire provided harsh criticism of many aspects of society that he deemed archaic or lacking depth while he searched for a genuine expression of self. This paper will reflect on the topic of modernism in Baudelaire’s works, including The Painter of Modern Life and Paris Spleen.

It is crucial to begin exploring this literary movement from its earliest examples, and Baudelaire gives a solid foundation for this shift. The aspect of fickleness is the first pillar on which modernism stands, according to Baudelaire. For example, in The Stranger, one’s love of clouds overshadows traditional and materialistic values, such as gold or relatives (Paris Spleen, 27). The ever-changing nature of this atmospheric phenomenon can be seen as a symbol of modernist values, which the author highlights in his works.

At the same time, the need to understand why fickleness is appreciated is the core of modernism. For this clarification, it is essential to highlight that modernity refers to the specific progress indicative of a historical period. Modernists appeared at the time of significant social changes, which, inevitably, rapidly reshaped communities, gave many opportunities to people, and caused them new crises and triumphs. According to Baudelaire, “to contemplate the movements of those who leave and those who arrive, those who still have strength of will, the desire to travel or to grow rich” can be viewed as a form of meditation (Paris Spleen, 127). Therefore, the second aspect of modernism is the fascination with new opportunities, as they provide inspiration for people to go beyond what is accepted as a norm. While modernity may still embrace past ideas, modernism ushers people to consider them as history without denying their values. However, this movement opposes stagnation or relapses, as they are viewed as disinteresting and unimaginative.

Furthermore, Baudelaire shares his thoughts on the need to distance old and new. An infant might be scared by their old and wrinkled grandmother, whom they will cherish and respect once they grow older and learn from their relatives’ experiences (Paris Spleen, 29). Similarly, modern artists must remember past techniques, artworks, and their authors and respect their deeds, although copying them would signify their lacking creativity. Instead of copying forms, people can adapt the concepts that allow the depicted objects to appear beautiful in the eyes of onlookers. This aspect of modernism implies that the artistic value of any art piece is derived from creating eternal beauty using instruments, forms, and techniques that relate to the epoch during which it was made (The Painter of Modern Life). This notion is also shown in the author’s poems. In The Fool and Venus, Baudelaire paints a situation where a person pointlessly begs a marble statue of the goddess to grant him the gift of love (Paris Spleen, 29). Similarly, modern-day artists may seek inspiration from great talents from the past, yet they will not be bestowed with one of their own through such an action.

It is essential to differentiate between fickleness and shallowness, as the author opposes baseless admiration while promoting the need to change with time. The Painter of Modern Life adds to this topic through its reflections on contemporary society by depicting the real people who lived at that time. The author’s point of view includes both negative and positive comments on the subject, clearly defining the modernity he experiences. Baudelaire understands how a thriving society, even at its highest point of progress, can lead to the loss of self among people. An idle man with no goal in life has to seek new, higher values other than mere materialistic ones or become as redundant as his riches (The Painter of Modern Life). This thought is indicative of the modernist ideology, which opposes all notions of static and immutable. Baudelaire explicitly expresses his dissatisfaction regarding stagnating doctrines, describing crowds as “the public, to whom one must not present the delicate perfumes which exasperate them, but carefully selected crap” (Paris Spleen, 43). Such a direct condemnation is a reflection of the author’s negative views on praising traditions and sticking to the norms instead of trying to explore new horizons.

Embracing modernity requires one to view past the primary forms, accepted rules, and recognizable patterns. The lacking in-depth analysis of both modern and traditional art by their viewers, who are described to be passersby rather than genuine admirers, is one of the issues Baudelaire had with his social cohort (The Painter of Modern Life). The fact that many artists did not merely draw inspiration from the paintings of the past but copied their concepts and techniques without creativity was infuriating to Baudelaire. In turn, Baudelaire calls for experimenting and revolutionizing art.

Another critical topic that depicts the aspects of modernity in Baudelaire’s works is the lack of actual existence of self among the described crowds. Two distinct factors affect this idea, as the author both condemns and praises large groups of people for their conflicting qualities. Baudelaire’s descriptions of such gatherings made them appear vibrant and filled with life, despite the tumult they convey (The Painter of Modern Life). However, there is a negative connotation to this aspect of modernism, as large throngs bear with them the lack of “I.” There are ideas that are propagated among each crowd that replace the value of an individual’s thoughts, making people believe what they should appreciate without understanding or doubting the nature of beauty (The Painter of Modern Life). At the same time, a crowd can be an inspiration, especially in the period when the author lived. It is the love of travel and seeking new views that can fuel one’s appreciation of throngs of people, as they may serve as a way to commune, even non-verbally, with strangers (Paris Spleen, 53). Such a variety of passersby is also indicative of modernist values, as their fleeting appearances can inspire artists to create beauty.

In Paris Spleen, these two topics are related through indirect indications of their proper blending. Modernism praises modernity for the opportunities it gives through providing new ideas and changing social values that lead to the formation of different art forms and movements. Thoughts and emotions that any social change sparks can offer a limitless supply of inspiration. For example, in A Toy for the Poor, Baudelaire shows why a soul is essential for art to be engaging by showing that fascination does not come from a price tag but from novelty (Paris Spleen, 71). Similarly, people may perfect an outdated technique yet remain unrecognized among the crowds that will compare such an author with those whose works are too great to be outshined.

The beginnings of modernism are apparent in Baudelaire’s famous essay on the subject. The writer argues that it is the nature of humankind to be in a constant state of charge (The Painter of Modern Life). Opposing such a foundational aspect that creates beauty is not only counterintuitive but detrimental to societal progress. Baudelaire argues that “beauty is formed of an eternal and invariable element […] and a relative and circumstantial element which will embody […] the epoch”(The Painter of Modern Life). This combination requires both artists and their audiences to understand the need to incorporate new and emerging cultural aspects into one’s artwork in order to create a piece that can be seen as beautiful.

In conclusion, the notion of modernism is reflected in Baudelaire’s works through his dissatisfaction with society being stuck in the past and remaining shallow in its views on art forms and traditions. The aspects of this movement are linked with a constant search for new inspiration and the courage to try out forms never seen before. Modernism recognizes the value of the past yet seeks to create the same eternal beauty with tools that the current era provides. Modernity, which is a reflection of society’s progress in recent times, must be adequately incorporated into art in order for onlookers to see beauty instead of a mere execution of past techniques. In Baudelaire’s view, only the ability to execute a combination of these two elements can create a spark that is required for one to deem themselves an artist.

The motifs of disintegration in the modernist literature

Modernist currents in world literature represent a total departure from the 19-th century understanding and realization of the literary form and content. Moreover, being the ideological product of late western society, modernist literature was destined to become an embodiment of those manifold social processes and contradictions tearing apart the fabric of western society as a cultural entity. On the level of personal experience and human life, which is the most frequently used material in the literature, these processes deeply influenced human consciousness and people’s relations to their living conditions. The dissolution of the religious explanation and image of the world, changes that had taken place in economic and social structure, a new role of “inhuman” science, and life rationalization in society undermined existing identities and personal orientations and led to “depersonalization” of human relations. There is no denying the fact that these real conflicts found a specific incarnation in the literature that is characterized by its own expressive means and is heavily dependent upon formal parameters. The abovementioned social processes can be described as disintegration on different levels: the ideological disintegration – loss of faith in the future, in God, etc., various forms of social and personal alienation, and the dissolution of traditional socially predetermined structures – family, friendship, relations between men and women, etc.

The disintegration as it happens on these levels made many writers revisit the widely spread canon of literary work that dominated world literature for many years. The new motif of disintegration becomes the major feature of the works of such modernist writers as diverse as J. Conrad, T.S. Eliot, J. Joyce, F. Kafka, M. Proust, A. Camus (and other existentialists), etc.

Different and sometimes opposite currents within modernism itself make it difficult to create a comprehensive picture of this literary phenomenon in this essay that is why we are going to draw our attention to the analysis of the disintegration in the masterpiece of the outstanding representative of American modernist literature William Faulkner – “The Sound and the Fury & As I Lay Dying,” which is in my view is the best example of such phenomenon as disintegration. We shall analyze different levels of realization of disintegration content such as literal and symbolic ones, which requires a comprehensive analysis of literary form peculiar to such modernist writers as Kafka and Proust. And, in conclusion, we shall describe how the utilization of disintegration images is tied into the work’s greater meaning and purpose.

Disintegration in Faulkner’s “As I lay dying”

The plot and composition of this literary work provide us with striking examples of disintegration. It is evident that Addie Bundren, who is by no means, not the main character of the novel, can be described as the “transcendental object” (in the Kantian sense) of the disintegration images Faulkner produces. Disintegration is first realized in relation to the dying Addie and then to her corpse that accompanies the unfolding of the story and “arranges” characters’ relations vis-à-vis Addie and each other.

As Robert Merrill notes, what makes the novel look so modernist is a unique combination of tragic and comic that cannot be characterized as tragicomedy but constitutes two at the same time separate and interconnected processes.

This combination counts for the unique sense of desperation and disintegration that Faulkner’s novel (“As I lay dying”) produces on the reader. Addie’s eldest son Cash builds the coffin for his dying mother, which she can see while lying in her bed. Vardaman makes the holes in the coffin, so Addie can breathe.

Darl reassures his brother Jewel that he can feel comfortable for the people who gathered after the death of their mother, which is good evidence that Jewel’s horse hadn’t died. Jewel feeling insulted by the fact that non-relatives would see his mother on the death bed, and that’s why he nurtures the obsessive idea to hide his mother’s body on a high hill and stay with it. Anse Bundren, Addie’s husband, finds a good pretext to fulfill his promise to bury Addie in the city in the possibility of buying new false teeth and finally to find a new wife the day after he buried Addie.

Such examples are in abundance in Faulkner’s novel. The combination of tragic and comic makes clear the absence of something essentially human – love, kindness, tenderness. These feelings are absent even in relation to Addie – mother and wife. Faulkner hyperbolizes this hollowness and stupidity of alienation, which makes it even more pronounced. But the absence of love cannot be described in terms of subjective perspective, dependent on the personal “inhumanity” of the main characters. It is more profound and seems to be a quite objective projection of the total disintegration of intersubjectivity.

This phenomenon can be characterized as a kind of isolation. As Calvin Bedient defines it: “In As I Lay Dying life is conceived as the antagonist, living is “terrible,” the protagonist self is alone: a naked and isolated consciousness in a broad land. This nakedness, this dreadful isolation, is already a kind of defeat, a form of abjectness so that the utmost to be expected from the mind in its continual conflict with the world is simply a capitulation without dishonor… In Faulkner, then, pride binds but at the same time lacerates; there is a distance between people which, except in rare instances, cannot be closed… In both the characters and the form that presents them, it is the isolation that is basic and substantive”.

This all-embracing isolation is fully evident in the character of Darl, who is well aware of it and, at the same time, is the only one who really loves Addie and mourns for her. But even here, Faulkner doesn’t make any concessions – Darl is rejected and despised by his mother. This two-fold metaphor ties, on the one side Addie and her relatives, and on the other, Addie and Darl shows the impossibility to break the vicious circle of isolation, where everything human is marginalized. Whatever the term used to describe this phenomenon (isolation, disintegration, alienation), it deeply affects the consciousness of the main characters in “As I lay dying.”

The levels of disintegration and the greater meaning of the literary work

As I mentioned, modernism deeply transformed the structure of literary work. Modernist writers paid special attention to form, which as they thought was the main component of literary work. Symbolism became dominant current in modernist literature. As T.S. Eliot, one of the most subtle modernists, wrote, the “mythic method” was a great advance in literature in comparison to the «narrative method”. The temporal attitude to history was replaced by concentration on a deeper discursive level, which exists autonomously of time and social space.

The symbolism as a method found different realizations in the works of modernist writers. Such modernist writers as Kafka and Proust represent widespread tendency to overestimate the importance of form, which inevitably leads to the loss of the plot integrity and destruction of the form itself (the latter is evident in the works of postmodernists.

This formalistic approach led Kafka to the dissemination of the “life absurdity thesis” and Proust – to the infinite regress into subjectivity not tied with the rest of the world, encapsulated and closed within its own meanings and prejudices.

This formalistic approach results in the vagueness and diffusiveness of the greater idea of the literary work and makes the unjustified attention to small clusters of reality prevail. These segments of reality are supposed to reveal the monadic structure of the world. The deeper level of reality is not even a problem for such formalistic-style modernism, for it asserts that “the deepest thing is skin” (famous utterance of Paul Valerie).

The disintegration by means of formalism is reproduced just at the other level and is left perpetual. The unrestrained domination of form led this modernist current to the inevitable elitism. As N. F. Cantor notes, “From science to literature and art, Modernism was a culture of the elite”.

Faulkner’s modernism represents another approach to literary form, which is characterized by the protest against the literary form hypostasis. Faulkner’s method, which can be deduced from his immortal formula of “smelting worldly into apocryphal,” goes in line with his personal understanding of the writer’s humanistic and social role. That is why the symbolism in his novel “As I lay dying” is playing a subordinate role. To state it plainly, symbolism in Faulkner’s use ties the literal meaning of disintegration with the greater meaning and aim of the whole literary work. The literal level of disintegration in the novel can be characterized as the dissolution of interpersonal ties and the cognitive dissonance resulting from that. The lack of love for mother, alienation, desperation, and loss of faith can be well-produced in a simple narrative manner for which the 19-th century novelists are well-known. This narrative manner of real contradictions’ expression was abandoned in modernist literature, and Faulkner was not an exclusion from this rule. In fact, the disintegration phenomenon, which became evident at the beginning of the 20-th century in the West, required changes in a literary method. As I noted, its realization was not always appropriate and balanced. But Faulkner managed to find the golden middle between outdated narrative method and formalistic approach.

The symbolism used in “As I lay dying” can be described as an expressive tool to maximize the effect of disintegration.

Among the main symbols/metaphors Faulkner used to this end are Addie’s coffin and corpse, the dead Addie’s monologue, various tragicomic exaggerations of characters which is evident in Darl’s, Cash, Dewy Dell behavior. Combined with literal terrifying images that are abundant in the novel, these symbolic meanings deliver a great sense of disintegration rooted in reality reproduced in the novel.

But unlike the representatives of “radical modernism,” Faulkner manages to save the positive ideological meaning of the formal modernist approach. Faulkner makes form be dependent upon content and builds the dialectical interrelation between them, which allows him to state the author’s position and formulate the greater idea of the novel.

Faulkner, as I noted above, thought that the “registering” of crude factual material and coquetry with form are not enough for the writer. A writer, according to William Faulkner, has to be socially responsible and must try to find the possibility for change even in the disintegration. Faulkner was a great humanist and always believed in a better future for humankind, which literature could help to build. Despite the tragic characteristics of Faulkner’s novel, he reserves the place for positive changes and the idea of overcoming disintegration. The characters such as Cash, Dewy Dell, Jewel, Darl, notwithstanding the symbolic exaggeration of their personal drawbacks, are endowed by Faulkner with some positive, deeply human feelings. They are the victims of life falling apart but are by no means the cause of disintegration. Disintegration is the “second nature” exerting pressure and suffering on them, autonomous and objective process of social being. Faulkner sees love in retreat but never defeated – that is a great meaning of Darl’s love to Addie. The disintegration as it is presented in the main characters is not meant to invoke anger or disdain; it is deeply tragic and moving. Hence Faulkner’s combination of symbolic and literal levels not only serves the function of “estrangement” (in Schklovsky’s sense) of disintegration but leaves room for realization of his greater idea of humanism. That what gives Faulkner such an outstanding place in modern literature and explains the progressive character of his personal and professional position.

References

1. Bedient, Calvin. “Pride and Nakedness: As I Lay Dying,” William Faulkner’s ‘As I Lay Dying’: A Critical Casebook. Ed. Dianne L. Cox. New York: Garland, 1985. 95-110
2. Cantor, Norman F. Modernism to Deconstruction Modernism to Deconstruction. New York: Peter Lang, 1988.
3. Eliot, Thomas S. “Ulysses, Order, and Myth,” The Dial LXXV (1923): 483.
4. Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying: The Corrected Text. New York: Vintage Books, 1987.
5. Merrill, Robert. “Faulknerian Tragedy: The Example of ‘As I Lay Dying.” The Mississippi Quarterly 47.3 (1994): 403-418.

Introduction

Modernism has many definitions, one of them was given by Irving Howe, an American literary critic and politician, in his article “The Culture of Modernism”. The author emphasizes that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a special kind of literature began to appear (Howe). Howe calls one of the distinguishing features of modernist literature its complexity and the depth of the author’s thought, presenting the challenge to the reader (Howe). Howe believes that modernism can manifest itself in a rebellion against an established style, old traditions. “Modernism does not establish a prevalent style of its own; or if it does, it denies itself, thereby ceasing to be modern” (Howe). Modernism is constantly looking for a way out, finding new forms, denying the previous and playing with the mind of the reader. According to Howe’s definition, Kincaid’s “Girl” is a more traditional epitome of modernism in literature than Pound’s “In a Station of the Metro”.

Modernism in “Girl”

Kincaid’s “Girl” is definitely a modernist story, as the author experiments with form and seeks new means of expression. The first sign that allows the readers to call this work modernist is its depth and seriousness, the importance of which Howe emphasizes. This story illustrates the difficulties of growing up and the relationship between children and parents. “Girl” is a synthesis of two genres, poetry and prose, which makes the story an attempt to find a new form of expression. The story is constructed in an unconventional way, which makes it modernist. For example, it contains a sentence of over 600 words, which breaks the canon of previous literature (Kincaid 46). Playing with form, with incredibly deep content, Kincaid creates one of the standard works of contemporary literature.

“In a Station of the Metro”: Elements of Modernism

In this incredibly short poem, Ezra Pound has demonstrated excellent mastery of the imagism technique, which is certainly part of the modernist trend. This is an attempt to penetrate a different culture, since the poem is based on Japanese haiku, and a trial to bring new means to the art. “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough” is a complete picture, seen by the author and delivered in an incredibly compressed form (Pound 1). Pauses are an integral element of this poem, filling in the missing lines. The sound link between the first and the second lines is the assonance of internal vowels at the ends. Sound painting enhances the impression of noise, bustle and instantaneous fixation of the view on the external elements of the subway environment.

More Modernist Artwork

It is difficult to say which of the two works is more or less modernist, since they both share the traditional features of this movement. Despite the fact that imagism is one of the offshoots of modernism, Pound’s play with form and challenge to the reader goes beyond modernism and can be considered inherent in the postmodern movement. “Girl” is more traditional in this regard, as it reveals both a deep subtext and an important modern theme, while playing with the traditional literary form. Such work, in which the author has not yet completely destroyed the established norms, but at the same time goes far beyond the limits, is the standard of modernism.

Conclusion

Both works can be considered modernist, at least in terms of the time of creation. However, Pound’s literary experiment goes beyond this trend and can be seen as a forerunner of postmodernity. “Girl” is a more traditional work in the context of modernist literature, as it continues to maintain some boundaries, seeking novelty. “Girl” is a good example of what Howe described as a search for new means of expression in literature.

Works Cited

Ezra Pound. In a Station of the Metro. Poetry: A magazine of verse, 1913.

Howe, Irving. The Culture of Modernism. Commentary Magazine. 1967. Web.

Kincaid, Jamaica. “Girl.” Backpack Literature, 4th Edition, edited by X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia, Pearson, 2013, pp. 46-48.

Introduction

Thesis Statement

Literature is an ever evolving field of art. Its respective fields are characterized by scholars who advance changes to ensure the evolution is sustained. In this essay, dynamism in poetry emerges as an integral aspect of the evolution premised.¹ The discussions in this paper revolve around E.E. Cummings and his contributions to the evolution of poetry through modernism.

Three of his poems will be used for this purpose. They are “The Cambridge Ladies”, “La”, and “Dim”. The issue of whether Cummings is a minor modernist or a radical is reviewed in the essay. A critical analysis of Cummings’ works reveals that the techniques of modernism found in his poems are illustrations of the constant change in poetry. The ‘word tricks’ employed by this poet indicate a departure from traditional modernism.

Visual Devices

Modernism is one of the elements prevalent in Cummings’ poetry. A number of scholars have examined this writer for his prowess in poetry and in art at large. Cummings was both a painter and a poet. He exhibited tremendous skills in bringing about change and modernity in the two fields of art.¹ In this regard, modernism in his works is best illustrated through the eyes of an ‘artistic activist’. The role of this poet with regards to modernism and the dynamic nature of literature is discussed in detail in various texts.

Cummings was both a painter and a poet. As a result, his poems were inspired by visual effects from his artistic world.² At the beginning of modernism, imagery was seen as a major technique in literature. The technique was a shift from previous imagism of the romantic era. However, critics have questioned how the poems by Cummings bring about imagery given his unique use of language. For example, his works exhibit some sense of satire. The element is drawn from the poet’s ability to blend aural and visual nuances in his works. However, the visual devices used in the poems ‘l(a’ and ‘Dim’ are a bit subtle. Nevertheless, when compared to notable modernists like George Grosz, the visuals used by Cummings appear to be inadequate. Such a perspective acts as an avenue to criticize his form of modernism.

Cummings developed visuals based on his painting analogies. The poet is known for his preference of aesthetics. In a way, he was able to integrate his painting ideas into the poems.¹ however, in most cases, his works fall short of the imagism exhibited by his peers. For instance, Cummings draws most of his visual devices from famous poets. Such figures include Guillaume Apollinaire. His imagism is skewed in favor of painting. As a result, poets find it hard to accept it. Consequently, Cummings’ peers perceive his works as the products of an amateur emerging from his life as a painter.

Cummings the Poet

Cummings was a notable artist of his time. However, his credibility as a modernist emerged from his peers. For instance, there are many scholars who disagree with regards to the poet’s name and his general existence. Controversy surrounds the need to capitalize and punctuate the name.² In addition to this debate around his person, Cummings’ poetry has been the subject of intense criticism from major figures in the field. The extent of his role in modernism has made many critics label the poet as inferior to his contemporaries.

Comparison of modernism in poetry with respect to Cummings is made alongside notable poets, such as Stein and Williams. In this regard, critics suggest that Cummings lacked the ambition that is common among his peers.² At the time, there was a general consensus among poets on the need to reshape poetry as a field in literature. In addition, modernism had already gained traction within the literary circles. However, with time, many poets began to appreciate Cummings’ works. They cited his use of humor and expression of outrage towards exploitation. In addition, the critics made reference to Cummings’ sense of boldness of an artist. The poem “The Cambridge Ladies” was especially acclaimed in respect to this.

The poetry of Cummings may not be used with confidence to outline modernism. However, this does not mean that the techniques associated with modernism as a concept are missing altogether from his poetry.¹ Cummings’ uniqueness is evident given the manner in which visualization becomes an integral part of his poetry. The criticisms leveled against this artist act as an affirmation of the fact that he was a revolutionary in his own rights. If he this was not the case, the critics would not have noted him in the first place.

Modernism and Poetry

Evolution of Modernism and its Impacts on Poems

At this juncture, it is important to appreciate the history of poetry in terms of the various movements discernible in this sector. Modernism is one of these movements. It is one of the stages that characterize poetry.² There is also the prehistoric movement. The period is characterized by over-reliance on oral forms of communication. Another stage is the Castilian Band.² The stage was a common movement in the 16^th century. The 17^th century saw a different kind of poetry. The period was associated with metaphysical,² cavalier, and Danrin poetry. The classical movement was common in the 18^th century.

The 19^th century saw a more robust nature of poetry compared to the previous periods. During this time, such movements as the pastoralism emerged.² Notable features of this movement include the idea of romanticizing a lot of rural issues that were common at the time. The period was largely inspired by the classical era. Romanticism and symbolism were other movements that emerged in the 19^th century. In addition, modernism emerged during this era. It started from around 1890 and persisted all the way to 1970.¹ The notable features of this movement were imagism and the need to re-awaken British poetry. Poets felt that it was their duty to carry poetry into the new millennium.

Imagism was an attempt by poets at the time to rebel. They used it to reject the ideas of romanticism and Victorian era symbolism. The mental pictures painted by the two movements were regarded to be unrealistic in one way or the other.¹ There was a lot of exaggeration, which eroded the elegance associated with poetry. In this modernist approach, the poets came up with distinct imagery and a language that embodied clarity. The elevated languages of previous movements were shunned in favor of imagism, which provided more depth to content. Cummings’ “The Cambridge Ladies” and “La” are a clear indication of this attempt.

Modernism in Cummings’ Poetry

The critique of Cummings’ works and its place in contemporary poetry reveals exceptional representation of modernism. The symbolism is distinct from that of his peers. Cummings is known for a number of revolutionary techniques. Such strategies include punctuations and line break.² The techniques are in line with the poet’s deliberate shift from the language used in previous movements. The literary icon is also known for developing poems that have neither a beginning nor an end. Such a move is achieved through the use of fragmentary lines.

The criticism that Cummings is an inferior modernist stems from the language used in his works. The use of common speech is a phenomenon that is unique to Cummings every time he begins a given piece.¹ The criticisms may be valid in spite of the fact that they tend to agree with the essence of modernism. The phenomenon can be described as the manner through which a specific piece of art is subjected to change in all means possible. To this end, all techniques, contents, and forms inherited from previous movements should be replaced with new ones.²

Cummings often experimented with language in his poetry. Something that may appear as mere play with words led to the emergence of puzzles and tricks. The developments were critical to the imagism characterizing post 18^th century era.¹ The language experimentation resulted in the development of imagery in a unique manner. The poem “The Cambridge Ladies” is an example of the form of imagery associated with this modernist poet. The excerpt below clearly illustrates this concept:

the Cambridge ladies who live in furnished souls
are unbeautiful and have comfortable minds
(also, with the church’s protestant blessings
daughters, unscented shapeless spirited)
they believe in Christ and Longfellow, both dead
are invariably interested in so many things-²

In the excerpt above, Cummings’ paints a clear picture of a conventional Cambridge lady. Their affiliation to Christianity is made apparent. The lady occupied a special place in modern society. As such, the reference to such characters (which is made through imagery) is an indication of the modernist element of Cummings poetry. The imagery and modernism is further illustrated in the lines below:

at the present writing one still finds
delighted fingers knitting for the is it Poles?
perhaps. While permanent faces coyly handy
scandal of Mrs. N and Professor D
… the Cambridge ladies do not care, above
Cambridge if sometimes in its box of
sky lavender and cornerless,
the moon rattles like a fragment of angry candy²

Cummings achieves imagery by making reference to ‘furnished souls’ and ‘comfortable minds’. Such techniques are well within the boundaries of imagery as advanced by other modernists. However, Cummings goes on to abstract imagery by using words like ‘unbeautiful’ and ‘permanent faces’. Such abstractions notwithstanding, the impression of the Cambridge ladies created on the mind of the reader. The poem suggests that the Cambridge fraternity is dull. In terms of syntax, the language is straight forward. The complex English of the Victorian era is nowhere in the poem. Cummings is able to achieve imagery without this antiquated language.

Modernist Techniques Applied by Cummings

As already mentioned in this paper, modernism is mainly concerned with the execution of imagism of the 19^th century. In this regard, syntax and general imagery become essential techniques.¹ For instance, the language used towards the end of a poem is meant to bring about closure to the message. However, the one used in “The Cambridge Ladies” creates new scenery. The language takes the reader to the ‘sky’ and away from the misery at Cambridge. Cummings achieves this without the use of the complex language of the time.

In “La”, Cummings displays his prowess as a word-smith. The language of a poem is meant to create an illusion of the central message.² In the poem ‘La’, a visual trick is created between the word ‘loneliness’ and the phrase ‘the leaf falls’. The idea is to illustrate the movement of a leaf as it falls. The word trickery is as follows:

l(a
le
af
fa
ll
s)
one
l
iness²

In the poem, the lower case ‘l’ is identical to the numeral ‘1’. Such an impression is meant to illustrate the singularity of the leaf. The singular illusion is reinforced by the use of the article ‘a’, which is infinitive. The poem is intended to create a picture of loneliness. To this end, alienation is meant to be a key theme. Cummings realizes this goal by isolating the lower case ‘l’.

The length of a poem is one of the many techniques employed in modernist poetry. Conservatives feel that poems need to be lengthened. Cummings observes this requirement by using trickery to realize brevity.² In the poem ‘Dim’, less space is used given that punctuation is involved. The abstraction developed by the language is effective, which is illustrated below:

dim
i
nu
tiv
e this park is e
mpty (everyb
ody’s elsewhere
e except me 6 e

nglish sparrow
s) a
utumn & t
he rai

n
th
e
raintherain²

The poem breaks down the word ‘diminutive’ to illustrate its actual meaning. Imagery is meant to create a mental picture in the reader.² To this end, Cummings creates a visual illustration of what the word means by breaking it down. Like in “La”, Cummings is seen as using one letter to bring about ‘double meaning’. In this poem, ‘dim- i’ allows the reader to understand the mood portrayed in the narrative. At the same time, the lower case ‘I’ acts as a key element of the word being broken down (diminutive).

The letters are all elements of the word ‘diminutive’. However, Cummings places them at specific sections to create a feeling of the happenings in the poem.² For instance, the letter ‘E’ is used to explain the loneliness that was in the park. The same is realized by truncating the ‘e’ meant to be in the word ‘emptiness’. Such a technique can be described as abstract. However, the ‘lonesome’ feel of the park is implied through the use of parentheses. The words placed in the parentheses paint an image of emptiness. In addition, the word ‘everybody’ is broken down into several pieces. The same helps to illustrate that at one point, the park was occupied by people. However, these occupants had left. The poem ‘Dim’ is meant to outline the emptiness of this place. In this regard, the poet gives a ‘census’ of the people in the park. Such a technique is humorous in the sense that only 6 sparrows provide companionship to the narrator lamenting of emptiness.

Another technique used in this poem is juxtaposition.¹ The poem talks of the small size of the park and refers to the amount of rain in autumn. Juxtaposition in this case results from the haiku created in the natural image as seen from the speaker’s perspective. It is also seen in how the speaker introduces the autumn season. At first, the phrase ‘the rain’ is staggered. However, it culminates into a crammed up line with the same word.

Based on the three poems analyzed above, it is clear that Cummings makes use of the various techniques associated with modernism. His modernism has a lot of abstraction. The observation explains why critics view him as a minor modernist.² However, it is clear that the imagism sought after in modernism is clearly defined in the poems by Cummings regardless of the abstractions.

Avant-Garde in Cummings’ Poetry

An overview of history in relation to poetry reveals an interesting aspect of the changes that have taken place. Avant-garde is the means through which new methods are introduced to various forms of literature.¹ The different movements outlined in this essay affirm the prevailing changes in the methods used in poetry. The rise of a new movement comes with a different set of techniques to be applied. The modernist movement points out to a departure from earlier methods of poetry to more advanced techniques. Avant-garde is present in all movements of poetry. It suggests that change in literature is permanent. In “The Cambridge Ladies”, “La”, and “Dim”, Cummings clearly illustrates this concept. The poems are illustrations of modern poetry, which is a culmination of various movements.

Conclusion

Modernism illustrates the constant change evident in poetry and literature at large. The different movements have their unique techniques and styles. A shift from one movement to another is associated with a change in writing strategies. Literature will continue to progress into the future as illustrated by the modernist approach. Modernism is a clear departure from the traditional techniques of poetry in terms of language, imagism, and length. A critique of Cummings’ modernism points out that he is also departing from traditional modernism. Additional research is required in this field to highlight these issues more clearly. However, it is already apparent that poetry will continue to witness changes in techniques.

References

Kennedy, R. E.E. Cummings Revisited. New York: Macmillan, 1994.

Ren, Y. A Pragma-Cognitive Approach to E.E. Cummings’ Visual Poem l (a. Tianjin Foreign Studies University Journal. 2008. 5.

The texts I read can be classified as modernist due to their focus on the individual’s experiences and struggles with the world around them. Yeats’ poems strongly focus on the individual’s inner thoughts and emotions and their attempts to make sense of the world. The Stranger by Camus also focuses on the individual’s experiences, exploring the protagonist’s experiences of alienation and existential angst. Both texts also explore the idea of a looming, chaotic future and the individual’s attempts to make sense of it.

The texts we read reflect the tumultuous times of the twentieth century in many ways. The Stranger by Camus, for example, was written while Camus was in the French Resistance and fighting against the Nazis and could be seen as a response to Camus’ experience in the war. The novel’s protagonist is an outsider who struggles to make sense of a world filled with chaos and violence, which reflects the times. Yeats’ poems also reflect the times, exploring the idea of a chaotic and uncertain future and the individual’s attempts to make sense of it. The poems also explore themes such as death, violence, and despair, reflecting the twentieth century’s turbulent times.

The Modernist period can offer us lessons that are relevant to our present. For instance, the Second Coming by W. B. Yeats speaks to the uncertainty and chaos of the modern world and how it is often difficult to make sense of it. Leda and the Swan is a poem about how the unexpected can be a powerful force in our lives. The Stranger by Albert Camus speaks to alienation and the importance of understanding one’s own identity. Among Schoolchildren highlights the importance of education and learning in the modern world. All of these texts offer insights into the complexities and challenges that we face in our current era and can help us think critically about our lives and the world around us.

Yeats and Camus offer some solace in their writings. Yeats’s works explore themes of mortality and death, and his poem “The Second Coming” speaks to the chaos of the world and the need to find a way to make sense of it. “Leda and the Swan” is a poem about the power of love to bring beauty and peace to a chaotic world. In “Among Schoolchildren,” Yeats reflects on the inevitability of aging and the importance of finding joy in the present moment. Camus’s The Stranger is a novel about an individual’s journey of self-discovery and his struggle to make sense of the absurd world around him. The novel speaks to the struggles of life and the need to accept and embrace the uncertainty of life. The novel also encourages readers to consider their own lives and the meaning of their actions.

The poem “Leda and the Swan” by W.B. Yeats affected me personally. The poem explores the idea of accepting the chaotic nature of the world and the importance of standing up for oneself. I found this poem particularly relevant to my life, as I have often struggled to make sense of the world and have often felt overwhelmed by the chaos and violence of it. The poem serves as a reminder that it is essential to accept the world’s turmoil and stand up for oneself and one’s beliefs despite the darkness and despair that may seem to surround us.

In this reflection journal, I explored my experience encountering the Modern era and its literature. I identified the elements of modernism in the texts I read and discussed how they reflect the tumultuous times of the twentieth century. I also examined how these texts can offer us insight and solace in our present, and I discussed how one of the texts affected me personally. Through this reflection, I gained a deeper understanding of the Modern era and its literature and how it can be relevant to my life.

Comparison and Contrast of Hills Like White Elephant and In a Station of the Metro

“Hills like white elephant,” Ernest Hemingway wrote in 1927 when modernism was at the top of its popularity. In “Hills like white elephant,” the author applies four features of modernism; the first trait that places the poem in modernism is not the use of romanticism. (Hemingway, 1956) The artist is not trying to demonstrate the ideal relationship of the couple but the relationship that is real in ordinary life. The first feature that excels in this short story is the detachment from romanticism.

At the same time, the regular communication inherent in social realism is especially noticeable in the short story. For example, the author describes a conversation on the relevant topic of abortion and demonstrates the reactions of each of the characters. Ernest Hemingway notes that the young man says, “It’s an awfully simple operation, Jig,” and the girl replies, “I know you wouldn’t mind it” (Hemingway, 1956, p. 2). Another trait of modernism in short stories is the fragmentation of time. He uses the train to monitor time and allow the story to develop, combined with another feature of modernism: the exchange of opinions and interruptions. Thus, the author wrote “Hills like white elephant” completely in the spirit of modernism.

“In a Station of the Metro” is one of the most prominent examples of modernism. As with the previous short story, the poem also deals with people’s relationships, which are described through language that is accessible and understandable to readers. It focuses primarily on the relationships of clear images through precise, accessible language. Therefore, the structure of the verse permits readers to accurately represent what the author wrote, “faces in the crowd,” and what the speaker says as a response, “petals on a wet, black bough” (Pound, 1913, p. 12). Accordingly, even considering that a poem has only 20 words, the author was capable of describing a crowded subway station with modernism.

It is also important to note that “Certain Lady” by Dorothy Parker is also written in the style of modernism. Just as in her previous works, the author used simple language to describe her feelings; she also uses sublime vocabulary when talking to a loved one. For example, the author writes, “oh, I can laugh and listen when we meet,” a normal state of being in love, described with modernism (Parker, 2002, p. 81). This element unites all three works, although the most expressive example of modernism is “Hills like white elephant”.

The Themes of the Stories in Today’s World

The theme “Hills Like White Elephants” is highly relevant these days. This is because unwanted pregnancies and women’s difficulties are still present in modern times (Hemingway, 1956). Nowadays, there are even movements about the prohibition of abortion, which limits women’s rights. “In a Station of the Metro” shows a real relationship to the stuff. The author emphasized the details that form the perception of a person (Pound, 1913). Unfortunately, there is a problem these days with people not noticing the critical details that include the overall view. In “A Certain Lady,” Parker describes a woman’s undivided love and emotions. This theme remains relevant even today, and women try to express their feelings and gain the love of men (Parker, 2002). Hence, the authors wrote about feelings and life circumstances that remain relevant even as time progresses.

References

Hemingway, E. (1956). Hills like white elephants. The Story and Its Writer, 6.

Parker, D. (2002). Complete stories. Penguin.

Pound, E. (1913). In a station of the metro. Poetry, 2(1), 12.

As it is known, modernism preceded postmodernism, so these movements are close and similar in many respects. It can often be challenging to find differences between particular modernistic and post-modernistic literary works. However, some specific elements are inherent for each movement, which allows identifying whether the work relates to one style or another. The short story Girl written by Jamaica Kincaid is a matter of the corresponding discussion. Some people see it as a modernistic work, while others think the opposite. This paper aims to analyze that short story to determine its style. Modernism appears to prevail in Girl because it is a serious work that experiments with form and seeks new literature.

The first sign of modernism in Girl is its seriousness. The work illustrates the difficulties of growing up as a girl in the Antiguan culture (Rabea and Almahameed 158). The author portrays tensions between the conforming mother and her daughter trying to resist her (Rabea and Almahameed 158). That makes the work highly dynamic, and people are likely to reflect much when reading the story. In addition, the author uses many cacophonic sounds in the mother’s speech to illustrate her harshness (Rabea and Almahameed 164). That cacophonic effect makes the text serious and makes the reader feel discomfort (Rabea and Almahameed 164). A general image of Girl and the seriousness of its separate elements make the work closer to modernistic style.

Another element that makes Girl a modernistic work is its attempt to find something new. For instance, Rabea and Almahameed argue that the work is a transgression of generic labels’ boundaries between prose poems and short stories (165). Therefore, Girl can be considered a work of multiple genres or even create a new one. Moreover, the rhyme style throughout the text is not clear and orderly (Rabea and Almahameed 163). That creates a sense of chaos controlling the text and, subsequently, the story at large (Rabea and Almahameed 163). As it is known, chaos is unpredictable, meaning that new entities may be born within it. Everything mentioned above proves that Girl attempts to make a literary expression in an independent, original way, making it closer to modernism.

The final element of modernism in Girl is its experiment with form and structure. According to Rabea and Almahameed, the story is an unconventional piece of writing which lacks the traditional structure (157). In other words, the structure of Girl is considered uncommon in contemporary literature, making the work experimental. Furthermore, the form is highly unusual as the conversation in the story contains a single, long-running, 650-word sentence (Rabea and Almahameed 158). The sentence contains various pieces of advice along with instructions and orders to the daughter (Rabea and Almahameed 158). Such sentence length is untraditional for literature, including prose and poetry. These specificities of Girl demonstrate the experimental form of the work, which is an essential element of modernism.

Overall, modern style prevails in Jamaica Kincaid’s Girl because it is a serious work with experimental form that seeks new literary paths. Specific features of the story allow identifying it as primarily modernistic. The first sign of modernism in the work is the seriousness of the story and its internal elements. Moreover, Kincaid tries to make an original, independent work by mixing genres and creating chaos within the text. Finally, the form of Girl is experimental as the mother’s speech is presented as a single sentence of hundreds of words. All these elements reveal the modernistic nature of the work. Therefore, Girl appears to be related to modernism rather than postmodernism.

Work Cited

Rabea, Reem Ahmad, and Nusaiba Adel Almahameed. “Genre Crossing in Jamaica Kincaid’s ‘Girl’: From Short Fiction to Poetry.” Advances in Language and Literary Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, 2018, pp. 157-165.

The hallmarks of modernism in their work include a fragmented narrative structure, an emphasis on subjective experience and psychological insight, and a rejection of traditional forms of storytelling. Proust, for example, is known for his use of stream of consciousness in his novel “In Search of Lost Time,” which provides a deep dive into the protagonist’s thoughts and memories. Kafka’s works, such as “The Metamorphosis” and “The Trial,” are characterized by their surreal and often unsettling depictions of bureaucracy and authority. Joyce’s “Ulysses” and “Finnegans Wake” experiment with language and narrative structure, creating a new form of storytelling that reflects the complexities of the modern world (Anderson 23). Cummings’ poems are known for their playful and unconventional use of language, as well as their rejection of traditional forms and meters.

The writers Proust, Kafka, Joyce, and Cummings pushed forward the modernist movement through their innovative styles and techniques, which challenged conventional forms and conventions of literature. They experimented with narrative structure, language, and form, creating new forms of artistic expression that reflected the complexities of the modern world (Anderson 13). Proust, for example, is credited with developing the stream of consciousness narrative style, which allowed for a more immersive and intimate exploration of the protagonist’s thoughts and feelings. This technique, which was adopted by many other modernist writers, provided a new way of understanding the human psyche and capturing the subjective experiences of the individual.

The culture of Europe, including the social and political upheavals of the time, greatly influenced these writers. The First World War, for example, had a profound impact on many modernist writers, including Joyce and Cummings, who served in the war (Anderson 24). The war and its aftermath challenged traditional beliefs and values, and inspired a new generation of artists to question established norms and conventions. The rise of psychology and psychoanalysis, represented by Freud’s theories, also played a significant role in shaping modernist literature, as writers sought to delve deeper into the human psyche and explore the complexities of human experience.

I enjoyed reading the works of these writers because they offer a unique and innovative approach to storytelling and language. Their innovative styles and techniques challenge traditional forms and conventions of literature, providing new perspectives and insights into the human experience (Anderson 25). Proust’s use of stream of consciousness, for example, provides a deep dive into the protagonist’s thoughts and feelings, offering a more immersive and intimate understanding of the character. Kafka’s surreal and often unsettling depictions of bureaucracy and authority offer a unique perspective on the complexities of modern society, while Joyce’s experiments with language, form, and symbolism offer a new understanding of the fragmented and chaotic nature of the modern world.

Work Cited

Anderson, P. (2022). Different Speeds, Same Furies: Powell, Proust and other Literary Forms. Verso Books.

Introduction

Modernism is usually introduced as one of the most provocative and captivating periods in the literature. Its peculiar feature is the intention to deviate from traditions in order to save people from a coming civilization decline and discover new meanings of life. Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are usually called to be the founders of the modernism movement due to the impact on future modernists and readiness to tell the truth regardless of how dangerous or unpleasant it could be.

Their personal experiences, the chosen lifestyles, and propaganda of a free word make these two authors remarkable figures in the literature, as well as in the history. In this paper, special attention will be paid to Walt Whitman as one of major and the most effective anticipators of the modernism movement because of the chosen fearlessness, intents to promote equalities in everything, and abilities to break all the rules, contradict to themselves, and, at the same time, prove the correctness of their decisions.

Modernism in the Literature

Modernism is a well-known period in the history of the literature that was characterized by re-thinking about the role of religion and politics in social views and the necessity to understand the worth of truth through the prism of relativism and individualism.

The first waves of modernism were observed at the beginning of the 1900s and lasted till the middle of the 1940s. Modernists were united by their dissatisfaction with the current events and the necessity to participate in the war that destroyed so many innocent lives without any evident reasons. People felt like they were betrayed by the war and left without a possibility to change something. Industrialization and globalization continued increasing and influencing human lives, but the outcomes of the war made many questions and concerns to be opened and unsolved.

Fearlessness and Equality

If someone wants to find out a rhyme or connection between the ideas in Whitman’s “Soul of Myself”, it is necessary to be prepared for disappointment and failure. The goal chosen by the author is not to present a nice and simple story but to describe life as it is, without masks and entourage. Whitman states “the atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless” (“Soul of Myself”), meaning that people are free to define their own tastes and rely on their own preferences. It is high time to live and make independent decisions without fears and being “undisguised and naked” (Whitman, “Soul of Myself”). He does not want to hide behind something that is unnatural and is ready to instruct the reader on how to behave, react, and continue developing.

Some kind of premise to modernism and its impact on society is observed in many of Whitman’s works. For example, he believes in the “future use with its shows, architecture, customs, traditions” (Whitman, “Once I Passed Through a Populous City”). Innovation turns out to be an essential part of life, and people must respect everything offered to them. At the same time, Whitman leaves the right to make a final decision to people who should rely on their interests and priorities. In his turn, he decides to “remember only a woman I casually met” (Whitman, “Once I Passed Through a Populous City”).

He makes a choice and prefers to stay with one person he believes he is in love with instead of staying “in the rush of the streets” (Whitman, “Song of Myself”). There is no place for fear or other abstract things that distract people’s attention. Whitman is definite in his intentions and does not want to trust books or teachers who explain how to live and whom to love. He breathes in the air and defines its taste, using his personal experience and knowledge.

No Rules and No Mistakes

Although Whitman was not a modernist poet, his works contain some rebellion spirit and the desire to break all the rules that determine everyday life. He calls the reader to refuse the past and open a new page: “Stop this day and night with me and you shall possess the origin of all poems/ You shall possess the good of the earth and sun” (Whitman, “Song of Myself”). It is a provocation for modern writers to demonstrate their powers and readiness to break the rules. It is high time to forget about the past that did not give an opportunity to discover a true potential.

Still, Whitman does not want to define himself as a perfect teacher for the reader. His experience and knowledge are enough and sufficient for him only, and people must rely on their own explanations and interpretations that can be either right or wrong. “You shall not look through my eyes either, no take things from me/ You shall listen to all sides and filter them from your self” (Whitman, “Song of Myself”). There is no place for old rules, thus there is no place for mistakes or concerns. A person is free to live this life in accordance to their own principles and interests, and Whitman offers such a chance as the best anticipator of modernism.

Walt Whitman and His Overall Impact on Modernism

At the beginning of the 20th century, it was necessary for people to find out the truth about the world and the events that happened around, and the works of Walt Whitman turned out to be the helpful sources of inspiration and motivation for many authors and ordinary people. Although the works of Whitman were created in the middle of the 19th century when no modernist features were observed, his impact on modernism cannot be ignored.

As well as Emily Dickinson, Whitman demonstrated strong qualities as a poet and introduced interesting stories or even instructions on how to resist the cruelty of this world, how to use the word, and how to express personal feelings. Sometimes, people believe that there are weak or unconfident to take a step and discover what they can do at this moment. Whitman’s poems are based on contradictions that are evident in human life and the instructions on how to deal with everything in the best possible way.

Conclusion

In general, the role of Walt Whitman as one of the main anticipators of the modernist movement in the literature cannot be ignored or misunderstood. He showed how it is possible to resist the already established rules and prove the correctness of the choices made and how to contribute to the future and respect the experience of the past. At the same time, people should never forget about their personal demands and possibilities, and the poems of Whitman help to find out the necessary amount of inspiration and motivation to change something and be proud of the obtained meaning.

Works Cited

Whitman, Walk. “Once I Pass’d Through a Populous City.” The Walt Whitman Archive. Web.

Whitman, Walt. “Song of Myself.” Poetry Foundations. Web.

Life and death dictate everyone’s lives: life because it leads to death and death because it is inevitable. To understand the modern treatment of death an analysis of modernist poetry is important. Wallace Stevens and T.S. Elliot were both modernist poets and hope to bring a change in society. “Sunday Morning” and “The Hollow Men” give insight into the notions of modernity concerning death.

The title “Sunday Morning” implies the Christian holiday of Easter, “the holy hush of ancient sacrifice.” The main character of the poem contemplates the idea of death and religion. She is skipping out on going to Church and is enjoying and relaxing over breakfast when the thought of an “old catastrophe” encroaches upon her. She thinks about Christianity, the concept of divinity, and the ultimate perishing of all things human and nonhuman.

She looks at her breakfast and the bird in front of her on a pathway towards entropy “winding across wide water, without sound.” She parallels this observation with her own life like “wide water, without sound, Stilled for the passing of her dreaming feet Over the seas, to silent Palestine, Dominion of the blood and sepulcher.” She is thinking about the concept of Eternal life in Christianity and that maybe she should go to Church because it is a supposed portal to escape being perished.

Her thoughts go over to Palestine which is the grave site of Jesus and that it is “not the porch of spirits lingering.” She debates with herself the concept of divinity and whether it exists. Through the description of nature Stevens shows that nature has parts of heaven in it because it is cherished like certain aspects of heaven. She contemplates that if we view things differently we can view them as bridges and not barriers such as the sky which should be a bridge to divinity.

The modern view of death depends on a person. According to her, the Christian belief is that the world is a place that keeps people from reaching divinity but she argues that the world should serve as a place that leads to divinity in heaven.

She talks about birds and how they scan their territory and examine the area is like a human being looking into religion and finding reasons to believe in all the concepts or to go against them. She wonders what happens when someone decides or reaches the conclusion that there is no God. This would lead to the destruction of the idea of heaven and hell that define the lives of people so strictly. She says that although this could be a conclusion she still craves “an imperishable bliss”.

The answer to all her questions is death. Everything perishes except death. People die, food rots, water evaporates and the seasons change. Death comes to everything except itself. The second answer is bliss because once a person fulfills and wish or a desire he puts an end to the initial desire. Fulfilling an idea kills desire henceforth fulfillment is a death too.

She understands that to move on to the next life such as the one in paradise a person has to die first. She says that “death is the mother of beauty” and that a change of the seasons, a change of the living to the dead, a change of the climate, a change of opinions represents the death of the precedent idea or circumstance. Without this death, there can be no advancement or evolution of the human mind and the spirit. With change comes beauty because if Spring was always Spring and there was no Fall no one would ever appreciate its beauty. One thing has to end for the other to exist and to be appreciated. The change represents death and death gives us beauty.

The entire poem reflects on the modernist view of death and the idea that is not inescapable but that does not mean it is a bad thing. Death is inevitable and the human mind has a thirst for some sort of imperishable bliss no matter what conclusions they form. Just because death is inevitable does not mean we should not enjoy life. Life is different from death because in the former we have a choice. We can go down any path we chose like the woman chooses not to go to Church. We can also choose to go down other paths but death should not dictate our lives, instead, it should help us live better because it is beautiful in the best form.

T.S. Elliot was a modernist poet and he tried to sway his readers and help them reexamine their philosophy of life. “The Hollow Men” is written in the first person so that the reader is drawn into the hypocrisies in the world and can understand it closely. Death and spirituality are the main focus of this poem and how people view it. His poem lists all the things that people do wrong such as being hypocritical and not caring for others. Steven’s poem talks about a woman who willingly does not go to Church after contemplating the many aspects of her Christian religion.

She knows that she has to die one day and that she would be a part of an “imperishable bliss” but she wishes to get there on her terms. Elliot talks about “the hollow men” as people who have no souls. The people that he talks about are the ones who do go to Church every Sunday but never truly obey the teachings of Christ.

He talks about the dead and uses their eyes to convey the different symbols of life. “Direct eyes” means that people have to battle death face to face such as on a battlefield and have been unable to prevent it. “Eyes I dare not meet in dreams” represent fear. “The Hollow Men” are the ones without a soul, the ones without feeling, and the ones who commit crimes without thinking twice. People don’t feel guilty once they do something wrong and a person who has no fear is the one that should be feared the most because he is capable of doing anything. The narrator speaks of these immoral people and that he does not even want to meet them in his dreams.

When the poet leaves out the presence of eyes it represents the people who do not care. In other words, everyone has eyes except some people are blind to the things that do not benefit them. He talks about people not learning from history and repeating the same mistakes even though they know the chaos their actions cause to humanity. He uses eyes as a metaphor for the soul a human being posses since they are the windows to it.

Like the notion in Steven’s poem death is inevitable and the immoral and soul-less people will die too. Towards the end of the poem, the scarecrow in the field represents Jesus on the cross and suffering for mankind. “The hollow men” recite prayers because it is a part of religion but they are unable to do that because they have drifted so far away from religion. They try to recite but they don’t know the proper words and most have them have forgotten the prayers.

The whole poem represents all the people in the world and especially in that era who were a part of all the wars and crimes that were ongoing. He wanted to influence people and make them rethink the way they spent living and not be hollow on this inside because eventually everyone would have to die and people would be questioned about it at the Day of Judgment.

Both Stevens and Elliot hoped to present their ideas and opinions in hopes of helping people find the light and becoming good humanitarians. Both the poems revolve around the concept of death and present many ideas. Stevens’s poem presents death as a beautiful thing that is made beautiful because of its inevitability. Elliot’s poem also recognizes that human death is inevitable that people should right their wrongs before approaching that limit.