Category: Modern Society

Abstract

Nuclear batteries harvest energy from radioactive specks and supply power to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The potential of nuclear batteries for longer shelf-life and higher energy density, when compared with other modes of energy storage, makes them an attractive alternative to investigate. The performance of the nuclear battery is a function of the radioisotope(s), radiation transport properties, and energy conversion transducers. The energy conversion mechanisms vary significantly between different nuclear battery types, where the radioisotope thermoelectric generator, or RTG, is typically considered a performance standard for all nuclear battery types. The energy conversion efficiency of a non-thermal-type nuclear battery requires that the two governing scale lengths of the system, the range of ionizing radiation and the size of the transducer, be will well-matched. Natural mismatches between these two properties have been the limiting factor in the energy conversion efficiency of small-scale nuclear batteries. Power density is also a critical performance factor and is determined by the interface of the radioisotope to the transducer. Solid radioisotopes are typically coated on the transducer, forcing the cell power density to scale with the surface area (limiting power density). Methods that embed isotopes within the transducer allow the power density to scale with cell volume (maximizing power density). Other issues that are examined include the limitations of shelf-life due to radiation damages in the transducers and the supply of radioisotopes to sustain a commercial enterprise.

Introduction

A burgeoning need exists today for small, compact, reliable, lightweight, and self-contained rugged power supplies to provide electrical power in such applications as electric automobiles, homes, industrial, agricultural, recreational, remote monitoring systems, spacecraft, and deep-sea probes. Radar, advanced communication satellites, and especially high-technology weapon platforms will require much larger power sources than today’s power systems can deliver. For very high-power applications, nuclear reactors appear to be the answer. However, for the intermediate power range, 10 to 100 kilowatts (kW), the nuclear reactor presents formidable technical problems.

Because of the short and unpredictable lifespan of chemical batteries, however, regular replacements would be required to keep these devices humming. Also, enough chemical fuel to provide 100 kW for any significant period of time would be too heavy and bulky for practical use. Fuel cells and solar cells require little maintenance, and the latter need plenty of suns.

Thus the demand to exploit radioactive energy has become inevitably high. Several methods have been developed for the conversion of radioactive energy released during the decay of natural radioactive elements into electrical energy. A grapefruit-sized radioisotope thermo-electric generator that utilized heat produced from alpha particles emitted as plutonium-238 decay was developed during the early 1950s.

Since then nuclear has taken significant consideration in the energy source of the future. Also, with the advancement of technology, the requirement for lasting energy sources has increased to a great extent. The solution to the long-term energy source is, of course, nuclear batteries with a life span measured in decades and the potential to be nearly 200 times more efficient than the currently used ordinary batteries. These incredibly long-lasting batteries are still in the theoretical and developmental stage of existence, but they promise to provide clean, safe, almost endless energy.

Unlike conventional nuclear power generating devices, these power cells do not rely on a nuclear reaction or chemical process and do not produce radioactive waste products. Nuclear battery technology is geared to applications where power is needed in inaccessible places or under extreme conditions.

What are nuclear power batteries?

The terms atomic battery, nuclear battery, tritium battery, and radioisotope generator are used to describe a device that uses energy from the decay of a radioactive isotope to generate electricity. Like nuclear reactors, they generate electricity from atomic energy but differ in that they do not use a chain reaction. Compared to other batteries they are very costly, but have an extremely long life and high energy density, so they are mainly used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long periods of time, such as spacecraft, pacemakers, underwater systems, and automated scientific stations in remote parts of the world.

Nuclear battery technology began in 1913 when Henry Moseley first demonstrated the beta cell. The field received considerable in-depth research attention for applications requiring long-life power sources for space needs during the 50s and 60s. In 1954 RCA researched a small atomic battery for small radio receivers and hearing aids. After RCA development, over the years many types and methods have been developed. The scientific principles are well known, but modern nano-scale technology and new wide-bandgap semiconductors have created new devices and interesting material properties not previously available.

Batteries using the energy of radioisotope decay to provide long-lived power (10-20 years) are being developed internationally. Conversion techniques can be grouped into two types: thermal and non-thermal. The thermal converters (whose output power is a function of a temperature differential) include thermoelectric and thermionic generators. The non-thermal converters (whose output power is not a function of a temperature difference) extract a fraction of the incident energy as it is being degraded into heat rather than using thermal energy to run electrons in a cycle. Atomic batteries usually have an efficiency of 0.1-5%. High-efficiency betavoltaics has 6-8%.

Types of Nuclear Batteries

Nuclear Batteries are mainly classified into two main categories:-

Thermal converters

Thermal converters are devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy i.e. whose output power is a function of a temperature deferential. Thermal converters are also classified into four types.

Thermionic Converter

• Radioisotope Thermoelectric generator
• Thermo Photovoltaic Cells
• Alkali Metal Thermal to Electric Converter

Non – Thermal converters

Non – Thermal converters extract a fraction of the nuclear energy as it is being degraded into heat. Their outputs are not functions of temperature differences as the thermoelectric and thermionic converters. Non – Thermal generators can be grouped into five classes.

• Direct Charging Generators
• Betavoltaics
• Alphavoltaics
• Optoelectric
• Reciprocating Electromechanically Atomic Batteries

Fuel considerations

The major criterions considered in the selection of fuels are:

• Avoidance of gamma in the decay chain
• Half-life
• Particle range
• Watch out for (alpha, n) reactions any radioisotope in the form of a solid that gives off alpha or beta particles can be utilized in the nuclear battery. The first cell constructed (that melted the wire components) employed the most powerful source known, radium-226, as the energy source. However, radium-226 gives rise through decay to the daughter product bismuth-214, which gives off strong gamma radiation that requires shielding for safety. This adds a weight penalty in mobile applications.

Radium-226 is a naturally occurring isotope that is formed very slowly by the decay of uranium-238. Radium-226 in equilibrium is present at about 1 gram per 3 million grams of uranium in the earth’s crust. Uranium mill wastes are readily available sources of radium-226 in very abundant quantities. Uranium mill wastes contain far more energy in the radium-226 than is represented by the fission energy derived from the produced uranium.

Strontium-90 gives off no gamma radiation so it does not necessitate the use of thick lead shielding for safety. strontium-90 does not exist in nature, but it is one of the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission. The utilizable energy from strontium-90 substantially exceeds the energy derived from nuclear fission which gave rise to this isotope.

Once the present stores of nuclear wastes have been mined, the future supplies of strontium-90 will depend on the amount of nuclear electricity generated hence strontium-90 decay may ultimately become a premium fuel for such special uses as for perpetually powered wheelchairs and portable computers. Plutonium-238 dioxide is used for space applications.

Advantages

The most important feat of nuclear cells is the life span they offer, a minimum of 10 years! This is whopping when considering that it provides nonstop electric energy for the seconds spanning these 101ong years, which may simply mean that we keep our laptop or any handheld devices switched on for 10 years nonstop. Contrary to fears associated with conventional batteries nuclear cells offer reliable electricity, without any drop in the yield or potential during its entire operational period. Thus the longevity and reliability coupled together would suffice the small factored energy needs for at least a couple of decades.

The largest concern about nuclear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive materials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final disposal, all radiation protection standards must be met. Balancing the safety measures such as shielding and regulation while still keeping the size and power advantages will determine the economic feasibility of nuclear batteries. Safeties with respect to the containers are also adequately taken care of as the battery cases are hermetically sealed. Thus the risk of safety hazards involving radioactive material stands reduced.

As the energy associated with fissile material is several times higher than conventional sources, the cells are comparatively much lighter and thus facilitate high energy densities to be achieved. Similarly, the efficiency of such cells is much higher simply because of radioactive materials in little waste generation. Thus substituting the future energy needs with nuclear cells and replacing the already existing ones with these, the world can be seen transformed by reducing the greenhouse effects and associated risks. This should come as a handy savior for almost all developed and developing nations. Moreover the nuclear produced therein are substances that don’t occur naturally. For example, strontium does not exist in nature but it is one of the several radioactive waste products resulting from nuclear fission.

Drawbacks

First and foremost, as is the case with most breathtaking technologies, the high initial cost of production involved is a drawback but as the product goes operational and gets into bulk production, the price is sure to drop. The size of nuclear batteries for certain specific applications may cause problems, but can be done away with as time goes by. For example, the size of the Xcell used for laptop batteries is much more than the conventional battery used in laptops.

Though radioactive materials sport high efficiency, the conversion methodologies used presently are not much of any wonder and at best match conventional energy sources. However, laboratory results have yielded much higher efficiencies, but are yet to be released into the alpha stage.

A minor blow may come in the way of existing regional and country-specific laws regarding the use and disposal of radioactive materials. As these are not unique worldwide and are subject to political horrors and ideology prevalent in the country. The introduction legally requires these to be scrapped or amended. It can be however hoped that, given the revolutionary importance of this substance, things would come in favor gradually.

Above all, to gain social acceptance, new technology must be beneficial and demonstrate enough trouble-free operation that people begin to see it as a ‘normal’ phenomenon. Nuclear energy began to lose this status following a series of major accidents in its formative years. Acceptance accorded to nuclear power should be trust-based rather than technology-based. In other words, acceptance might be related to public trust in the organizations and individuals utilizing the technology as opposed to based on the understanding of the available evidence regarding the technology.

Applications

• Space Applications
• Medical Applications
• Mobile devices
• Automobiles
• Military Applications
• Underwater sea probes and Sea Sensors

Conclusion

The world of tomorrow that science fiction dreams of and technology manifests might be a very small one. It would reason that small devices would need small batteries to power them. The use of power as heat and electricity from radioisotopes will continue to be indispensable. As technology grows, the need for more power and more heat will undoubtedly grow along with it.

Clearly, the current research on nuclear batteries shows promise for future applications for sure. With the implementation of this new technology credibility and feasibility of the device will be heightened. The principal concern about nuclear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive materials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final disposal, all radiation protection standards must be met. The economic feasibility of nuclear batteries will be determined by their applications and advantages. With several features being added to this little wonder and other parallel laboratory works going on, nuclear cells are going to be the next best thing ever invented in human history.

References

1. Power from radioisotopes,’ USAEC, Division of Technical Information # Powerstream.com
2. Powerpaper.com
3. Technologyreview.com
4. Wilcipedia.com/atomic_battery

Ocean pollution is a big concern in the world because studies are showing it is only increasing over the years (Christensen, 2019). A new study shows that along one stretch of the Pacific Ocean just between Hawaii and California there are around 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic waste gathered, which is a rapid increase since the 1970s (Barron, 2018). The plastic pieces in the ocean usually gather together in “one of the five patches” around the world (Barron, 2018). The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is the largest patch of plastic pollution and if it was all pushed together it would make up twice the size of Texas, which is the second largest state in the United States according to the Ocean Cleanup (Barron, 2018). The Ocean Cleanup did a three-year study concluding all the plastic gathered up could be about 16 times higher than was reported before (Barron, 2018). The litter that was estimated from all the plastic gathered in the patch is about 80,000 tons which would make up to 250 pieces per person around the world (Barron, 2018).

A greater number of the pollutants that are coming into the ocean are from activities on land (“Ocean Pollution,” 2018). Nonpoint source pollution is one of the biggest sources because it includes all the small sources because of runoffs such as cars, trucks, septic tanks, boats, farms, stormwater, and much more (“Ocean Pollution,” 2018) Sources such as oil or chemical spills are known as point single sources and have a very large impact but happen less often (“Ocean Pollution,” 2018). Another source that pollutes our ocean is fossil fuels not only does it harm our air but it harms the ocean as well (Denchak, 2018). The ocean absorbs about as much as a quarter of all man-made carbon emissions and that is a huge problem because it is changing the pH of surface waters (Denchak, 2018). The problem is significantly getting worse and the oceans are now acidifying at a higher rate than they have in some three million years (Denchak, 2018). If we are to keep up with our current rate of carbon emissions it is approximated that at the end of this century, the ocean could be about 150 percent more acidic than in current conditions now (Denchak, 2018).

The vast majority of people out there believe that ocean pollution is a problem and it is increasing and becoming a more serious concern. Annie Leonard believes that ocean pollution is a concern and needs to be addressed but feels that recycling alone will never stop the amount of plastic entering the ocean (Leonard, 2018) In her article she states, “Recycling alone will never stem the flow of plastics into our oceans; we have to get to the source of the problem and slow down the production of all this plastic waste.” (Leonard, 2018) It was previously calculated that there were about nearly 245,000 tons in the ocean but this was primarily based just the trash on the surface not that had sunk (Conner, 2015) “Our future estimates are in line with the growth of plastic in our waste stream and also population growth” (Conner, 2015). If we do not get pollution under control the numbers will rapidly increase over the number of years.

There are still some people who do not believe in ocean pollution or simply are just advocating it. “Plastic pollution while generally viewed as “bad” by the general public, is almost completely ignored in mainstream media and consequently everywhere else” (Haberstroh, (2017). While being a huge concern many people choose to ignore it and continue to discard their plastic unsafe every day. There has been a lack of effort in trying to reduce plastic use across the whole country and very few laws that regulate the use and protect our oceans (Haberstroch, 2017). There are only four laws in play to help protect the ocean according to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (Haberstroch, 2017). “The oceans are so vast and deep that until fairly recently, it was widely assumed that no matter how much trash and chemicals humans dumped into them, the effects would be negligible.” (Howard, 2019) There used to be a catchphrase about dumping into the ocean, “The solution to pollution is dilution” (Howard, 2019). We now realize that the “dilution” policy put detrimental effects on the oceans. (Howard, 2019)

The effects of ocean pollution in the future are very significant if not brought down as well (Edwards, 2018). Approximately one to eleven percent of marine species will go into extinction every decade between the years 1975 and 2015 (Edwards, 2018). This also affects humans because marine life extension it will affect the food chain (Edward, 2018). Ocean acidification is a rising concern for our future because currently the ocean absorbs around a third of carbon dioxide and the average pH level of the water is dropping and the implications are huge (“Plastic Oceans,” 2019). If pollution is moving at the same rate by 2050 there will be more trash in the oceans than fish (“Plastic Pollution,” 2019). In the past 50 years, the use of plastic has gone up by 20-fold and it is expected to double again within the next 20 years (Kaplan, 2016). By the year 2050, it is estimated that we will be making more than three times the plastic made in 2014 (Kaplan, 2016). Just about all the world’s seabirds have eaten a piece of plastic (Kaplan, 2016). Nearly a third of all plastic products end up in the ocean or in a bird’s stomach which would make up to approximately 8 million metric tons a year. (Kaplan, 2016) Jenna Jambeck of the University of Georgia made the analogy of “Five bags filled with plastic for every foot of coastline in the world.” (Kaplan, 2016).

Overall, ocean pollution is a major concern because if it is not controlled now the effects on the future ocean are detrimental (Edwards, 2018) There is a lot of evidence showing that ocean pollution is becoming more of a problem and is significantly getting worse (Christensen, 2019). There are certainly many people coming up with ideas to help stop ocean pollution but they need many more people to help take action.

Works Cited

1. Barron, Laignee. Plastic Waste in the Pacific Is Growing ‘Exponentially’. 23 Mar. 2018. time.com/5212078/great-pacific-garbage-patch-plastic-pollution-study/.
2. Conner, Steve. Plastic Waste in Ocean to Increase Tenfold by 2020. 12 Feb. 2015. www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-waste-in-ocean-to-increase-tenfold-by-2020-10042613.html.
3. Denchak, Melissa. Ocean Pollution: The Dirty Facts www.nrdc.org/stories/ocean-pollution-dirty-facts.
4. Edwards, Ciele. Future Effects of Pollution. sciencing.com/future-effects-of-pollution-5690014.html.
5. Haberstroch, Kaylie. Opinion: Talk About Plastic Pollution. 7 Dec. 2017. www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/opinion/my-turn/2017/12/07/opinion-talk-plastic-pollution/108370616/.
6. Howard, Jenny. Marine Pollution, Explained. 2 Aug. 2019. www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/oceans/critical-issues-marine-pollution/.
7. Jen Christensen, CNN. The Amount of Plastic in the Ocean is a Lot Worse Than We Thought. 16 Apr. 2019. www.cnn.com/2019/04/16/health/ocean-plastic-study-scn/index.html.
8. Kaplan, Sara. www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2016/01/20/by-2050-there-will-be-more-plastic-than-fish-in-the-worlds-oceans-study-says/.
9. Ocean Pollution. www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts-education-resources/ocean-pollution.
10. Plastic Oceans. www.futureagenda.org/insight/plastic-oceans.

To date, few researches have investigated the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on mental health among mothers. This is especially germane with the emotional and mental health vulnerability encircling pregnancy and childbirth. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the prevalence of PPD and its related factors among women in Pakistan during the Covid-19 pandemic. The present study is focused on the impact of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Mindfulness on Postpartum depression during the period of Covid-19. In Pakistan, the current birth rate in 2020 is 27.530 births per 1000 people. 29 million children will be born in South Asia and Pakistan is expected to record 5 million births since the covid-19 was declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020 (UNICEF, 2020).

For mothers, the baby is Allah’s biggest blessing. Having a baby is one of the most wonderful things in your life and may be a happy and invigorating experience. One can read books, and articles and also ask your family members and kinfolks but no one can tell you how it feels to become a mother. You can prepare yourself for the nitty-gritty experience of becoming a mother. The birth of a baby can trigger confusion of emotions from happiness to fear. These tangled emotions can lead to Postpartum depression.

Postpartum depression

According to the Geisinger Let’s Talk about It: postpartum depression, 2020 It’s common to feel a lot of emotions, including sadness, after giving birth, but some mothers experience something heavier called postpartum depression. These feelings often begin when your newborn is just 2 or 3 days old, but you’re feeling better by the time your baby is 1 or 2 weeks old. If the baby blues don’t go away or you feel unhappy, hopeless, or purged for longer than 2 weeks, you may have postpartum depression. Postpartum depression’s symptoms last longer and are more severe. It can develop during the first year after childbirth. Alhusen & Alvarez’s (2016) study demonstrates that postpartum depression usually begins within the first month after childbirth, but it can begin during pregnancy or for up to a year after birth Postpartum depression can be confusing. Negative emotions are worrisome since new parents expect to feel extreme excitement for their child.

Symptoms of postpartum depression

Knowing the symptoms can help you spot postpartum depression. Symptoms may vary from person to person and, in some cases, day to day.

Symptoms can include:

• Anxiety and/or panic attacks
• Depressed mood or sadness
• Crying frequently
• Feelings of worthlessness, worrying that you are a bad parent
• Withdrawing from friends and family
• A sense of hopelessness or that thing won’t get better
• Sudden mood swings
• Difficulty concentrating
• Intense irritability
• Lack of interest in or difficulty bonding with your baby
• Thoughts of harming yourself or your baby

Difference between Postpartum Depression and Baby Blues

Becoming a mother is a marvelous and enormous change in your life and also a tough gig. You probably expect to feel happy, joyful, and proud about the new member of your family, but many moms feel moody and overwhelmed instead. It’s very normal to feel this way for a little while. After a mom gives birth her hormone levels drop, which affects the mood and behavior of a mother.

Mothers might get worried and confused about the care for their baby and it makes them feel stressed and put in a situation they haven’t dealt with before.

When It’s the Baby Blues

• You feel anxious, overwhelmed, and irritable
• You don’t feel like eating or taking care of yourself because you’re exhausted.
• Your mood swings quickly from happy to sad. In one moment, you’re proud of the thing that you’re doing as a new mom. But in the next, you’re crying and frustrated because you think you’re not up to the task or you are not fit for it.

When It’s Postpartum Depression

• You don’t feel like you’re doing a good job as a new mom.
• You’re not bonding with your baby
• You feel hopeless, sad, worthless, or alone all the time and you cry often.
• You can’t eat, sleep, or take care of your baby because of your overwhelming despair.
• You could have anxiety and panic attacks.
• And sometimes you even want to harm yourself or the baby

Postpartum Depression and Prevalence in Pakistani Mothers

You are not the first to pass this way up to 80% of new mothers experience emotional ups and downs in that period and get what’s called the “baby blues” short-term dips in mood caused by all of the changes that occur with the birth of a new baby. Every 1 out of 8 mothers experience postpartum depression in the United States (Bauman et al (2018).

According to the study by Klainin-Yobas, Piyanee & Arthur, and David (2009), the prevalence of postpartum depression in Asian countries ranged from 3.5% to 63.3% where Malaysia and Pakistan had the lowest and highest rates, respectively. Among Asian countries, Pakistan has the highest prevalence rate of PDD which is 28%- 63 %.(R.Aliani, Khawaja 2017). Various social, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in the development of PPD in Pakistan. The study by Ali, N.S., Ali, B.S. & Azam, I.S 2009 says the overall prevalence of postpartum anxiety and depression was found to be 28.8 percent and the result of their study also demonstrated that domestic violence, difficulty in breastfeeding at birth, and unplanned current pregnancy were found to be significantly associated with postpartum anxiety and depression in the in peri-urban communities of Karachi.

Early Maladaptive Schema

Have you ever wondered why you’ll rehash undesirable, however recognizable, designs in connection with others or why you’ve got specific propensities to see yourself, others, and the world in a certain way? One mental viewpoint for understanding these designs and ways of making sense of your encounter includes a center on how early childhood encounters shape imperative convictions and sentiments almost yourself.

What are Early Maladaptive Schemas?

Early maladaptive schemas can be described as broad, self-perpetuating, and maladaptive life themes originating from repetitive adverse relational experiences with significant others in childhood and adolescence (Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003). In contrast to previous definitions of EMSs (e.g., McGinn et al., 1995; Young & Gluhoski, 1996), maladaptive behaviors are no longer considered part of a schema but are now theorized to develop as responses to a schema.

The concept of schemas can be linked to the German philosopher I. Kant (Dahlin, 2001; Pace, 1988; Stein & Young, 1992). In his studies, Bartlett found consistent distortions when individuals recalled patterns of narratives. To explain this finding, he used the concept of schemas.

Development of EMS

EMS started with something that was done to us by our families or by another significant figure in life, which harms us in a few ways. We might have been surrendered criticized overprotected, candidly or physically mishandled avoided, or deprived. According to Young et al. (2003), the main cause for developing an EMS is that the universal core psychological needs of the child (secure attachment, autonomy, freedom to express valid needs and emotions, spontaneity and play, realistic limits) are repeatedly frustrated. When these needs are not met due to ongoing adverse experiences in the nuclear family or, later in life, with peers and the community, the individual is at risk of developing EMSs (Young et al, 2003). Thus, an EMS originates from ongoing negative social interactions, e.g. mistreatment and traumatization, but overprotection may also contribute to the formation of an EMS (Young et al, 2003). EMSs reflect the child’s attempts to make sense of these experiences and to adapt to its environment. As a consequence, the child fails to accomplish important psychosocial developmental tasks (e.g., secure attachments). The individual may respond to an activated EMS with a characteristic coping style that perpetuates the schema. Young et al. (2003) distinguish between surrendering (giving in), avoidance (avoiding the activation of the schema), or overcompensation (acting as if the opposite of the schema were true). 

The Standard Model of Policing

Strategic shifts in operational police practice have seen significant shifts strategically over the last two hundred years. The standardised traditional police approach to law enforcement needed to be expanded in response to deficiencies. The 1970s and 1980s was the catalyst in the development of proactive policing (Drew & Prenzler 2015). Weisburd & Eck (2004) in their typology that the standard traditional model of police practice lacked in empirical support and the response based operational policing practice before the 1990s was mostly ineffective.

The evolution from traditional policing has seen police numbers increase in patrol operations and rapid response calls to service. The standard model of policing is based on reactive strategies. It is assumed that jurisdiction crime reduction does not take into regard the nature or level of the crime (Drew & Prenzler 2015). Specific strategies to improve the standard model of policing is the increase of police, more random patrols, and advancements in rapid response calls for police services.

The call for an increase in police numbers comes from the general public and politicians. The premise is that offender rates will be less with an increase in police numbers. The more police on operational duties will increase crime detection and arrests. Empirical evidence supports that by increasing even one police officer per 250,000 in the city that crime rates reduce by 24 fewer crimes (Sherman 1997). General duties officers in Australia account for 60 per cent of the police. Patrol officers core functions include rapid response to emergency service calls and patrol. Hot spot policing and foot patrols give a sense of omnipresence.

Rapid response to calls for service is assumed that the quicker police can get to the crime scene, the higher chance of arrest and community satisfaction is increased. However, research conducted by the Kansas City preventive patrol members Pate, Ferrara, Bowers & Lorence (1976) failed to show that predicting the response time would change the outcome of the encounter. In Spelman & Browns (1984) study of differential police response in only 29 rapid response cases out of 1,000 an on-scene arrest occurred, showing that not all calls for service need a rapid response by police, only crimes in progress and serious crimes.

Community Policing and Problem-Oriented Policing

The 1990s saw the emergence of innovative police practices which including problem-orientated policing and community policing. One of the main failures of the traditional, standard model of policing was the relationship between the community and police. The three core elements of community policing are community involvement; Community policing includes foot patrols, education through community programs and door to door police visits. The broken windows policing approach is based on Wilson & Kellings (2006) research which concluded that if police and the community work together to manage minor signs or disorders that this collectively could make a positive impact in the reduction of serious crime beginning. Community involvement can be information relayed to police through programs such as Neighbourhood Watch.

Problem-oriented policing POP provides police agencies with a framework to guide and facilitate problem-solving and analysis better responses to crime. Analysis of problem solutions, tactics, designing response solutions is addressed with community-oriented policing services COPS. Another core element of community policing is decentralisation, the restructuring of police organisations to implement the most effective community policing approach.

Beat policing in Queensland is police officers assigned to specific areas in a geographic location. Focus on beat policing is problem-solving and crime prevention. Queensland police service has a neighbourhood police beat and shopfront model of beat policing. Procedural justice and police legitimacy outcomes are influenced by police behaviour and their interaction with the community.

Hot Spots Policing and Third Party Policing

Hot spots policing provides effective use of police resources in high crime level areas and crime cluster locations. Situational strategies within POP result in reducing crime and disorder. Hot spot policing still receives criticism due to spatial displacement, which needs further research.

Research from criminologists Cohen & Felson (1979) highlighted criminal behaviour through routine activity theory explaining that crime events occur as a result of time, space, a suitable target and in the absence of a suitable guardian. Rational choice theory interoperation of criminal offending is that crime is committed by choice with the function of opportunity and motivation in decision making. This criminology research gives an insight that criminal behaviour can be reduced from hot spot policing by reduction of opportunity to commit crime.

Third-party policing is the development of practice and the adoption of partnerships. The expansion of the regulatory environment through legal and civil regulators bring together third parties to enact in crime control functions. This form of policing is demonstrating effectiveness in crime outcomes such as controlling drugs and youth violence problems (Mazerolle & Ransley 2006). Third-party strategies such as ‘Project Stop’ have seen a move away from traditional reactive policing to focusing on crime prevention. An example of third party crime prevention is Pharmacists now participate in pseudoephedrine data collection; pseudoephedrine is used to make methamphetamines.

Investigations

The background of non-democratic states investigative practices was to identify and arrest criminals and to solve crimes. The detective units form a significant formal role in investigating crimes. Investigating and prosecuting is the defining feature of modern criminal law Investigation basics occur after the patrol officers identify a crime, the patrol officer returns to patrol, and the detectives will take over if required. Investigation basics are also carried out by private detectives who work for criminal defence lawyers. Insurance firms employ investigators, and human resource complaints of harassment are responded by investigations.

The value of investigations is the mainstay of policing. Investigation detail is critically important, crime scene preservation, legal evidence collecting, fingerprint collecting and specialist policing to solve the crime and have adequate legal evidence that will hold up in court, such as DNA. 2.

Criminology theories, according to deterrence and rational choice theory perceive that criminals or potential offenders desist that the benefit from committing the crime outweighs the cost or risk of getting caught (Clarke 1997).

Investigations and miscarriages of Justice can have significant adverse effects such as wrongful convictions. Loss of faith in the justice system comes from the acquittal of a guilty person, excessively light or heavy penalties and the failure to prosecute (Prenzler 2013). Lindy Chamberlain was wrongfully convicted for murdering her baby, which was a miscarriage of justice.

Unfortunately, corrupt detectives are investigated by corruption commissions due to inappropriate associations with criminals, disregard for the law, drinking on the job, long lunches and work avoidance, acceptance of bribes to loose evidence within investigations or faulty recall. Designing the ‘effective detective’ requires strict protocols and regulations.

Detectives are crucial in investigating crimes such as the Australian backpacker murders in 1992-1993, which Ivan Milat was found guilty.

Policing Diverse Communities

Egalitarian and independent impartial policing is challenged by gender, race, class, ethnicity, location and beliefs. Minority groups constituting a numerical minority are young people, homosexuals, religious groups, people with mental issues or disabilities, homeless and welfare-dependent people. Women have a subordinate status due to a generalised lack of power and wealth compared to men.

Indigenous people in Australia are 7.5 times more likely to be charged by police than non-indigenous (Allard 2010). Police response to racial taunts by explaining that certain groups of people commit m.ore offences. Indigenous imprisonment rates are disproportionately higher than non-indigenous Australians.

Police failure or neglect to protect women from domestic violence can be traumatic and even deadly. On the defence of the police, if the women do not want to press charges, are then the only option the police has is to calm the situation or lock up the offender overnight. Women are scared of retribution from the offender, so the violence often continues.

Police standard model of policing when responding to persons with mental illnesses was ineffective and inappropriate. The ineffective and inappropriate policing was unintentionally due to limited training dealing with mental illness. Sadly fatal shootings have occurred of emotionally disturbed people. Operational officers now undergo training programs to deescalate incidents with peaceful resolutions when possible.

Better policing of diverse communities is a continuous reform process. Cross-cultural police training and community policing engage with different community groups to focus and reduce crime.

Recruitment, Management and Leadership

Recruitment and selection of police are vital to upholding quality, effectiveness, efficiency and the reputation of the police force. Selection tools involve job analyses, functions and activities officers duties will involve. Physical skills tests, education and personality, are all taken into consideration when recruiting after recruitment candidates undergo extensive police training at the academy.

After the academy police constables are sworn in, they continue on the job training and mentoring with further academy training for 12 months; this is a probation period.

Traditional criteria used in police organisations, weight, height, gender, strength are not essential requirements in police general duties officer selection in today’s recruiting selection process. General duties officers duties involve patrol, administrative tasks, traffic maintenance, reactive policing court attendance and crime prevention.

Selection tools used by police agencies focus on background information, medical exam, psychological assessment, drug testing, physical fitness, civil service exam, recommendation letters (Cochrane, Tett & Vandecreek 2003). Higher education job requirements for general duties officers is favoured due to research showing that college-educated police are involved in fewer shootings (McElvain & Kposowa 2008). Personality factors taken into consideration in the selection process are neuroticism, extraversion, experience, openness, agreeable ability and conscientiousness. Personality factors are accessed to conclude emotional stability and consciousness. Physical capability is accessed to determine ability to perform physical requirements of police, such as chasing offenders.

The organisation and leadership of police organisations is a ranked system. The Australian Police organisation rank system starts at constable raising to the senior constable, sergeant, senior sergeant, inspector, superintendent, assistant commissioner, deputy commissioner to the highest rank of commissioner.

Accountability and Regulation

Police are subject to democratic framework and accountability when performing their duties ethically and ensure that the code of conduct is followed.

The old accountabilities of the professional policing model in the 19th century developed into the standard form of policing in Australia and most democratic countries. Political accountability became a ministerial responsibility.

New accountability models adopted new systems and performance measures within police departments focusing on Pelican principle of prevention of crime. Crime and safety are reported annually in Australia; a federal productivity commission report on police services is conducted. The new accountabilities such as integrity evaluations are in place to decide if a mistake was made or if accountability needs to be dealt with criminal charges. Breaches can include perjury, assault, false arrest and exclusion of evidence. Failed accountability comes at a considerable cost financially to the government and the time taken up by police actively investigating crimes is frustrating.

Performance indicators to develop and demonstrate improved policing have been implemented. Police organisations achieve outstanding results in improving policing by using quantitative measures of performance. Case study’s such as ‘Strike Force Piccadilly’ measures problem diagnostic and testing solutions to identify integrity and safety issues.

The Future of Police Practice and Policy

Key developments and innovations in the police context have occurred in previous decades. Innovation for policing has seen enormous changes since the 1970s through programs, administration, strategic direction and advancements in technology.

Policing innovation analytic framework consists of four categories, programmatic, administrative, technological and strategic (Braga & Weisburd 2006).

Policing innovations for effective policing to control and prevent crime and disorder see innovations and strategic innovational changes. Technological innovations such as crime analysis, OC capsicum spray, CEDs tasers and crime mapping have been embraced by police organisation. COMPSTAT performance management system has reduced misconduct by identification and management.

Technological advancements in police practice have seen developments due to technology such as the internet. Criminal opportunities have developed in cyber-based crimes such as fraud. Crime analysis and crime mapping technological developments provide advancements in crime analysis. Hot spot policing relies on identification crime levels in geographic locations. Computerised aid dispatch CAD system for emergency calls for service and crime mapping software has widely influenced policing. Technology provides police with more effective crime prevention and control solutions such as POP and hot spots policing.

OC spray and CEDs have given officers a non-lethal use of force in defensive situations. Fewer injuries occur for police and citizens when OC spray and CEDs are used instead of physical force control.

Administrative innovations focus on police agencies recruiting, police leadership development, performance organisations for integrity and warning intervention systems. COMPSTAT is significant in administrative innovations; the process is driven by the analysis of crime data and police management accountability.

Facing new challenges in the future of policing will constitute solidification. Future tactical, organisational decisions and strategic innovations will see progress in future police effectiveness.

Reference List

1. Allard, T 2010, Understanding and preventing Indigenous offending, research brief 9, Indigenous Justice Clearinghouse, Sydney.
2. Braga, AA & Weisburd, D 2006, Policing innovation: contrasting perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Clarke, R 1997, Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies 2nd edn, Harrow and Heston, Albany, NY.
4. Cochrane, RE, Tett, RP & Vandecreek, L 2003, Psychological testing and selection of police officers: A national survey. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol 30, pp. 511-537.
5. Drew, J & Prenzler, T 2015, Contemporary Police Practice, Oxford University Press, Australia.
6. Mazerolle, L & Ransley, J 2006, The case for third party policing, In D.Weisburd & A.A Braga edn, Police innovation: Contrasting Perspectives, Cambridge University Express.
7. McElvain, JP & Kposowa, AJ 2008, Police officer characteristics and the likelihood of using deadly force, Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol 35, pp. 505-521.
8. Pate, T, Ferrara, A, Bowers, RA & Lorence, J 1976, Police response time: It’s determinants and effects, Police Foundation, Washington, DC.
9. Prenzler, T 2013, Ethics and accountability in criminal justice, Australian Academic Press, Brisbane.
10. Sherman, LW 1997, Policing for crime prevention, viewed 8 December 2019, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Dept. of Justice, Washington, DC, https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/24477760?q&versionId=29549306
11. Weisburd, D & Eck, JE 2004, What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? annals of the American academy of political and social science, viewed 6 December 2019, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716203262548
12. Wilson, JQ & Kelling, GL 1982, Broken Windows: The police and neighbourhood safety. The Atlantic Monthly, March, 29-38. 6.

To date, few researches have investigated the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on mental health among mothers. This is especially germane with the emotional and mental health vulnerability encircling pregnancy and childbirth. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the prevalence of PPD and its related factors among women in Pakistan during the Covid-19 pandemic. The present study is focused on the impact of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Mindfulness on Postpartum depression during the period of Covid-19. In Pakistan, the current birth rate in 2020 is 27.530 births per 1000 people. 29 million children will be born in South Asia and Pakistan is expected to record 5 million births since the covid-19 was declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020 (UNICEF, 2020).

For mothers, the baby is Allah’s biggest blessing. Having a baby is one of the most wonderful things in your life and may be a happy and invigorating experience. One can read books, and articles and also ask your family members and kinfolks but no one can tell you how it feels to become a mother. You can prepare yourself for the nitty-gritty experience of becoming a mother. The birth of a baby can trigger confusion of emotions from happiness to fear. These tangled emotions can lead to Postpartum depression.

Postpartum depression

According to the Geisinger Let’s Talk about It: postpartum depression, 2020 It’s common to feel a lot of emotions, including sadness, after giving birth, but some mothers experience something heavier called postpartum depression. These feelings often begin when your newborn is just 2 or 3 days old, but you’re feeling better by the time your baby is 1 or 2 weeks old. If the baby blues don’t go away or you feel unhappy, hopeless, or purged for longer than 2 weeks, you may have postpartum depression. Postpartum depression’s symptoms last longer and are more severe. It can develop during the first year after childbirth. Alhusen & Alvarez’s (2016) study demonstrates that postpartum depression usually begins within the first month after childbirth, but it can begin during pregnancy or for up to a year after birth Postpartum depression can be confusing. Negative emotions are worrisome since new parents expect to feel extreme excitement for their child.

Symptoms of postpartum depression

Knowing the symptoms can help you spot postpartum depression. Symptoms may vary from person to person and, in some cases, day to day.

Symptoms can include:

• Anxiety and/or panic attacks
• Depressed mood or sadness
• Crying frequently
• Feelings of worthlessness, worrying that you are a bad parent
• Withdrawing from friends and family
• A sense of hopelessness or that thing won’t get better
• Sudden mood swings
• Difficulty concentrating
• Intense irritability
• Lack of interest in or difficulty bonding with your baby
• Thoughts of harming yourself or your baby

Difference between Postpartum Depression and Baby Blues

Becoming a mother is a marvelous and enormous change in your life and also a tough gig. You probably expect to feel happy, joyful, and proud about the new member of your family, but many moms feel moody and overwhelmed instead. It’s very normal to feel this way for a little while. After a mom gives birth her hormone levels drop, which affects the mood and behavior of a mother.

Mothers might get worried and confused about the care for their baby and it makes them feel stressed and put in a situation they haven’t dealt with before.

When It’s the Baby Blues

• You feel anxious, overwhelmed, and irritable
• You don’t feel like eating or taking care of yourself because you’re exhausted.
• Your mood swings quickly from happy to sad. In one moment, you’re proud of the thing that you’re doing as a new mom. But in the next, you’re crying and frustrated because you think you’re not up to the task or you are not fit for it.

When It’s Postpartum Depression

• You don’t feel like you’re doing a good job as a new mom.
• You’re not bonding with your baby
• You feel hopeless, sad, worthless, or alone all the time and you cry often.
• You can’t eat, sleep, or take care of your baby because of your overwhelming despair.
• You could have anxiety and panic attacks.
• And sometimes you even want to harm yourself or the baby

Postpartum Depression and Prevalence in Pakistani Mothers

You are not the first to pass this way up to 80% of new mothers experience emotional ups and downs in that period and get what’s called the “baby blues” short-term dips in mood caused by all of the changes that occur with the birth of a new baby. Every 1 out of 8 mothers experience postpartum depression in the United States (Bauman et al (2018).

According to the study by Klainin-Yobas, Piyanee & Arthur, and David (2009), the prevalence of postpartum depression in Asian countries ranged from 3.5% to 63.3% where Malaysia and Pakistan had the lowest and highest rates, respectively. Among Asian countries, Pakistan has the highest prevalence rate of PDD which is 28%- 63 %.(R.Aliani, Khawaja 2017). Various social, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in the development of PPD in Pakistan. The study by Ali, N.S., Ali, B.S. & Azam, I.S 2009 says the overall prevalence of postpartum anxiety and depression was found to be 28.8 percent and the result of their study also demonstrated that domestic violence, difficulty in breastfeeding at birth, and unplanned current pregnancy were found to be significantly associated with postpartum anxiety and depression in the in peri-urban communities of Karachi.

Early Maladaptive Schema

Have you ever wondered why you’ll rehash undesirable, however recognizable, designs in connection with others or why you’ve got specific propensities to see yourself, others, and the world in a certain way? One mental viewpoint for understanding these designs and ways of making sense of your encounter includes a center on how early childhood encounters shape imperative convictions and sentiments almost yourself.

What are Early Maladaptive Schemas?

Early maladaptive schemas can be described as broad, self-perpetuating, and maladaptive life themes originating from repetitive adverse relational experiences with significant others in childhood and adolescence (Young, Klosko, & Weishaar, 2003). In contrast to previous definitions of EMSs (e.g., McGinn et al., 1995; Young & Gluhoski, 1996), maladaptive behaviors are no longer considered part of a schema but are now theorized to develop as responses to a schema.

The concept of schemas can be linked to the German philosopher I. Kant (Dahlin, 2001; Pace, 1988; Stein & Young, 1992). In his studies, Bartlett found consistent distortions when individuals recalled patterns of narratives. To explain this finding, he used the concept of schemas.

Development of EMS

EMS started with something that was done to us by our families or by another significant figure in life, which harms us in a few ways. We might have been surrendered criticized overprotected, candidly or physically mishandled avoided, or deprived. According to Young et al. (2003), the main cause for developing an EMS is that the universal core psychological needs of the child (secure attachment, autonomy, freedom to express valid needs and emotions, spontaneity and play, realistic limits) are repeatedly frustrated. When these needs are not met due to ongoing adverse experiences in the nuclear family or, later in life, with peers and the community, the individual is at risk of developing EMSs (Young et al, 2003). Thus, an EMS originates from ongoing negative social interactions, e.g. mistreatment and traumatization, but overprotection may also contribute to the formation of an EMS (Young et al, 2003). EMSs reflect the child’s attempts to make sense of these experiences and to adapt to its environment. As a consequence, the child fails to accomplish important psychosocial developmental tasks (e.g., secure attachments). The individual may respond to an activated EMS with a characteristic coping style that perpetuates the schema. Young et al. (2003) distinguish between surrendering (giving in), avoidance (avoiding the activation of the schema), or overcompensation (acting as if the opposite of the schema were true). 

The Standard Model of Policing

Strategic shifts in operational police practice have seen significant shifts strategically over the last two hundred years. The standardised traditional police approach to law enforcement needed to be expanded in response to deficiencies. The 1970s and 1980s was the catalyst in the development of proactive policing (Drew & Prenzler 2015). Weisburd & Eck (2004) in their typology that the standard traditional model of police practice lacked in empirical support and the response based operational policing practice before the 1990s was mostly ineffective.

The evolution from traditional policing has seen police numbers increase in patrol operations and rapid response calls to service. The standard model of policing is based on reactive strategies. It is assumed that jurisdiction crime reduction does not take into regard the nature or level of the crime (Drew & Prenzler 2015). Specific strategies to improve the standard model of policing is the increase of police, more random patrols, and advancements in rapid response calls for police services.

The call for an increase in police numbers comes from the general public and politicians. The premise is that offender rates will be less with an increase in police numbers. The more police on operational duties will increase crime detection and arrests. Empirical evidence supports that by increasing even one police officer per 250,000 in the city that crime rates reduce by 24 fewer crimes (Sherman 1997). General duties officers in Australia account for 60 per cent of the police. Patrol officers core functions include rapid response to emergency service calls and patrol. Hot spot policing and foot patrols give a sense of omnipresence.

Rapid response to calls for service is assumed that the quicker police can get to the crime scene, the higher chance of arrest and community satisfaction is increased. However, research conducted by the Kansas City preventive patrol members Pate, Ferrara, Bowers & Lorence (1976) failed to show that predicting the response time would change the outcome of the encounter. In Spelman & Browns (1984) study of differential police response in only 29 rapid response cases out of 1,000 an on-scene arrest occurred, showing that not all calls for service need a rapid response by police, only crimes in progress and serious crimes.

Community Policing and Problem-Oriented Policing

The 1990s saw the emergence of innovative police practices which including problem-orientated policing and community policing. One of the main failures of the traditional, standard model of policing was the relationship between the community and police. The three core elements of community policing are community involvement; Community policing includes foot patrols, education through community programs and door to door police visits. The broken windows policing approach is based on Wilson & Kellings (2006) research which concluded that if police and the community work together to manage minor signs or disorders that this collectively could make a positive impact in the reduction of serious crime beginning. Community involvement can be information relayed to police through programs such as Neighbourhood Watch.

Problem-oriented policing POP provides police agencies with a framework to guide and facilitate problem-solving and analysis better responses to crime. Analysis of problem solutions, tactics, designing response solutions is addressed with community-oriented policing services COPS. Another core element of community policing is decentralisation, the restructuring of police organisations to implement the most effective community policing approach.

Beat policing in Queensland is police officers assigned to specific areas in a geographic location. Focus on beat policing is problem-solving and crime prevention. Queensland police service has a neighbourhood police beat and shopfront model of beat policing. Procedural justice and police legitimacy outcomes are influenced by police behaviour and their interaction with the community.

Hot Spots Policing and Third Party Policing

Hot spots policing provides effective use of police resources in high crime level areas and crime cluster locations. Situational strategies within POP result in reducing crime and disorder. Hot spot policing still receives criticism due to spatial displacement, which needs further research.

Research from criminologists Cohen & Felson (1979) highlighted criminal behaviour through routine activity theory explaining that crime events occur as a result of time, space, a suitable target and in the absence of a suitable guardian. Rational choice theory interoperation of criminal offending is that crime is committed by choice with the function of opportunity and motivation in decision making. This criminology research gives an insight that criminal behaviour can be reduced from hot spot policing by reduction of opportunity to commit crime.

Third-party policing is the development of practice and the adoption of partnerships. The expansion of the regulatory environment through legal and civil regulators bring together third parties to enact in crime control functions. This form of policing is demonstrating effectiveness in crime outcomes such as controlling drugs and youth violence problems (Mazerolle & Ransley 2006). Third-party strategies such as ‘Project Stop’ have seen a move away from traditional reactive policing to focusing on crime prevention. An example of third party crime prevention is Pharmacists now participate in pseudoephedrine data collection; pseudoephedrine is used to make methamphetamines.

Investigations

The background of non-democratic states investigative practices was to identify and arrest criminals and to solve crimes. The detective units form a significant formal role in investigating crimes. Investigating and prosecuting is the defining feature of modern criminal law Investigation basics occur after the patrol officers identify a crime, the patrol officer returns to patrol, and the detectives will take over if required. Investigation basics are also carried out by private detectives who work for criminal defence lawyers. Insurance firms employ investigators, and human resource complaints of harassment are responded by investigations.

The value of investigations is the mainstay of policing. Investigation detail is critically important, crime scene preservation, legal evidence collecting, fingerprint collecting and specialist policing to solve the crime and have adequate legal evidence that will hold up in court, such as DNA. 2.

Criminology theories, according to deterrence and rational choice theory perceive that criminals or potential offenders desist that the benefit from committing the crime outweighs the cost or risk of getting caught (Clarke 1997).

Investigations and miscarriages of Justice can have significant adverse effects such as wrongful convictions. Loss of faith in the justice system comes from the acquittal of a guilty person, excessively light or heavy penalties and the failure to prosecute (Prenzler 2013). Lindy Chamberlain was wrongfully convicted for murdering her baby, which was a miscarriage of justice.

Unfortunately, corrupt detectives are investigated by corruption commissions due to inappropriate associations with criminals, disregard for the law, drinking on the job, long lunches and work avoidance, acceptance of bribes to loose evidence within investigations or faulty recall. Designing the ‘effective detective’ requires strict protocols and regulations.

Detectives are crucial in investigating crimes such as the Australian backpacker murders in 1992-1993, which Ivan Milat was found guilty.

Policing Diverse Communities

Egalitarian and independent impartial policing is challenged by gender, race, class, ethnicity, location and beliefs. Minority groups constituting a numerical minority are young people, homosexuals, religious groups, people with mental issues or disabilities, homeless and welfare-dependent people. Women have a subordinate status due to a generalised lack of power and wealth compared to men.

Indigenous people in Australia are 7.5 times more likely to be charged by police than non-indigenous (Allard 2010). Police response to racial taunts by explaining that certain groups of people commit m.ore offences. Indigenous imprisonment rates are disproportionately higher than non-indigenous Australians.

Police failure or neglect to protect women from domestic violence can be traumatic and even deadly. On the defence of the police, if the women do not want to press charges, are then the only option the police has is to calm the situation or lock up the offender overnight. Women are scared of retribution from the offender, so the violence often continues.

Police standard model of policing when responding to persons with mental illnesses was ineffective and inappropriate. The ineffective and inappropriate policing was unintentionally due to limited training dealing with mental illness. Sadly fatal shootings have occurred of emotionally disturbed people. Operational officers now undergo training programs to deescalate incidents with peaceful resolutions when possible.

Better policing of diverse communities is a continuous reform process. Cross-cultural police training and community policing engage with different community groups to focus and reduce crime.

Recruitment, Management and Leadership

Recruitment and selection of police are vital to upholding quality, effectiveness, efficiency and the reputation of the police force. Selection tools involve job analyses, functions and activities officers duties will involve. Physical skills tests, education and personality, are all taken into consideration when recruiting after recruitment candidates undergo extensive police training at the academy.

After the academy police constables are sworn in, they continue on the job training and mentoring with further academy training for 12 months; this is a probation period.

Traditional criteria used in police organisations, weight, height, gender, strength are not essential requirements in police general duties officer selection in today’s recruiting selection process. General duties officers duties involve patrol, administrative tasks, traffic maintenance, reactive policing court attendance and crime prevention.

Selection tools used by police agencies focus on background information, medical exam, psychological assessment, drug testing, physical fitness, civil service exam, recommendation letters (Cochrane, Tett & Vandecreek 2003). Higher education job requirements for general duties officers is favoured due to research showing that college-educated police are involved in fewer shootings (McElvain & Kposowa 2008). Personality factors taken into consideration in the selection process are neuroticism, extraversion, experience, openness, agreeable ability and conscientiousness. Personality factors are accessed to conclude emotional stability and consciousness. Physical capability is accessed to determine ability to perform physical requirements of police, such as chasing offenders.

The organisation and leadership of police organisations is a ranked system. The Australian Police organisation rank system starts at constable raising to the senior constable, sergeant, senior sergeant, inspector, superintendent, assistant commissioner, deputy commissioner to the highest rank of commissioner.

Accountability and Regulation

Police are subject to democratic framework and accountability when performing their duties ethically and ensure that the code of conduct is followed.

The old accountabilities of the professional policing model in the 19th century developed into the standard form of policing in Australia and most democratic countries. Political accountability became a ministerial responsibility.

New accountability models adopted new systems and performance measures within police departments focusing on Pelican principle of prevention of crime. Crime and safety are reported annually in Australia; a federal productivity commission report on police services is conducted. The new accountabilities such as integrity evaluations are in place to decide if a mistake was made or if accountability needs to be dealt with criminal charges. Breaches can include perjury, assault, false arrest and exclusion of evidence. Failed accountability comes at a considerable cost financially to the government and the time taken up by police actively investigating crimes is frustrating.

Performance indicators to develop and demonstrate improved policing have been implemented. Police organisations achieve outstanding results in improving policing by using quantitative measures of performance. Case study’s such as ‘Strike Force Piccadilly’ measures problem diagnostic and testing solutions to identify integrity and safety issues.

The Future of Police Practice and Policy

Key developments and innovations in the police context have occurred in previous decades. Innovation for policing has seen enormous changes since the 1970s through programs, administration, strategic direction and advancements in technology.

Policing innovation analytic framework consists of four categories, programmatic, administrative, technological and strategic (Braga & Weisburd 2006).

Policing innovations for effective policing to control and prevent crime and disorder see innovations and strategic innovational changes. Technological innovations such as crime analysis, OC capsicum spray, CEDs tasers and crime mapping have been embraced by police organisation. COMPSTAT performance management system has reduced misconduct by identification and management.

Technological advancements in police practice have seen developments due to technology such as the internet. Criminal opportunities have developed in cyber-based crimes such as fraud. Crime analysis and crime mapping technological developments provide advancements in crime analysis. Hot spot policing relies on identification crime levels in geographic locations. Computerised aid dispatch CAD system for emergency calls for service and crime mapping software has widely influenced policing. Technology provides police with more effective crime prevention and control solutions such as POP and hot spots policing.

OC spray and CEDs have given officers a non-lethal use of force in defensive situations. Fewer injuries occur for police and citizens when OC spray and CEDs are used instead of physical force control.

Administrative innovations focus on police agencies recruiting, police leadership development, performance organisations for integrity and warning intervention systems. COMPSTAT is significant in administrative innovations; the process is driven by the analysis of crime data and police management accountability.

Facing new challenges in the future of policing will constitute solidification. Future tactical, organisational decisions and strategic innovations will see progress in future police effectiveness.

Reference List

1. Allard, T 2010, Understanding and preventing Indigenous offending, research brief 9, Indigenous Justice Clearinghouse, Sydney.
2. Braga, AA & Weisburd, D 2006, Policing innovation: contrasting perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
3. Clarke, R 1997, Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies 2nd edn, Harrow and Heston, Albany, NY.
4. Cochrane, RE, Tett, RP & Vandecreek, L 2003, Psychological testing and selection of police officers: A national survey. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol 30, pp. 511-537.
5. Drew, J & Prenzler, T 2015, Contemporary Police Practice, Oxford University Press, Australia.
6. Mazerolle, L & Ransley, J 2006, The case for third party policing, In D.Weisburd & A.A Braga edn, Police innovation: Contrasting Perspectives, Cambridge University Express.
7. McElvain, JP & Kposowa, AJ 2008, Police officer characteristics and the likelihood of using deadly force, Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol 35, pp. 505-521.
8. Pate, T, Ferrara, A, Bowers, RA & Lorence, J 1976, Police response time: It’s determinants and effects, Police Foundation, Washington, DC.
9. Prenzler, T 2013, Ethics and accountability in criminal justice, Australian Academic Press, Brisbane.
10. Sherman, LW 1997, Policing for crime prevention, viewed 8 December 2019, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Dept. of Justice, Washington, DC, https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/24477760?q&versionId=29549306
11. Weisburd, D & Eck, JE 2004, What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? annals of the American academy of political and social science, viewed 6 December 2019, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002716203262548
12. Wilson, JQ & Kelling, GL 1982, Broken Windows: The police and neighbourhood safety. The Atlantic Monthly, March, 29-38. 6.