Category: Modern Society

Throughout the course, there has been much discussion about how religious practitioners, scholars, and non-believers came to view the three monotheistic religions: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Scholars have deciphered the sacred texts of each religion to draw conclusions based on their similarities and their differences. In this discussion, religious scholars coined the term ‘Abrahamic’ to relate these three religions based on their mutual involvement of Abraham in each of their sacred texts. Over time, there has been much debate about whether this umbrella-like term is politically correct because it begins to take away from the uniqueness that each of these religions possesses. Scholars such as Hughes were against this representation of the three monotheistic religions categorized so closely together while others such as Bakhos conclude “The category at best simplifies, at worst distorts, the relationship between these religions” (Bakhos 218). In today’s world of violence and blame, it is important to draw on the similarities of these different religions and their cultural connection to instill peace and tolerance amongst an otherwise judgmental and violent society. However, in general, it is still very important to be educated on the beliefs and traditions of different religions and the distinct sects within each one. By doing so, there will be more understanding and alliances can become stronger between Christians, Jews, and Muslims.

In this analysis, that is exactly what I did. I interviewed three people of different faiths: one Christian, one Muslim, and one Jew. I asked a variety of questions that were connected to their religious rituals and worship as well as their personal traditions and thoughts on their religion and how others view them. The people I interviewed were between the ages of 18 and 25 as to show a perspective from the younger generation and how the older practices have been carried through many generations and are faring in a society focused on innovation and change. Throughout my interview, I asked a string of questions concerning their own personal views on their religion specifically.

The first person I interviewed was Amaina Yehia who is a 21-year-old practicing Muslim who attends CSU Fresno. She described the most fundamental aspect of Islam, in her opinion, to be the 5 Pillars of Islam and the most unique aspect compared to other monotheistic religions to be the incorporation of modesty. She is a strong believer in her faith because of the words written in the Holy Qur’an and believes that Islam’s sacred book is a guide for her future path. Yehia believes in Allah as the one and only God and strongly advocates for his existence. She states, “Praying every single day and worshipping him has truly opened my eyes to realize that Allah does exist, and He makes it known”. Yehia explained that every Friday is the Muslim Holy day and when they go into the mosque (their place of worship) and pray the Masjid prayer alone, then following this they pray as a whole while the Sheik (Islamic worship leader) leads the prayer. Personally, her favorite time of year and favorite religious tradition is the Holy month of Ramadan where Muslims participate in fasting from sunrise to sunset. Some symbols of Islam include the 5 Pillars of Islam: 1. Prayer 5 times a day, 2. Give to charity, 3. Fasting, 4. Visit Mecca if possible, and 5. The Shahadah. She goes further into depth about the 5 prayers a day and how to pray you must be clean from head to toe and each prayer differs by each Muslim. By observing and performing these rituals, Yehia says that she grows closer to God and religion every single day. We then go on to discuss her relationship with others of different faiths. She believes that people suffer because of their sins, something she describes as “deen over Dunya”. To Muslims, this phrase basically means to put religion over everything else, and if you fail to do so, that is when people suffer. However, she believes that she cannot choose what happens to non-believers after their time on earth but everyone’s after death is a reflection on how they lived their lives on earth. She also stated the there is no conflict between Islam and science. Science is inquisition, and Islam is all about encouraging the seeking of knowledge, so in a sense, it is considered an act of worship. Lastly, Yehia addressed that she wished others knew how peaceful Islam is and ignore how the media depicts Islam as an inhumane religion when it is the complete opposite.

After talking with Yehia, I began to analyze the different aspects of her traditions and how they related to the readings that we discussed throughout the course. I’m going to start with the ideas of totemism and community in the readings from Emile Durkheim. Durkheim describes, “The species of things which serves to designate the clan collectively is called its totem” (Durkheim 108). This study conducted by Durkheim was, in truth, made by observing tribes and their religious/cultural traditions in a small area of Australia, and fails to represent a variety of other traditional cultures/religions in other places in the world. Durkheim explained that the totem does not only give the clan something to make important within the religion but also something that makes the clan a community under one belief. In Yehia’s interpretation of Islamic belief, the totem(s) is the 5 pillars of Islam that hold together the clan and make them all one and the same. Another point the Yehia made that can be related back to the texts reviewed in class is the relation between her dedication to prayer, the Friday services, and fasting during the month of Ramadan. As Yehia described, during the month of Ramadan there is to be no consumption of food between dawn and dark. This correlates directly with the reading concerning Islam’s worship and rituals by Corrigan, et.al. As Corrigan, et.al illustrates, “People feel close to God and to each other as they take this time to renew themselves and submit in deeper measure to God’s will” (Corrigan et.al 262). It makes sense as to why this is Yehia’s favorite time of the year because, for many Muslims, it is a time when they feel closest to God and others around them. From speaking with Amaina Yehia and understanding her view and practice of Islam, even as a member of the younger generation, allows me to draw the conclusion that it is possible for the rituals, traditions, and practices that were established so many years ago are still in effect in today’s bustling world.

The next person I interviewed was Kylie Crow, a 19-year-old practicing Christian who attends Cal Poly San Luis Obispo. She explained that the most fundamental aspect of Christianity is the belief in God, as the father, Jesus, as the son, and the resurrection of Christ. She expressed that the most unique aspect of Christianity, in her opinion, was that you do not have to earn your way into Heaven, you simply have to believe in God and accept Jesus as your Lord and Savior and you will be saved. Crow recounted a time that made her a strong believer in her faith, which was when her younger cousin entered remission after being diagnosed with stage 4 cancer and only given a few months left to live. Crow believes that within her religion, God provides a plan for each of his followers that will allow them to prosper as long as they remain in the belief of him. She illustrated the Christian worship service to include songs of worship at the beginning, a sermon and ends with fellowship. When asked about communion, she added that they participate in communion during the first week of every month and it is a time to repent their sins and take part in ingesting the body of Christ, representing the last supper as told in the Christian Bible. This takes me to the sacred text of Christianity, which is the Christian Bible, composed of the Old Testament and the New Testament. Crow believes that Jesus is the son of God who was sent to earth and born of the Virgin Mary, and he died as a sacrifice for all of the sins of Christians to save them from hell. She believes that after three days, Jesus was resurrected to show people the power of God and then rose to Heaven to be with God. Crow’s relationship with God is not a fearful one but she sees God as merciful to all who believe in him. She described the cross, upon which Jesus Christ died, to be the greatest symbol of Christianity because it portrays Christ’s dedication to those who worship him. Some of the rituals and traditions that Crow discusses and favors the most include Lent, which begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Good Friday, where Christians do not eat meat on Fridays and give up something for the 40 days during this period to show devotion to God. She favors this time because it makes her feel closer to Christ and makes her feel as though she is giving back to Him after all that He gives her. She details how she does not always pray daily, but she does pray at most religious meetings, at bible study, and when she is feeling down and is seeking guidance from God. She says that receiving Christian influences through different areas of her life helps her maintain her faith. She believes that God is fair and just, so the reason why people suffer is a direct result of their own actions (sins) and lack of belief in God. She adds that sometimes these instances that cause suffering are set as tests for believers to prove their faith and devotion to God. She also believes that all those who have faith in God will go to Heaven and that those who do not will go to purgatory and be given the option to learn about God and end up in Heaven or go to Hell. She adds that the people in the world who recognize God and choose not to believe or have anything to do with him will go to hell and spend all of the eternity undergoing punishment. Lastly, I asked if, in her eyes, religion is in conflict with science. She states that there are so many theories that can never actually be proven, so as of now she is just going to hold fast to her faith and what makes sense to her.

Throughout the writings transcribed by James Kugel, there is much discussion concerning the tests that Abraham endured to prove his devotion and belief to God. These tests included the stories of Abraham destroying his father’s false idols, trusting God to take care of his wife, Sarah, in Pharaoh’s house in Egypt, casting out Hagar and Ishmael with faith that God will take care of them, and trusting in God when Abraham was ordered to sacrifice his own son. Through these tests of faith, God found Abraham’s heart to be pure and loyal to God (Kugel 166). These tests have been deciphered and interpreted throughout many extra-scriptural texts and provide an idea of how Christians believe God tests them in their everyday lives. Many Christians go through tests such as a death of a loved one or a time of low financial states, and they are able to look to God for guidance, find understanding in His Word, and come out with equal or stronger faith than before then Christians believe that they have passed God’s test of faith and will be rewarded with good. However, if Christians lose faith and begin to sin as a result of the test, they will be given more trials as a direct result of their actions. Although these ideas of tests have been discussed thoroughly by religious scholars, it is important to add that the idea of tests of faith is not always shared by all Christians and can be interpreted in a variety of different ways.

The last person I interviewed was an 18-year-old Jewish student from UCLA, David Sutherland. He stated that the most fundamental aspects of his religion were the belief in one God and Tzedakah, the importance of giving to others. The most unique aspect, in his opinion, is this emphasis on anonymous tzedakah, giving to others, with the belief that the most valuable gift is one where the giver will never meet the receiver. According to Sutherland, “Judaism is not just a religion, it is a culture”. The years of persecution suffered by the Jewish people have brought them together in a way the other faiths have not necessarily experienced and this idea of a pseudo-ethnicity aspect of Judaism allows Jewish males to trace their lineage consisting of the same Y-chromosome. These ideas make Sutherland a strong believer in his faith, as well as make up an essential part of his heritage and identity. He places great importance on the community atmosphere that is associated with Judaism because of the catastrophic events that have occurred in Jewish histories, such as the holocaust. He believes that the Torah consists of a series of stories interwoven with lessons as a guide for your life that boils down to maintaining faith in God and bringing joy to the world. During the worship service, Sutherland describes a time of prayer, which are all in Hebrew, a Torah service, a sermon where the rabbi interprets the texts in the form of a lesson on how to improve the congregation’s personal lives, and then it ends with a prayer for the sick and for those who have passed away. The main book of Judaism is the Torah, which is read during their services that take place every Saturday. Sutherland believes that God is one and he is omnipotent and omniscient. Personally, Sutherland sees God as bringing good things to good people and bad things to bad people; even if it seems unbalanced, it will be made right in the end. He believes everyone has a personal relationship with God and it is up to them whether or not they want to pursue it. Sutherland described many different holidays within Judaism that have their own traditions and rituals. His personal favorite is Passover because it is the most meaningful holiday. Passover comes from the story where God crashed the Red Sea upon the Egyptians in order to allow the Jews to escape Egypt. In solidarity for the Egyptians who lost their lives, Jews eat bitter foods and drink poor wine; Sutherland believes this is especially touching since, in Jewish eyes, the Egyptians are the enemy. Sutherland mentions that he practices Reform Judaism, which is a specific sect, and so he personally does not observe many of the daily practices accustomed to Judaism such as keeping kosher and praying. However, the details that he does pray whenever he hears an ambulance for the quickness and skill of the paramedics and will catch himself praying when encountering superstitious events such as when the clock hits 11:11, seeing a shooting star, and throwing a coin into a fountain. He explains that the two main symbols of Judaism are the Menorah, which has been historically used to signify Judaism, and the Star of David, which has stronger connotations to Israel since its rise of popularity after the Zionist movement in Israel. To Sutherland, suffering is very narrow in scope and if Jews were to see things in God’s infinite wisdom, they would be able to see the balance of the good and the bad. In connection to other religions, he has no direct opinions on other religions, and their practices but maintains respect for everyone’s different beliefs. However, he believes that after death everyone’s souls will go up and live under God’s wing for eternity without differentiation between believers and non-believers because everyone on earth is one of God’s children. Sutherland adds that, in relation to science, modern Judaism does not conflict with science and there is still a belief that God created the universe but the differences in time could just be from the lack of a sense of time in the time that God created the earth and when the creation story was written. Lastly, Sutherland would like non-Jews to understand the culture behind Judaism and the emphasis on studying the Torah and how this has translated into a very high value placed on education and success.

As a believer in Reform Judaism, which came about in the 19th century to modernize Judaism and Jewish practice, Sutherland emphasizes the incorporation of Judaism as a culture and as a tie to a community. As discussed by Corrigan et.al, Reform Jews were in search of a way to make Judaism more fitting with modern ideas as well as prove the worth of Jews and their religion to members of society after the Nazi rule between 1939 and 1945 (Corrigan et.al 227). Interestingly enough, the idea of community and culture has been a major piece of Judaism because of these historical events and have played into what the religion is like today. Another piece of Sutherland’s narrative that can be considered in relation to Durkheim’s work was the connection of religion to science. Sutherland’s belief system when comparing religion and science discusses a lack of conflict and entertains the possibility that both could be possible. In agreement with Durkheim, a sociologist, it is possible for religion and science not to conflict because religion and science can coexist. Religion is something undeniable in many societies and is fundamental to many cultures. Science is just as well an important aspect of modern society and many connections can be drawn between the two religions.

After discussing and analyzing these three different monotheistic religions, I am about to make a few generalizations. First, each religion maintains a belief in a single God who is the creator of the universe. Second, each religion has a form of worship, a form of Church, and a way of prayer that connects the believers to their God in a spiritual way. Finally, each religion has a spiritual text that plays a major part in worship services and provides a guide to a believers’ future and way of being. The biggest take-away from this analysis is that the three religions are similar in many ways but also maintain their own uniqueness that makes each one different from the other. After interviewing these three people, Kylie Crow, Amaina Yehia, and David Sutherland, I am able to conclude that many of the traditions and ideologies from the different religions have been preserved over the years and are still prevalent in today’s younger generation, however, there are also many aspects and rituals that are taken more lightly and many interpretations that are ignored due to their lack of relevance to modern society.

Woman in contemporary society is the one of the most widely discussed question nowadays. The development level of society and its potential possibility depend on many factors, and the one factor it is a woman, her position in society. This is mean that woman status serves as an indicator of the general social atmosphere in society. In turn, the changes taking place in society are reflected in women’s value system and their social value orientations.

Thus, defining the place and role of women in society is one of the most pressing issues of our time. The growth of women’s economic activity and employment is one of the main trends characterizing changes in the structure and directions of realization of labor potential in the second half of the twentieth century in most developed countries of the world. However, it is impossible to define the role and place in society without understanding what views of modern women are in our society. In our research we have appealed to today’s young people to illuminate their vision of portrait of modern woman. At the same time, we were interested in comparing young people’s perception of the modern woman with the ideal one, in order to find out how similar these images are and what differences there are between them. To accomplish the task, we used the method “A Structure of a Man’s Image (Herarchical)”. As a result, we received more than 300 characteristics of a modern woman from 80 respondents, of which the most frequent were the following: independent, fashionable, intelligent, purposeful, careerist, educated, self-reliant, well-groomed, sociable, strong, beautiful, mercantile, rough, confident, open, working, self-sufficient, athletic, stupid, versatile and erudite. When describing the ideal woman, we received more than 200 characteristics, of which the most popular were: beautiful, intelligent, kind, caring, educated, wise, feminine, educated, modest, able to cook, economic, purposeful, loving, humorous, loyal, sociable, understanding, family, honest, well-groomed, open and passionate. This is not complete list of characteristics, but even in these characteristics we can see similarities between the two images.

Firstly, we need to note that results are contradictory: for example, 20% of respondents said that modern woman is educated, but 7,5% claimed that she is stupid and 2,5% that she is ignorant. The comparable situation with personality traits: rough (10%) and kind (6,25%), friendly (3,75%). Also interested that the same number of respondents marked the following features: responsible and irresponsible. As we can see there no established stereotype of what a woman is like in contemporary society.

What is more, studies show that nowadays women are more interested in education and career advancement then in the past , statistics also reveals the increasing of female employment: from 2002 to 2018 its growth was more than 10%. Our study confirms that facts: 17,5 % of respondents noted women’s desire to career development and 8,75% desire for employment. From our opinion it is related to women’s desire for independence, self-reliant and self-realization, which are were mentioned in the 30% of replies, 17,5% and 6,25% respectively.

It seems important to add that modern women based on survey results should be able to use modern technology, which is perfectly consistent with the growing participation of women in science. Despite that women are often choose social sciences and medicine, we can observe the growth of female involvement in engineering, physical science.

The next step of our research it is to compare and the images of the perfect woman with the modern woman. The image of the ideal woman is, in our opinion, the most accurate expression of the views on women that are established in society. Therefore, comparing these two images will help us to determine how much a woman has changed over the years.

The first difference between them the fact that people believe that ideal woman is a good housewife (20%) and a keeper of the family hearth (16,25%). In turn, the modern woman is less associated with the keeper of the hearth (3,75%) and housewife (6,25%). However, there is a tendency for a woman to strike a reasonable balance between family and work (5%) when she’s got time everywhere (5%). Important to point that in modern society women also face the need to provide for their families alone, which is also reflected in our study (1,25%). In addition, the perception of women as mothers remained unchanged – 5% of the respondents indicated this quality in both images.

The second diversity is that despite the fact that respondents marked desire for a healthy lifestyle in both images, they also note the propensity of modern women to acquire bad habits, especially smoking.

The last difference is that the ideal woman is primarily associated with femininity, tenderness and naturalness, whereas in modern women, along with these qualities, more masculine qualities such as demanding, ambitious, charismatic and authoritative begin to appear. Worth to note that 3,75% of respondents said that she is more like a man.

In conclusion, it is undeniable that the female image in the modern world has undergone significant changes. And if vision of an ideal women is, in our opinion, related with vision of mother. It is no coincidence that 3,75% of answers were: “The perfect woman is woman like my mother”. But when we asked about modern women, the first answers were independent and self-sufficient. So, as we can see in contemporary society women got more freedom to do whatever she wanted to do. She began demand equality and dictate your own rules (15%). She started to pay more attention to her desires and her needs.

And, despite that she has acquired negative qualities, but she has retained those positive qualities of an ideal woman and also has add some new ones to the list. In our study, we found that the contradictory views on women in today’s world most fully reflect the fact that women today have a huge number of opportunities to do everything and to became whatever she wants.

The Bobo Doll experiment demonstrated that children were able to learn through following their adult role models. They used an inflatable doll and placed it, along with other toys in a room with a preschool aged child. He would then either have an adult come in and beat up the bobo doll, have the child watch a non-aggressive adult, or simply let the child play. He found that nearly 90% of those who witnessed violence decided to become aggressive toward their own bobo doll, while those who did not witness any violence, tended to play with the other toys. (Nolen).

Even though Bandura found a link between aggressive role models and their child counterparts, we can not just assume video games would do the same thing. While the topic has been debated for many years, no one has a very clear answer as to whether we should allow our children to play video games or not. Adults everywhere just want their children to be happy and healthy, which is why in this paper, there are clear points showing video games do not cause violence.

A video game is, “an electronic game in which players control images on a video screen” according to the Merriam Webster online dictionary. There are of course many non-violent video games such as Pong, Super Mario Kart, Animal Crossing, etc. Violent video games include Call of Duty, Grand Theft Auto, even Pokemon. While many people are inclined to believe that violent video games do cause violence, an overwhelming amount of research shows that violence can be contributed to outside factors, and not solely on the basis that violent people play video games.

Those who believe video games do cause violence bring up the Columbine shooting. The perpetrator was found to have played violent video games. “Then came the school shootings in Paducah, Kentucky; Springfield, Oregon; and Littleton, Colorado. In all three cases, press accounts emphasized that the shooters loved Doom, making it appear that the critics’ predictions about video games were coming true” (Sternheim). Doom is a first person shooter game where the player is to fight demons through different levels of hell.

Katherine Newman, who works at Johns Hopkins University wrote, “Millions of young people play video games full of fistfights, blazing guns, and body slams… Yet only a miniscule fraction of the consumers become violent” (Newman). This means that there is no correlation between school shootings and violent video games. It also shows that since not everyone becomes violent, there is no correlation between becoming violent and video games that include violence.

Another reason some believe violent video games do cause violence is because exposure to these games is linked to lower empathy, and less kindness. In a study published by the American Psychological association, “The evidence strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior” (Anderson, et. al). Prosocial behavior is known as positive actions that benefit others. A casual risk for falling is simply standing up or running, so we can not simply link violent video games to violence.

On the other hand, video games are linked to stress relief. A peer-reviewed study found that, “61.9% of boys played to ‘help me relax,’ 47.8% because ‘it helps me forget my problems,’ and 45.4% because ‘it helps me get my anger out” (Olson, et. al). So not only are violent video games supposedly bad, but they have also been proven to relieve stress. Therefore, video games even if violent can be considered inherently good. So while they are a casual risk for increased aggressive behavior, they are a great way to relieve the added stress of living in our corrupted society.

The United States military in the past has been known to play video games in order to increase hand-eye coordination. The Marines licensed Doom II to create Marine Doom. Many believe that it would be okay for those who are strong and in the military to play those games, but they become afraid when children get a hold of them. Dave Grossman, who is a retired lieutenant colonel in the United states army said, “Through interactive point-and-shoot video games, modern nations are indiscriminately introducing to their children the same weapons technology that major armies and law enforcement agencies around the world use to ‘turn off’ the midbrain ‘safety catch’ that prevents most people from killing” (Grossman). While this is a valid argument, there are many things that point towards video games not causing violence.

While video games increase hand-eye coordination, they do not necessarily lead to gun violence. In fact, gun violence is lower in countries with higher video game use. “… it turns out that the date doesn’t just support this connection. Looking at the world’s 10 largest video game markets yields no evident, statistical correlation between video game consumption and gun-related killings” (Fisher). Since there is no viable correlation between videogames and violence, it is impossible to scientifically link the two together. In order for it to be okay for military personnel to play but not civilians, it must be understood that those in the military are on a moral high ground.

In a scholarly article, Christopher J Ferguson said, “Although males were more aggressive than females, neither randomized exposure to violent-video-game conditions nor previous real-life exposure to violent video games caused any differences in aggression” (Ferguson et al.) This was reference to the first study they looked into. The second study looked into other possible reasons behind adult violence. “Results indicated that trait aggression, family violence, and male gender were predictive of violent crime, but exposure to violent games was not” (Ferguson et al.) The surgeon general even said

Risk factors may be found in the individual, the environment, or the individual’s ability to respond to the demands or requirements of the environment. Some factors come into play during childhood or even earlier, whereas others do not appear until adolescence. Some involve the family, others the neighborhood, the school, or the peer group (Office of the Surgeon General).

The rational conclusion therefore shows that there is much more going into adult violence than simply video games. It is much more likely that outside factors like race relations, prejudice, and societal expectations would cause adults or adolescents to become violent than video games would.

In addition, violent video games sales have increased, and at the same time, juvenile crime rates have gone down significantly. Newzoo, a technology company, put out a report reading, “We forecast that 2.3 billion gamers across the globe will spend $137.9 billion on games in 2018” (Wijiman). Meanwhile, “Annual trends in video game sales for the past 33 years were unrelated to violent crime… Monthly sales of video games were related to concurrent decreases in aggravated assaults” (Markey, et. al). This shows that there is no direct correlation between violent video games and juvenile, or childhood aggression.

Lastly, the older generations unfairly discredit things that youth like, such as video games. They tend to have a “moral panic” and “Eventually, they can stir a level of concern far out of proportion with the actual threats” Other examples of this throughout history include comic books, rock and roll, and hip hop. (Goose Bumps). A doctor from oxford university said,

Analyses indicated that older Americans were approximately five times (4.9x) more likely than younger people to believe that games may be a cause of mass-shootings.In contrast, younger Americans were more than three times (3.3x) more likely to think games provide a good outlet for everyday frustrations. Older Americans were also twice as likely (2.2x) more likely to favor new legislation restricting the sale of games. A follow-up analysis revealed older Americans were significantly less likely to be certain with respect to their beliefs about games being cathartic (Przybylski).

There is absolutely no reason for their panic, though. Another doctor, this time from Stetson University, said “Like most other 20-year-olds, Lanza did indeed own both violent and non-violent video games. But, contrary to the rumors, he spent most of his time playing non-violent games. The state’s report specifically mentioned Super Mario Brothers and Dance, Dance Revolutionas two of his favorite games” (Leow). Lanza committed the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. The rumors were wrong, and he was violent after playing non-violent video games.

To conclude, for a long time now there have been video games. Many will continue to believe video games cause violence. They will point to the Collumbine shooting, the marines who used video games to train, and lower empathy or lack of prosocial skills. However, it is a very good way to relieve stress, is not listed as a risk for violence, and most studies on whether or not video games cause aggression are inherently flawed. Since there are no verifiable ways to link video games to violence, it is only fair to infer video games do not cause violence.

Works Cited

1. Anderson, Craig A, et al. “Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern and Western Countries: a Meta-Analytic Review.” Psychological Bulletin, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Mar. 2010, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20192553.
2. Ferguson, Christopher J, et al. “Violent Video Games and Aggression: Causal Relationship or Byproduct of Family Violence and Intrinsic Violence Motivation?” Criminal Justice and Behavior, 1 Mar. 2008, journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0093854807311719.
3. Fisher, Max. “Ten-Country Comparison Suggests There’s Little or No Link between Video Games and Gun Murders.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 17 Dec. 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2012/12/17/ten-country-comparison-suggests-theres-little-or-no-link-between-video-games-and-gun-murders/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.2187d7fae805.
4. “Goose Bumps! The Science of Fear.” Moral Panics | Goose Bumps! The Science of Fear, www.fearexhibit.org/media/moral_panics.
5. Grossman, Dave. “Teaching Kids to Kill | Killology Research Group.” Killology, 2000, www.killology.com/teaching-kids-to-kill.
6. Loew, Timothy. “The Great Video Game Moral Panic.” Boston.com, The Boston Globe, 6 Feb. 2014, archive.boston.com/business/innovation/state-of-play/2014/02/the_great_video_game_moral_pan.html.
7. Newman, Katherine S. Rampage The Social Roots of School Shootings. Paw Prints, 2008.
8. Nolen, Jeannette L. “Bobo Doll Experiment.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 24 Nov. 2015, www.britannica.com/event/Bobo-doll-experiment.
9. Office of the Surgeon General (US). “Chapter 4 — Risk Factors for Youth Violence.” Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2001, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44293/.
10. Olson, Cheryl K, et al. “Factors Correlated with Violent Video Game Use by Adolescent Boys and Girls.” The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, U.S. National Library of Medicine, July 2007, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17577537.
11. Przybylski, Andrew. “Americans Skeptical of Link between Mass Shootings and Video Games.” YouGov, 17 Oct. 2013, 9:18, today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-reports/2013/10/17/americans-skeptical-link-between-mass-shootings-an.
12. Sternheimer, Karen. “Do Video Games Kill?” SAGE Journals, 1 Feb. 2007, journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1525/ctx.2007.6.1.13.
13. “Video Game.” Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster, 2019, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/video%20game.
14. Wijiman, Tom. “Global Games Market Revenues 2018 | Per Region & Segment.” Newzoo, 30 Apr. 2018, newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half/.

Phobias: A Closer Look

Imagine being scared to go outside, to get on an elevator, or even to take a bite of food. For many people, this fear consumes their everyday life. It is a psychological problem called phobia. A phobia is a psychological condition that needs to be evaluated due to the impact that it can have on a person’s life. In the following work the definition, symptoms, types, and treatment options for phobias will be described. The writer will be presenting phobias and its components. The medical description of a phobia will be clarified. The symptoms that are presented with a phobia will be exposed. The prevalence rates associated with this psychological disorder will be given. There are varieties of factors that are associated with this condition. On a positive note, there are treatment and medication options for the treatment of this mental health condition.

The description of a phobia is an extreme fear of an object; for example a balloon, a clown, or a certain animal. The extreme fear can also be felt in a situation; like being stuck in an elevator or flying in an airplane, or even being in a large group or crowd. A phobia is not related to everyday stress but can come in periods of extreme stress on the body and mind. A person that has a phobia finds it difficult to carry out daily activities; for example going to work, attending school, or certain places in which the individual may come in contact with his or her phobia. An individual with a phobia has an irrational or persistent fear that can become out of proportion to the actual risk, meaning that the situation of being faced with a phobia will cause some kind of extreme damage to the individual and the loss of control is inevitable. These are the main descriptors of a phobia.

Now that a clear understanding of phobias has been established, the diverse types of phobia will be explored. There is a natural environment which means that individuals can be afraid of storms or lighting. There are animal phobias; for example being afraid of spiders, rats, dogs, and snakes. There is blood phobia in which the individual is afraid of blood. There are injection phobias in which the individual may be afraid of shots. There are injury phobias in which the individual may be afraid of getting hurt. There are situational phobias in which an individual may be afraid of flying, elevators, or bridges. Other types of phobias include; fear of throwing up or even seeing or hearing someone throwing up. Eating and feeling like food will get stuck in one’s throat is among many that affect people, as silly as this sounds, fear of choking is one that disrupts people in getting through their day. Children are more likely to have phobias toward clowns, costumes, or noises; but phobias do not discriminate and can affect people of many ages at any point in their lives. These are the basic types of phobias.

Individuals with phobias can show certain types of characteristics, having a phobia is not something that can be seen it all occurs in the brain. The main symptom of a phobia is having more fear than the average person around an object or situation. Children will show symptoms in their behavior by crying, tantrums, freezing up, and clinging. The individual can have feelings of uncontrolled panic, terror, and dread when exposed to fear. Avoiding fear, by all means, is a big symptom. The anxiety produced by the phobia makes functioning normally impossible. Physical reactions include sweating, rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, extreme panic, and anxiety. Phobias can often cause a person to feel powerless. Anxiety is produced just by thinking of phobia. Phobias can cause isolation. A person can become depressed or have anxiety disorders. Substance abuse can also occur. According to the staff at the Mayo Clinic (2014), “ some individuals can even be at risk for suicide.” The prevalence rates for phobias are that oftentimes they begin at an early age around seven years old. Women are more likely to develop phobias than men and at an earlier age. As Fritscher (2008) points out, “rates decrease at ages 18-64, with a significant drop at 65 years old.” A phobia can also occur after certain trauma or being in a high-stress situation and can occur at any age. Children are more prone to have animal phobias. Situational phobias usually arise in adults. Phobias are also said to be found more frequently in sensitive people.

The main causes for phobias are unknown but the following are probable causes and explanations to the reasons why phobias can occur. Having had something bad happen for example; having been bitten by a dog may cause a phobia, as well as having been stuck in an elevator and had a panic attack. Having witnessed something bad occur to someone else e.g. accident or fall may have caused a phobia. Having seen a person who got very scared doing or being in a situation or around an object could be a contributing factor to having a phobia. Hearing something terrible happened for example; having experienced a horrible accident or plane crash may result in a phobia. Phobias can be genetic. Again, being more sensitive than the average individual may also be a cause for a phobia.

There are many solutions to this problem that many people might have and are just too scared or embarrassed to get help with. There are many treatment options, but first a diagnosis is needed through a clinical interview and certain guidelines outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) must be met. Certain types of medications might be prescribed like Beta blockers. Beta-blockers work by blocking the stimulating effect of adrenaline in the body. Antidepressants like SSRIs work on the chemical serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that affects mood. Sedatives like benzodiazepines help a person relax by reducing their anxiety level. Desensitization or exposure therapy focuses on changing a person’s response to their phobia with gradual repeated exposure and eventually changing their response to their phobia. Cognitive Behavior therapy goes along with exposure but with an added emphasis on learning to master a person’s phobia by controlling their thoughts and feelings. According to Andersson (2009), “cognitive behavior therapy has been an effective treatment for youth” (311). Specific phobias are sometimes treated with exposure. Social phobia is treated with exposure therapy or with antidepressants or beta blockers. There are also many alternative medicine options for reducing stress levels; such as yoga or Chinese medicine. In turn, helping the person being able to confront their phobia without so much anxiety. The options are numerous the key is to get help so that the phobias can be overcome.

In conclusion, phobias can affect any person and at any age. The effects take a toll on a person’s mental and physical state. Phobias, the extreme and irrational fear of many objects or situations is real and felt life-threatening to many. There are many types of phobias. The symptoms that a person presents are key to providing a diagnosis. The root causes for phobias are many. There are many solutions to having a phobia; help comes in many forms. Bringing awareness to others or family or friends of others is the writer’s goal so that people can reach out for help and not feel alone or ashamed. She herself is a work in progress and having written this paper provided more insight and was very beneficial to her own healing.

Works Cited

1. Andersson, G. “Therapist Effects in Guided Internet-Delivered CBT for Anxiety Disorders.”.Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 311-322.
2. Fritscher, L. (2008, July 11). “Prevalence of Phobias”, 5 May 2016. http://www.omicsonline.com/open-access/JOP/prevalence-of-common-phobias-and-their-sociodemographic-correlates-in-children-and-adolescents-in-a-traditional-developing-society-jop-14-372.pdf?aid=18652.
3. ‘Phobias.’ – Mayo Clinic. N.p., 08 Feb. 2014, 05 May 2016. http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/phobias/basics/definition/con-20023478.
4. Pull, C. (2008, January 1). “Diseases and Conditions Phobias”, 5 May 2016. http://www.medicinenet.com/phobias/page6.htm.

“To be or not to be, that is the question.” Romeo and Juliet in this day and age, is obviously not to be.” William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet has utterly no relevance in our modern society. Many may believe this play is the greatest love story in history, but most need to look beyond the language and the complex meanings and realise the real impact this play is having on us students. The tragedy ending is just another way of glorifying suicide and not making everyone aware of this alarming issue today. Romeo and Juliet is unrealistic and outdated, just another way for teachers to torture us and there is no point of having all these great themes in the text when no one can understand it.

Romeo and Juliet has an immensely unrealistic and outdated storyline. This text is seen to be the greatest love story of all time, but it doesn’t seem to be love at all. Juliet thirteen years old and Romeo eighteen years old, meet for the first time at a party, fall in love then get married. Realistically, when would then ever happen today? Another example of a unrealistic part of the text is that throughout the course of the text six characters die. All six of the deaths are a result of Romeo and Juliet’s relationship. In modern day society both of these unrealistic examples wouldn’t occur today. The storyline is also eminently outdated. Romeo and Juliet relationship shows a historical view of love and many things such as arranged marriages often don’t occur today, or at least shouldn’t if they involve a thirteen-year-old child. It is evident that Romeo and Juliet isn’t relevant in our modern society.

Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet completely glorifies mental health, and suicide is an immense issue in society today. Did you know that 5,000–15,000 people die from suicide every year? Suicide is the leading cause of death among young people today. The catastrophe at the end of the text is not an acceptable scene for the younger impressionable audience. This happening at the end of a Shakespeare text is not something that should be selected to be studied and analysed by fifteen-year old’s in schools. It is undeniably obvious that Romeo and Juliet is irrelevant in our modern society.

Shakespeare’s text Romeo and Juliet is complex, confusing and complicated. What is the point of having all the great themes when only a few can fully understand and interpret the text? Shakespeare is like reading a foreign text and I’m sure there is another way we can be challenged. There is an abundance of different modern texts in our libraries that are very similar to Romeo and Juliet having the same themes. These different modern texts are more relevant today and all students will be able to understand what they are reading. One example of a modern text would be Twilight. Romeo and Juliet and Twilight both reintroduces the idea of “forbidden love” and have very similar themes. Twilight is more relevant in today’s society, due to the modern-day language used to convey the story. It is obvious that the relevance of Romeo and Juliet has faded in our modern society.

To conclude, Romeo and Juliet is not relevant in our modern society. The text has an unrealistic and outdated storyline, Shakespeare glorifies suicide and the text is difficult for most readers. William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet has utterly no relevance in our modern society. It’s time for Shakespeare’s 400-year-old text to be put away and replaced with any other modern-day texts which have the same themes and makes sense to the reader.

William Shakespeares’ play Romeo and Juliet continues to engage audiences over 400 years after its release through the use of timeless universal themes. Shakespeare was born in 16th-century England. Living through the reformation and the renaissance period influenced Shakespeare’s’ writing was influenced greatly by his surroundings. The gender roles portrayed in Romeo and Juliet, whilst being that of a blatantly patriarchal society, are still relevant to modern audiences. Modern society, though less blatant, is still a predominantly patriarchal society. The struggles experienced by the female characters in Romeo and Juliet can still be related to by modern audiences. The theme of revenge is omnipresent throughout the whole play. Revenge will forever be an important theme as it teaches audiences that revenge isn’t always as smart as it may seem in the heat of the moment.

The theme of gender roles is a common one amongst William Shakespeare’s plays. Whilst Shakespeare’s plays reflect a less gender developed society there is still a lot of credibility behind the portrayal of women in his plays, especially in Romeo and Juliet. Throughout Romeo and Juliet, the women are often depicted as the weaker sex, and whilst society today is much more respectful and strives to be an equal society, many women relate to the female characters of Romeo and Juliet because even though the men that lead Western countries to claim they are not sexist and appear to believe in an entirely equal world, there is still prevalent underlying sexism in the modern world. This omnipresent sexism in both Romeo and Juliet’s world and the world of the female audience capture, not just the attention of female audience members, but of all audiences. During a conversation between Gregory and Sampson, two servants of the house of capulet, many sexist comments are made. During this conversion Sampson proclaims; “True; and therefore women, being the weaker vessels, are ever thrust to the wall: therefore I will push Montague’s men from the wall, and thrust his maids to the wall.”.

The use of ambiguity during this quote is seen in the violent and sexual reference made towards the women of the Montague house, whilst not stating outright that he would enjoy raping the women of the Montague house, the reference is clear. Shakespeare’s use of ambiguity is possibly a quiet nod to the entirely biased gender roles throughout Romeo and Juliet. Throughout the discussion of the marriage between Paris and Juliet, Paris adds; “Younger than she are happy mothers made.” This quote acknowledges the context in which Romeo and Juliet was written, these two men brazenly talking about a young girls’, not only romantic life but also her sexuality. The quote showcases the fact that Juliet would have had no opinion that would be heard on the subject of her marriage and would not have had the luxury that many women today have of being able to choose if and when they would like to have children. Whilst many may believe that Romeo and Juliet is an archaic story that depicts an ancient society, the gender roles that Shakespeare depicts during Romeo and Juliet will forever affect women whilst we live in an unequal society. This depiction of gender roles helps to keep Romeo and Juliet relevant and interesting to all modern audiences by relating to many female audience members.

Revenge will forever be an ingrained ritual practiced in society. The theme of revenge is popular and frequently used in many of Shakespeare’s plays. Although he seems to encourage revenge in the moment, the overall tone regarding revenge in Romeo and Juliet shows that Shakespeare is of a negative opinion regarding revenge. From the beginning of the play, the two houses of Capulet and Montague are seen to be stuck in a vicious cycle of revenge, that only escalates throughout the play. During the death scene of both Mercutio and Tybalt Romeo proclaims;

“Either thou, or I, or both, must go with him.”

The use of foreshadowing in this quote is seen as Romeo is insisting that either himself or Tybalt must die and join Mercutio as an act of vengeance. The idea that revenge is a necessity, demonstrated by many of the characters in Romeo and Juliet creates an idealistic belief that two wrongs form a right adopted by everyone in the world of Romeo and Juliet. The idea of revenge is one that has been popular for hundreds of years in popular culture, the ideas surrounding revenge in Romeo and Juliet are still relevant to a modern audience as revenge is a theme that will forever be ingrained in popular culture. During a conversation between Juliet and Lady Capulet surrounding the murder of Tybalt Lady Capulet consoles Juliet by stating;

“We will have vengeance for it, fear thou not.

Then weep no more. I’ll send to one in Mantua,

Where that same banished runagate doth live,

Shall give him such an unaccustomed dram,

That he shall soon keep Tybalt company;

And then I hope thou wilt be satisfied.”

The ambiguity used in this quote is seen where Lady Capulet insinuates that she will be sending poison to Romeo in Mantua to get vengeance for Tybalt’s death. The need for revenge is once again a theme that sways the plot of the play. The constant message relayed regarding revenge stays the same. The overarching view toward revenge in Romeo and Juliet is that it triggers an immediate relief for issues that lack an obvious solution, but overall it damages more than it fixes. The use of revenge in Romeo and Juliet continues to capture modern audiences as it will never become an irrelevant topic. For as long as the human race continues to exist and human nature sways emotions every modern audience will relate to the theme of revenge, whether their opinion on the subject is negative or positive.

William Shakespeare continues to capture the minds and hearts of modern audiences throughout generations by introducing universal themes that audiences will forever relate to. The portrayal of women and gender roles in Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet continues to capture audience members of all genders forcing the audience to accept that society has not come as far as it claims, as well as gives the audience a perspective of how far society has come. Shakespeare’s knowledge of the consequences of revenge is often depicted in Romeo and Juliet. The timeless theme of revenge will be relevant to modern audiences for as long as human emotion stays the basis of human reactions. As long as William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet remains an iconic play it will continue to captivate and teach modern audiences lessons on a range of topics, including but certainly not limited to, Revenge and Gender Roles.

Introduction

During the enlightenment period many philosophers presented commentaries on the political realm of their society. Such writings have encouraged revolutions such as: the English, American and French revolution. One observes that Enlightenment philosophers operated on the notion that the existing social and political orders could not withstand critical scrutiny and were rooted in religious myth and mystery and founded on vague cultures. This negative analysis and critique of existing institutions had positive overtones in the area of theory construction and in delineating models of ideal institutions. A notable philosopher of this period was Thomas Hobbes. Bearing in mind the above succinct introductory discourse this essay sets out on a path to identify and discuss the critical tenets outlined by Thomas Hobbes’ Contract theory and subsequently assess their relevance in explaining human conduct in contemporary societies. Thomas Hobbes main concern was the problem of social and political order, that is, how human beings can live together in peace and avoid the danger and fear of civil conflict (Bistow, n.d. para. 1). This essay argues that Hobbes concern which lay at the heart of his social contract theory is still relevant to contemporary society, since contemporary philosophy and institution are yet to debunk Hobbes view on the ‘state of nature’ as particularly demonstrated in the behaviors of individuals in failed states.

Summary

A Social contract according to Hobbes is seen as “the mutual transferring of rights” (Thomas Hobbes: Social Contract”, n.d., para. 4). Before such contract man existed in a ‘state of nature’. Life in the ‘state of nature’ for Hobbes (in Burger 2013) is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” and also that man is in continual fear, and in danger of a violent death. Solitary, because everyone was on his or her own; poor, because such isolation made impossible the cooperation that economic development requires; nasty, because everyone looking out for him or herself would result in constant conflict ; brutish because such a life is fir for animals; short, because humans seeking their own interest will kill each other. Hobbes described this natural condition with the Latin phrase “bellum omnium contra omnes” (meaning war of all against all), in his work De Cive. Here Hobbes is clearly stating his belief that in a world without a ruler, man would not be able to adequately progress in his life. Thus, he was in constant fear of losing what he gained and in his own self interest he made the social contract. This can be noted in the fact that “a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive to his life, to take away the means of preserving the same, and to omit that by which he thinks it may be best preserved” (Hobbes: 1996).

Critique

The social contract theory clearly has benefits but also shortcomings. An advantage as mentioned in (Brown 12) is that it provides very clear answers to very difficult questions in ethical theory. For example: What moral rules are we bound to follow and how are those rules justified? Why is it reasonable for us to follow the moral rules? Under what circumstances are we allowed breaking the rules? It also seems to provide an objective basis for morality. Browne (n.d. para. 13) states, one disadvantage of the social contract theory is whether the social contract ever had a basis in history. Most recent proponents of the social contract such as John Rawls are clear about the fact that the social contract does not necessarily refer to a real historical event. The point of the social contract is to act as a test for the justification of moral principles. Also, it can be said that we implicitly participate in such a social contract by acting cooperatively in our social arrangements. We vote by going along with the outcome. David Hume also points out that there had never been a situation called the state of nature’ and that nobody had consented to a social contract, mainly because the social contract was purely hypothetical (Rusling n.d. para. 5). Since we are born into a society and we don’t need a contract theory because our belief is that the government is in our best interests and therefore the people support its continuation. P a g e | 8 Moreover, Olynyk (2010) states that Hobbes makes no allowance for the moral side of people and society. Therefore his theory implies that people without states would have no moral limits. It is difficult concur with Olynyk analysis since modern day experiences particularly in Somalia and the Middle East have shown that where there is state failure life appears brutish and nasty as Hobbes describes. One must admit that Hobbes social contract theory has much relation to contemporary society. Even though we are not born in a hypothetical state of nature, we form a social contract every time we vote for a party. The agreement lays that we give up our rights to be protected, to progress economically. The laws instituted by the state are binding upon all citizens. Like Hobbes secularization state many modern rulers (government) including Guyana do not claim authority from God, but his or her ability to provide and / facilitate development of citizens; such acts legitimize the ruler (i.e. government). However there is an important caveat, given modern experience of the division of powers, Hobbes illustration of a monarchial ruler who makes laws, execute taxation etc are extreme and atypical. In Guyana there are separations of power i.e.: Executive, judiciary, and legislation such division is to ensure that power will check power (i.e. each division will keep the other in check). Since according to Lord Acton ‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”.

Conclusion

Notwithstanding old and new criticisms of Hobbes’ social contract and one notable exception with regards to the nature of legitimacy of rulers, Hobbes social contract still has a huge relevance for our society as it is apparent that the ‘state of nature’ argument is still pertinent. Hobbes theory has laid an important and lasting foundation for modern states to live a fair and friendly environment with laws to keep order to society.

Introduction

Over the centuries there have been many philosophers who have sought to explain how political systems are formed, how they work and which one is the best form of rule. This has brought about many different theories from philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. While some of these theories have been accepted, other theories have been heavily debated and opposed by academics around the world. One such theory is the social contract theory. Philosophers such as John Locke and Hobbes have their own versions of the social contract theory however in this essay we will examine the pros and cons of Rousseau’s social contract theory and its applicability to modern day society. Firstly we will give a brief background on Jean Jacques Rousseau. Secondly we will define what a social contract is. Thirdly the essay will examine the pros and cons of Rousseau’s social contract theory. Fourthly the essay will assess whether Rousseau’s social contract theory is applicable to modern day society. The essay will then end off with a brief conclusion of the discussion at hand. The argument of this essay is that the social contract does still apply to modern society.

Definition of concepts

The social contract theory

The social contract theory is essentially a theory of morality as well as that of the state. Although social contracts are thought to have been around for eons the social contract theory itself only started to garner attention from the field of political philosophy around the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The concept behind this theory is that in the beginning man lived in a state of nature. They had no government and there was no law to regulate them. (Laskar; 2013). This state of lawlessness created a perilous and distressful environment for man to live in. This led man to draw up an agreement that would address some of the hardships they faced in such an environment. Through the social contract people sought protection for themselves as well as their property. It was also due to the social pact that man started to join together and commit themselves to an authority or sovereign. In doing this people lost some of their rights and freedoms. The sovereign or authority in power would then pledge to protect the lives and property of the people. This authority would protect their freedoms as well albeit to a certain extent. Thus one could say that the existence of a sovereign, authority or the state is a result of the social contract.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau was French philosopher, writer, composer, and political theorist. He was born in Switzerland in 1712 and died in 1788 in France. Rousseau was one of the most influential philosophers of the enlightenment era in the eighteenth century. He drove the political and moral thinking of the time into advanced channels. Rousseau was a very accomplished writer and had he published several works of art in his lifetime. These include; A discourse on the arts and science. This was his first philosophical work and it was published in . It examined how the arts and sciences had caused the ruin of virtue and morality.*.His other works include,which were published in respectively.Despite these many works of art Rousseau is best known for his work on The Social Contract which was published in 1962. His other famous works include .

Rousseaus social contract theory

It is a popular opinion that Rousseau’s social contract theory was ahead of its time. Rousseau lived in the eighteenth century, an era that was marred with chaos and instability. His social contract theory was a way of him addressing the plights of his time. His version of the social contract states that before the social contract, life in the state of nature was happy and there was equality amongst men.(Laskar;2013). However as time went on, it brought changes that humanity would have to deal with. Such a change was the increase in population. This change pushed man to find new means of meeting their fundamental needs. For example a small population would likely be nomadic and rely on hunting and gathering for sustenance. A population increase though, would push them to devise new ways of providing for that population. They would now have permanent settlements and practice farming and herding animals instead. Other changes include the inventions and specialization of labour that made life much easier than it was before. These developments gave people more time off and it is during this time that man started to make comparisons between themselves and others. These comparisons influenced the public values of society hence leading to feelings of shame, jealousy and pride.

One of the other crucial themes of Rousseau’s social contract theory is the introduction to the ownership of private property. According to Rousseau the ownership of private property transitioned mankind from the peaceful, pure state of nature to a state plagued by avarice, inequality and immorality. Due to the unsavoury state of affairs man had brought upon themselves, they gave up their individual freedoms not to a single sovereign, authority or power but to the general will.

The general will

The social contract is a means used to guarantee the civil rights and freedoms of the people of a particular society. The core of Rousseau’s general will is that the government acquires its prerogative to rule from the governed. The state and its laws are a result of the general will of the people .Should government pass laws that do not fall in line with the collective will, those laws will be deemed illegal. True political legitimacy is found within the general will, not through sheer absolute force. In order to maintain a well ordered society the collective will must be present. The general will of the people on matters concerning the state can be discerned through political activities such as voting and debates.

Media satire is a freedom of speech which has resulted in a perception that barriers our country and citizen. It is easier to communicate and share ideas easier than ever before. Furthermore, allow people to express their ideas and perspectives, comedic or not. This essay will examine the importance of freedom of speech that allows comedic satire to make its impact. News media are no longer conduits that properly meet the needs of our particular culture. Evidence supports that the comedic satire of tragic events allows for a message to resonate with people. News and grief never outweigh or dilute the humor. Moreover, entertain and give a comedic perception of the situation. One example of this is the Charlottesville white supremacist rally which was a historical model representation of the oppression of blacks through slavery, redlining, and mass incarceration.Jon Stewart and the other comedians have evolved a satirical news-based model to convey freedom of speech which has made a huge impact on our culture and the way we get and perceive the news. According to the U.S. Bill of Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, no law should restrict individuals’ freedom of speech or infringe upon their right to assemble peacefully. America is unique for its ability to allow freedom of speech. Allowing citizens a first amendment right protects and allows you to not be controlled by the government allowing you to create the best life you can. Furthermore, the limits set to freedom of speech or justifiable as you can not use libel, perjury, blackmail, and true threats etc. There is nothing that says you can’t communicate your diction in a way that does not spark concrete ideas but embolden faint abstract facets up for interpretation, which uses comedy which is a natural human emotion, empirically the most favorable. Satires ambiguity allows for creativity and a way to understand the persons verbal art that conveys a deeper meaning in either a jocular or poignant way. Political satire thrived in

Media satire is a freedom of speech which has resulted in a perception that barriers our country and citizen. It is easier to communicate and share ideas easier than ever before. Furthermore, allow people to express their ideas and perspectives, comedic or not. This essay will examine the importance of freedom of speech that allows comedic satire to make its impact. News media are no longer conduits that properly meet the needs of our particular culture. Evidence supports that the comedic satire of tragic events allows for a message to resonate with people. News and grief never outweigh or dilute the humor. Moreover, entertain and give a comedic perception of the situation. One example of this is the Charlottesville white supremacist rally which was a historical model representation of the oppression of blacks through slavery, redlining, and mass incarceration.

Jon Stewart and the other comedians have evolved a satirical news-based model to convey freedom of speech which has made a huge impact on our culture and the way we get and perceive the news. According to the U.S. Bill of Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, no law should restrict individuals’ freedom of speech or infringe upon their right to assemble peacefully. America is unique for its ability to allow freedom of speech. Allowing citizens a first amendment right protects and allows you to not be controlled by the government allowing you to create the best life you can. Furthermore, the limits set to freedom of speech or justifiable as you can not use libel, perjury, blackmail, and true threats etc. There is nothing that says you can’t communicate your diction in a way that does not spark concrete ideas but embolden faint abstract facets up for interpretation, which uses comedy which is a natural human emotion, empirically the most favorable. Satires ambiguity allows for creativity and a way to understand the persons verbal art that conveys a deeper meaning in either a jocular or poignant way. Political satire thrived in America previously and amid the Progressive War. However, has evolved to new limits set by new platforms because of technological advancements which are currently our nation’s conflicting devil and angel on the shoulder. Benjamin Franklin and Mark Twain, two of America’s most iconically ambiguous writers utilized the pen and the sword, utilizing satire instead of weapons in a scholarly and ideological war to choose the eventual fate of the new Republic. Getting your point across doesn’t come from using physical power but rather a humorously empathetic way. The greatest gift we have is laughter. Comedy is an art in which done right can guide us through tough times, not scolding but correcting through compassion.

We live in a moment in history where there is so much down spiral; A President mocks disabled news reporters, a powerful Hollywood mogul sexually assaults over fifty women, and a man shoots into a crowd of country music lovers. With poor leaders, we must sustain hope if we want to change the world. Through laughter and joy, I find hope from the rubble. I participated in organizing a comedy stand up show that raised over $4000 dollars to support those affected by Hurricane Harvey; I listen to former alcoholic comedians such as Rob Delaney who preach sobriety and coping skills for struggling addicts; I watch satirical skits such as SNL’s “Pepsi Ad” which mocks and criticizes Kendall Jenner’s tone-deaf commercial trivializing the Black Lives Matter Movement and racial injustice. The world still has a long way to go before we can laugh before we cry, but your family and companions thoughtful and impactful comedic voices are starts. Our work isn’t done. Laughter will continue to be amplified as a tool to further make impacts. Through service and jokes, transforming eventful memories from offensive, tragic, and discriminating events to chuckles and smiles.

Some might say comedic satire outweighs news and dilutes issues which need coverage. Politically; Comedic satire is on the far left spectrum which uses comedy in a well-communicated manner compared to the far right which is more critical mocking and repetitively oriented rather than comedic. The issue arises when people feel satire gives a bad stigma to the way we address and present political idea. late night show hosts constantly use their satirical comedy wholly to bring a brighter tone to people who resonate with events in a comedic manner. Bringing an internal ambiguity of the parties own facets. In contrast, orthodox news media outlets such as CNN and Fox News mock each other back and forth for hours with segments that happen weekly doesn’t solve problems. Finding a solution through a universal way of communicating aka comedy, allow for laughter while not diluting the situation from what it is, is a key role, but. Allowing for a more independent view of what is morally right and wrong. Without network companies being able to communicate with people in an effective manner. The United States is the greatest country on earth because we can express our opinions about issues. On a smaller scale, we need to be more understanding and compassionate. While on the larger scale our solution is to get the journalist to discern ambiguity and allow for a clear picture of what is truly happening.

In conclusion, we should have absolute protections of freedom of speech such as comedic satire as it shields us from leaders of political powers and other external political forces. People just need to grasp the concept of satire and use their ambiguity and facets internally to decide what their own values and foundations are in a passive compassionate efficient way of communication.

Suffering is an important concept in the end of life care which diminishes quality of life and it tends to be widespread in terminally ill patients. Dame Cecily Saunders coined the concept of ‘total pain’ and outlined some of the various physical, psychological, emotional, existential, social factors contributing to suffering. While these factors may contribute separately to suffering, a synergy often occurs among them. As a result, when one dimension of a person is threatened, this can provoke or add problems in another dimension which can lead to an overall increase in suffering for patients. This not only affects patients but also their families and the professional caregivers attending them.

Suffering is not coded or classified as a diagnosis in the ICD, rather it is a phenomenon of conscious human existence. Suffering is subjective, personal and unique to each individual as human beings perceive themselves as having a sense of self. Tate and Pearlman outlined three domains of a person’s sense of self: their relationships, their roles, and their self-narrative. A person is prone to suffering when one of these domains fade and experience negative affect. Although RL’s story is a typical example of the kind of stories about suffering, it is also completely unlike any of the others in the specific details. RL’s suffering was the result of his disease, response to treatment, his role in his family, his perception of the future and various aspects of everyday life that occurred in combination with his unique personal, social and cultural identity.

Although pain and suffering are closely linked and used interchangeably, current consensus shows that they are separate entities. Pain is rarely the only cause of suffering in cancer patients, but extreme pain alone is adequate to cause and sustain suffering. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as ‘an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage’. Pain occurs in response to a noxious stimulus and poses a threat to the physical integrity which results in somatic expression. According to Krikorian and Limonero, when the threat is recognised as damaging to the integrity of the whole and regulatory processes and coping efforts are insufficient, the process results in exhaustion and suffering.

Whilst significant pain is present in approximately two-thirds of patients with advanced cancer, other physical symptoms have been reported which can equally diminish patients’ quality of life. According to literature, suffering is strongly correlated with physical symptoms such as pain, weakness, and dyspnoea and can be the dominant component despite the multidimensional nature of suffering. In a study conducted by Walsh D et al, the prevalence of physical symptoms ranged from 50%- 84% according to age, gender and performance status in cancer patients. Higher levels of symptom burden and higher levels of suffering were much more pervasive in younger patients likely due to added psychosocial distress. This was evident in the case of RL, where pain was a predominant and challenging symptom for him and further deterioration towards the end of his life contributed to further symptoms such as weakness and fatigue which compounded to his escalating suffering.

Advanced life threatening illness can often compel patients to face their mortality and this can trigger profound existential suffering as everyday life and the future are threatened for both patients and their families. Although existential issues have been extensively analysed by philosophers, there is no widely agreed upon definition within their teachings. Strang et al. conducted a study involving hospital chaplains, palliative care physicians, and pain specialists, to define existential pain. The definitions ranged from those that stressed issues of guilt and religion (chaplains) to those that related to annihilation and impending separation (palliative care physicians) and those emphasised on “living is painful” (pain specialists). They concluded that existential pain is most often used as a metaphor for suffering and a clinically important factor that reinforce existing physical pain or even the primary cause of pain.

Existential suffering may point to past, present or future concerns. Distress from retrospection can often bring about remorse from unresolved guilt, disappointment related to unfulfilled wishes. Present concerns may involve disrupted personal integrity which includes changes in body image, changes in social and professional function, and perceived personal allure as a person and sexual partner. Anticipation of the future may trigger feelings of hopelessness, meaninglessness, futility, separation and death anxiety.

Death anxiety is an expression used to “conceptualise the anxiety caused by this unique concern of death awareness”, and have been well illustrated by studies using the Death and Dying Distress Scale (DADDS). Yalom described mortality as an existential domain in which awareness of the inevitability of death and a wish for life to continue. This then manifests as anxiety about dying and afterlife and concern about separating from loved ones. Several factors such as age, individual factors, culture, spiritual beliefs, family circumstances and physical suffering can influence the degree of death anxiety in an individual. Death anxiety is common among cancer patients and younger adults have shown to have greater death anxiety compared to older adults. In a Canadian study, death anxiety was positively correlated by fears about the effect of one’s death on others, physical symptom burden and having children under the age of 18 in the family. Only a small proportion of patients showed an untroubled acceptance of death.

Terminal restlessness affects approximately 25% to 85% of all dying cancer patients during the hours or days before their death and it can be a terrorising experience not only for patients but also for family and caregivers. Terminal restlessness is a hyperactive variant of delirium in a dying patient, frequently associated with impaired consciousness. It is a phenomenon generally accepted to be multi-causal with coexisting multisystem failure, physical, emotional, existential/spiritual and psychological factors. Apart from poor pain control, patients with feelings of guilt, remorse, unresolved interpersonal conflicts, or unfinished business prior to death are at higher risk of terminal agitation. Existential/ spiritual causes are as equally weighted as physical and psychological causes in contributing to terminal restlessness. Existential issues including death anxiety can cause patients to become increasingly agitated and distressed as their clinical condition declines possibly as a result of loss of voluntary cerebral inhibition. Terminal restlessness in the home setting is particularly tragic for the family as the memory of this confused, agitated, distressed stage of dying is etched in their minds and hearts which can ultimately lead to complicated grief and bereavement.

The multidimensional components of suffering consisting of physical, emotional, social and spiritual distress not only affects the patients but also their family/ caregiver. The suffering and needs of the family escalate as the patient’s disease progresses with both patient and family facing significant changes in their roles, identity, daily functioning and quality of lives. The levels of patient and family distress and adjustment difficulties were interrelated and as a result, the suffering of one amplifies the distress of the other. This is described as reciprocal suffering.

Northouse and Peters-Golden described the three causes of spousal concerns: fear of cancer and its spread, helping the patient deal with emotional ramifications of the disease, and managing the disruptions caused by cancer. Beeney, Butow and Dunn reported conflicting emotions and adjustment tasks in the partner or spouse of a person with cancer, including conflict among feelings of loss, sadness and sometimes guilt; difficulty in knowing how to talk who is dying; worry about the possibility of death and difficulty in adjusting to bodily changes in the partner. Factors such as spousal age, gender, socioeconomic status, personality, social support, coping skills as well as the marital adjustment of the patient and caregiver may influence the degree of distress in spouses.

According to Compas et al, children whose parents are diagnosed with cancer experience psychological maladjustment. Children, adolescents, and young adults reported moderate to high levels of emotional distress when their parent was diagnosed and treated for cancer. Armsden and Lewis reported that young school-age children had difficulty comprehending the concept of cancer and their emotional responses were fear, loneliness, anger and uncertainty about the future.

Physicians work constantly with patients and family struggling through devastating illness and are constantly exposed to distressing events such as exposure to suffering, death and dying and this can challenge their clinical and emotional resources. Suffering of patient and family can cause an intense emotional reaction, it is therefore not surprising that healthcare workers, especially physicians, respond to them with emotions of their own. These may include a need to rescue the patient, feelings of disappointment and a sense of failure when the disease advances, feeling helpless and powerless against illness and its associated losses, grief, fear of becoming ill oneself and an intense feeling to separate from and avoid patients to get away from these emotions. Physician wellness experts agree that ‘the death of patients is an experience that almost all physicians must confront’ and they believe physicians’ psychological distress stem primarily from identification with suffering, the presence of death and the prospect of failure.

In a study involving general practitioners in France, 86% agreed that encounters with death were a cause of physician suffering. The specific elements contributing to physician suffering were the ending of doctor-patient relationship (58%), feelings of uselessness (55%), feeling like a failure (38%), increased awareness of the physician’s own mortality (49%) and the presence of ‘questions without answers’ (31%). The most commonly reported feelings experienced by the doctors during the patient’s terminal phase was sadness (94%), helplessness (89%), failure (82%).